Transmission Network: Objectives

Transmission Network
Chapter 2
This chapter will provide the student with an overview of the

physical and the datalink layers of the Core Network in GSM
and WCDMA Systems.
OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
• Explain the OSI model.

• Compare the benefits of different media for the physical
layer.
• Describe the basic structure of SDH networks.
• Explain the multiplexing and mapping of data in SDH.
• Explain the basic structure of ATM networks.
• Understand the WCDMA Systems architecture of CN 2.0 in
relation to transmission
• Explain the concept of MPLS
WCDMA/GSM Network Planning – Core Network
Intentionally Blank
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2 Transmission Networks
Table of Contents
Topic Page
OSI REFERENCE MODEL ..................................................................63

BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................... 63
OSI MODEL ................................................................................................................. 63
ANALOGY.................................................................................................................... 63
COMMUNICATION PROCESS ................................................................................... 65
TRANSMISSION MEDIA .....................................................................67

OPTICAL FIBER .......................................................................................................... 67
METAL CABLE ............................................................................................................ 70
RADIO LINK................................................................................................................. 71
SDH (SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY).................................72

SDH FRAME STRUCTURE......................................................................................... 72
SDH FRAMES – OVERHEAD ..................................................................................... 73
SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE........................................................................... 74
SDH EQUIPMENT ....................................................................................................... 76
SDH PROTECTION ..................................................................................................... 78
ATM......................................................................................................81
ATM HISTORY............................................................................................................. 81
ATM BASICS ............................................................................................................... 81
VC (VIRTUAL CHANNEL) PLANNING........................................................................ 91
VPI, VCI ADDRESSING AND PLANNING .................................................................. 92
VC PLANNING............................................................................................................. 94
PVC RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION ................................................................ 96
ATM NODE ADDRESSING ......................................................................................... 97
WCDMA SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE OF CN2.0 .................................98

CS TRANSPORT, ATM AAL2 ..................................................................................... 98
ATM BACKBONE......................................................................................................... 99
IP BACKBONE........................................................................................................... 100
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MULTI PROTOCOL LABEL SWITCHING (MPLS)............................104

MPLS PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................... 104
MPLS IMPLEMENTATION ........................................................................................ 105
MPLS –IP OVER ATM ............................................................................................... 105
MPLS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE......................................................................... 106
LABEL DISTRIBUTION PROTOCOL ........................................................................ 107
FORWARD EQUIVALENCE CLASS (FEC) .............................................................. 108
MPLS ADVANTAGES................................................................................................ 109
MPLS SCALABILITY.................................................................................................. 110
SIGNALING................................................................................................................ 111
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
BACKGROUND
At the International Standards Organization (ISO) planning
meeting in Sydney 1977, a sub-committee was formed for the
main purpose of examining the problem of integrating different
computer systems. The result was the creation of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which stresses open
systems development in which several manufacturers can
integrate their products as opposed to closed systems where
manufacturers’ products are not compatible with each other.
(The word system can for example refer to computers,
exchanges or data networks.)
The ISO sub-committee started its work by defining a reference

model for interconnection of open systems into which all open
system protocols must fit. This is the OSI reference model that
is often described as the seven-layer model. The model reached
the stage of an International Standard in 1980 and is now used
as a common standard for open systems.
In 1984, Comité Consultatif International Télégraphique et

Téléphonique (CCITT) which is now called International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), released the X.200
recommendation where the OSI model is described in detail.
OSI MODEL
The OSI model abstractly describes the structure for
communication between computer systems. It consists of seven
hierarchical layers, where each layer provides services for the
next layer above. The advantage of this well structured model is
that a protocol within one layer can be replaced without
affecting the other layers. Another advantage is that the
implementation of the functions within one layer is optional for
each supplier.
ANALOGY
This section describes a simple analogy for making this model
easy to understand. Suppose that manager A wants to send a
classified message to manager B who is working in a different
company. See Figure 2-1.
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Figure 2-1: Analogy for the OSI model.
1. Manager A writes the classified message and hands it over

to his assistant, who is a ciphering expert.
2. The assistant codes the message into a secret cipher and

gives the coded message to the secretary.
3. The secretary puts the coded message in an envelope, writes

the address and sender on it, and passes it over to the
delivery boy.
4. The delivery boy collects the outgoing mail from the

different departments in the company and transports the mail
to the post office.
5. At the post office the mail is sorted for distribution to

different destinations. All mail going to one destination is
placed in one pile.
6. After sorting, the mail is put in boxes or mailbags to ensure

safe and secure transport to the receiver.
7. Finally, the mail is transported to the destination. At the

destination the incoming mail must be processed.
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1. At the receiving post office the mailbag is received and

registered.
2. The mailbag is opened, and the mail is inspected for

detection of possible damages.
3. After the mail has been checked, it is sorted for distribution

to different customers (companies).
4. The letter is delivered by a mailman to the correct address.
5. Manager B’s secretary opens the envelope and gives the

letter to manager B’s assistant, who is also a ciphering
expert.
6. The ciphering expert decodes the message and presents it to

manager B.
7. The message has at last reached its final destination.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Each layer has its own specific functions and provides specific
services to the layers above. The functions within each layer as
well as the interfaces between the layers are defined. The
implementation of a function is however optional. For example,
the cipher code in the analogy can be exchanged without
affecting the other layers.
The physical communication is transferred from layer to layer,

where each layer adds information that is removed by the
corresponding layer at the receiving end. For instance, the
secretary adds the envelope, which is removed by manager B’s
secretary.
Logically, each layer communicates with the corresponding

layer in the other node. Only functions on the same layer can
“understand” each other. This is called “peer–to–peer”
communication.
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DESCRIPTION OF LAYERS
Application Layer
The application layer provides services for support of the user’s
application. It is responsible for selecting lower layer services
and synchronizes the actions of the destination application with
its own. Examples of application layer functions are file
transfer, message handling and operation and maintenance.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer defines how data is represented, that is,
the syntax. The presentation layer transforms the syntax used in
the application into the common syntax needed for
communication between applications. The presentation layer
contains data compression, for example.
Session Layer
The session layer establishes connections between presentation
layers in different systems. It also controls connection,
synchronization and disconnection of the dialogue. For instance,
it allows the presentation layer to determine checkpoints from
which re-transmission starts if the data transmission has been
interrupted.
Transport Layer
The transport layer acts as the transport interface for upper
layers. It guarantees that the bearer services have the quality
required by the application in question. Examples of functions
are error correction and detection (end–to–end), and flow
control. The transport layer optimizes the data communication
by multiplexing or splitting up data streams before they reach
the network.
Network Layer
The network layer isolates the upper layers from routing and
switching functions in the network. The functions within the
network layer establish, maintain and release connections
between the nodes in the network, and handle addressing and
routing of messages.
Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides an error free point–to–point circuit
between network nodes. The layer contains resources for error
detection and correction, flow control and re-transmission. It
ensures that the messages are sent in the correct order, without
errors or duplication.
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Physical Layer
The physical layer provides mechanical, electrical, functional
and procedural resources for transmission of bits between
different nodes. The layer contains functions for converting data
into signals compatible with the transmission medium.
For communication between two exchanges only, the physical

and data link layers are sufficient. For communication between
all exchanges in the network, the network layer must be added
because it provides addressing and routing.
An Easy Way to Remember the Different Layers
Application A
Presentation Perfect
Session System
Transport To
Network Nicely
Data link Deliver
Physical Packets
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Different media can be used for the physical layer in the Core
Network. The main options are:
• Optical fiber
• Metal cable
• Radio link
Most backbones will use optical fiber since it has the largest
capacity, but all choices have their own advantages and
disadvantages. It is also possible to have a mix of different
media, using the most suitable choice in separate parts of the
network.
OPTICAL FIBER
Optical fiber offers high capacity, low attenuation and is
insensitive to electromagnetic disturbances. The two
wavelengths mainly used in optical fiber systems are 1310 nm
and 1550 nm as the fiber attenuation is minimal at these two
wavelengths.
Optical fibers are usually divided into multi and single mode
fibers.
In a multi mode fiber the different modes (propagation

directions) will not cover the same distance and will therefore
not arrive at the receiver at the same time which leads to pulse
broadening (see Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2: Multi mode
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A single mode fiber suppresses all wavelengths but one, so that

only one mode can propagate in the fiber (see Figure 2-3).
However, the WDM technique uses several sub-bands within
the specified frequency. Please refer to the next page. Single
mode fibers are used extensively in telecommunication
connections.
Figure 2-3: Single mode
With a 1310 nm wavelength the maximum distance without

repeaters is at least 150 km (single mode), and with 1550 nm the
corresponding distance is at least 200 km (single mode).
A fiber cable usually consists of 24, 48 or 96 optical fibers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fibers:
• Superior transmission quality

• Superior transmission capacity
• Resistant to ambient disturbances
• Long implementation time
There are two ways of building an optical fiber network:
• Buried optical fiber

• Aerial optical fiber
The characteristics and capacities are the same; the only
difference is how the fiber is carried.
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Buried optical fiber:
• Expensive
• Can be destroyed by mistake when digging
Aerial optical fiber:
• Faster implementation compared to buried fiber

• Can be damaged by external factors
WDM
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) can be used for
optical communication. Different data streams are multiplexed
on the same fiber using different colors of light (wavelengths).
WDM works just like Frequency Division Multiplexing but the
frequencies in the case of WDM is much higher. Using WDM
means that the fibers get much higher capacity
Network operators can deploy Ericsson's ERION WDM

solutions to boost the capacity of their installed fiber optic
networks by beyond 64 times – with telecom-grade
characteristics. Each fiber pair, split into 64 channels or more,
can, for example carry 10 Gbit/s per channel at the same time.
The ERION Metro solution also reuses channels at any node in
a ring to make bandwidth available for new signals, true
wavelength re-use.
With the ERION (Ericsson Optical Networking) portfolio,

operators can build ring networks so they can guarantee higher
availability to users. Better protection of data traffic is achieved
also for applications based on IP, ATM or digital video
protocols that do not have protection built in.
ERION offers multibit rate support, i.e. 100 Mbit/s to 2 Gbit/s in

one unit, enabling operators to be prepared for bandwidth
growth. In addition a 10 Gbit/s unit is also offered.
ERION Metro has been designed to meet the specific needs of

operators for a short-haul optical solution - up to 100 kilometers
ring circumference - where flexibility and reliability are needed
to handle increasing volumes of IP and data traffic.
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METAL CABLE
Relatively short repeater distances characterize metal cable
systems. Two common cable types are twisted pair cable and
coaxial cable. The factor limiting the repeater distance in twisted
pair cable systems is interference between PCM signals,
whereas in coaxial systems it is the attenuation of the signal.
For GSM outdoor applications pair cable is pre-dominant,

whereas coaxial cable is mainly used for GSM indoor
applications. In general, pair cable is used for longer distances
and coaxial cable for shorter distances. For both cable types the
possible distance decreases with higher capacity.
There are several technologies for synchronous metal cable

transmission:
• G.703
With an indoor coaxial cable a distance of 200 m is possible

(600 m with a high performance cable).
With a twisted pair cable a distance up to 1.5 km is possible.
• HDSL, High bit rate Digital Subscriber Line
For HDSL the capacity is 2 Mbit/s. The cable type used is

twisted pair cable.
Using 2 pairs in the cable the 2 Mbit/s is carried as 2x1.2 Mbit/s

duplex.
Using 3 pairs in the cable the 2 Mbit/s is carried as 3x784 kbit/s

duplex.
There are other solutions in operation as well.
Distances up to 4 km are possible without repeaters.
• VDSL, Very high bit rate Digital Subscriber Line
For VDSL the capacity is up to 25 Mbit/s. The cable type used

is twisted pair cable.
Distances are typically very short, for 25 Mbit/s approximately

300 m.
• ISDN, Integrated Services Digital Network
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Capacities are referred to as 2B+D which means 2x64 kbit/s

(traffic) + 16 kbit/s data and 30B+D which means 30x64 kbit/s
(traffic) + 64 kbit/s data. ISDN is especially interesting for the
Micro RBS as it has a maximum of 2 TRXs.
The typical distance according to standard is around 7 km.
Advantages and disadvantages of Metal cables:
• Very cheap
• Reliable and simple technique
• Medium capacity
RADIO LINK
Radio link is the name for a microwave radio connection
between two points. Radio links are typically available for 2, 4,
8, 16, 34, 140 and 155 (SDH) Mbit/s capacities. Radio links is
mostly used in the access part of the network but the radio links
on STM1 level might be suitable for the Core Network also.
The Ericsson radio link product is called MINI-LINK and is

used extensively in mobile access networks.
Advantages and disadvantages of Radio link:
• Very rapid installation

• Average cost level
• Sensitive to ambient disturbances. Rain is the biggest
problem for frequencies over 10 GHz. Flat fading is the
biggest problem for frequencies under 10 GHz
• Complex technique
• Microwave license and royalty fees, when applicable
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SDH (SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY)

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a multiplexing
hierarchy for digital synchronous and plesiochronous signals
over mainly optical transmission. Synchronous Transport
Module Level 1 (STM_1) is the basic building block of SDH.
SDH FRAME STRUCTURE

The SDH signal is constructed from synchronous transport
module –1 (STM_1) frames. The basic frame is structured into
8-bit bytes and possesses the following characteristics:
• Length - 2430 bytes
• Duration - 125 µsecond
• Frame rate - 8000 frames per second
• Bit rate - 155.520 Mbit/s
• Payload - 2340 Bytes
The STM_1 block frame structure is organized in nine rows of

270 bytes. The frame is transmitted row by row, with each row
transmitted from left to right.
The STM_1 transmission rate can be calculated as follows:
270 x 9 (bytes per frame) x 8 (bits per byte) x 8000 (frames per
second) = 155.520 Mbit/s
The STM_1 frame consists of overhead plus an SPE

(Synchronous Payload Envelope). The first nine columns of the
STM_1 frame are for the transport overhead. The nine columns
contain nine bytes each. The remaining 261 bytes contain
payload capacity.
Figure 2-4: SDH Frame
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SDH FRAMES – OVERHEAD

SDH provides substantial overhead information, allowing
simpler multiplexing and greatly expanded Operations,
Administration, Maintenance and Provisioning (OAM&P)
capabilities. The overhead information has several layers:
• Pointers are used to determine the alignment of the payload

within the frame
• Section Overhead is overhead accessed, generated, and

processed by section terminating equipment. This overhead
supports functions such as the following:
Performance monitoring
Local orderwire
Data communication channels to carry information for

OAM&P
Framing
Section terminating equipment might be two regenerators,

line-terminating equipment and a regenerator, or two sets
of line terminating equipment.
• Line Overhead is accessed, generated, and processed by

line terminating equipment. This overhead supports
functions such as the following:
Locating the SPE in the frame
Multiplexing or concatenating signals
Performance monitoring
Automatic protection switching
Line maintenance
• Path Overhead provides the communication between the

point of creation of a frame and its points of disassembly.
This overhead supports functions such as the following:
Signal label
Path status
Path trace
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Enough information is contained in the overhead to allow the

network to operate and allow OAM&P communication between
an intelligent network controller and the individual nodes.
Figure 2-5: SDH Frame – Overhead
SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE

All information carried through the SDH network is first placed
in a container, for example a 140 Mbit/s signal is carried in the
following way:
• The 140 Mbit/s signal is mapped into a Container 4 (C4).

The number associated with the container indicates the
capacity of the container, for C4 can carry level 4 in the
PDH hierarchy (140 Mbit/s)
• A container is a fixed number of bytes, which will be carried
in the payload. These bytes correspond to a synchronous bit
rate. A C4 bit rate corresponds to 149.76 Mbit/s (260
columns x 9 rows = 2340 Bytes, 2340 Bytes x 8 bits =
18,720 bits, 18,720 bits x 8000 frames = 149.76 Mbit/s)
• A C4 contains information (140 Mbit/s signal), stuffing

(non-information) and justification information (justification
accommodates the tolerance possible with a plesiochronous
bit rate).
• A Virtual Container (VC) is formed by adding Path

Overhead (POH) to the container:
• A VC_4 is simply a C4 plus 9 bytes of POH
• POH is performance and maintenance information, which

travels through the SDH network with the C4. It is the POH,
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which allows end-to-end performance monitoring of

information passing through the SDH network.
• Pointers locate VCs within the STM_1 payload:

• Pointers are embedded in fixed positions and so are easily
located.
• Through the use of pointers, a VC can be placed directly

into, or removed directly from, the STM_1 payload area.
• Pointers greatly simplify the multiplexing process.
Figure 2-6: SDH Multiplexing Structure
The first level of division is the Administrative Unit (AU),

which is the unit of provision for bandwidth in the main
network. Its capacity can be used to carry a high bit rate signal,
such as 45 Mbit/s or 140 Mbit/s (for the two sizes of AU, AU_3
and AU_4 respectively). An AU can be further divided to carry
lower-rate signals, each within a Tributary Unit (TU), of which
there are several sizes. For example, a TU-12 carries a single 2
Mbit/s.
A specific quantity of TUs can be combined into a TU Group

(TUG) for planning and routing purposes. No overheads are
attached to create this, so its existence relies on network
LZM 112 299 R4A – 75 –

management tracking its path. For example, the European

Telecommunications Standardization Institute (ETSI) proposes
that a TUG-2 should carry 3x2 Mbit/s in the form of 3 TU-12s.
SDH Mapping is a procedure by which tributaries are adapted

into VCs at the boundary of the SDH network.
SDH Multiplexing is a procedure by which multiple lower

order path layer signals are adapted into a higher order path or
multiple path layer signals are adapted into a multiplex section
SDH Aligning is a procedure by which the frame-offset

information is incorporated into the TU or the AU when
adapting to the frame reference of the supporting layer.
Figure 2-7: SDH Multiplexing Structure
SDH EQUIPMENT
An SDH network is built up of a number of network elements
interconnected by optical fiber cable. These network elements
include:
• Terminal Multiplexers are path terminating equipment. They

act as concentrators of tributary signals.
• Regenerators are required when there is a long distance

between multiplexers
• , and the signal level in the fiber drops too low. The
regenerator clocks itself off the received signal and replaces
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the section overhead bytes before retransmitting the signal.

The line overhead, payload and POH are not altered.
• Add/Drop Multiplexers enables lower rate signals to be

inserted or extracted from a higher rate multiplexed signal
without completely de-multiplexing the signal
• Digital Cross-Connect (DXC) has access to lower-rate

channels in higher-rate multiplexed signals and can cross-
connect those channels
RNC
MSC DXC
GSN MGW DXC DXC RNC
DXC
RNC
Figure 2-8: Example of some SDH nodes in a WCDMA RAN
Figure 2-8 shows an example of how to use SDH equipment for

the Iu interface in a WCDMA RAN.
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Network Configurations
CHAIN
BUS CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
POINT TO POINT CONFIGURATION
RING CONFIGURATION DOUBLE RING CONFIGURATION
STAR CONFIGURATION
Figure 2-9: Network configuration
Figure 2-9 shows the different SDH topologies. It includes point

to point, bus, ring and star configurations.
Applications of SDH
Think of SDH as being at layer 1 of the OSI model, that is, it is
the basic building block for the core networks.
For interconnecting the network elements in the user layer,

different transport technologies may be used. The transmission
plane is usually taken for granted by engineers, so you may hear
an engineer refer to an “ATM network” or an “IP over ATM
network”. The ATM network is built over an SDH
infrastructure.
SDH PROTECTION
Protection is one of the key requirements in transporting
customer traffic, On the SDH level; Ericsson has the following
protection mechanisms available:
• 2-fiber and 4-fiber MS-SPRing
• 1+1 SNC-P
• 1+1 Drop and Continue
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• 1+1 and 1:N MSP
• OS restoration.
To look at some of these in more detail:
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Rings (MS-SPRing)
MS-SPRing offers an efficient mechanism for protecting the

traffic for ring-based architectures. Both 2 and 4 fiber Mulitplex
Section Protection Ring architectures can be provided using the
AXD 2500-2.
Where the fiber’s capacity is limited, 2 fiber MS-SPRing can be

used to remove the requirement for new fibers. Where there is
no restriction on fiber capacity and where Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM) is used, 4 fiber MS-SPRing optimizes the
equipment utilization and reduces the overall cost of the
solution. Both 2 and 4 fiber systems can be freely mixed in a
network without affecting the operation or implementation.
VC-4 traffic between

A STM-16 B node A and B
MS-SPRing
Figure 2-10: MS-SPRing Protection
As seen in Figure 2-10, 50% of the capacity can be used for

carrying traffic with 50% of the capacity is reserved for
protection.
1+1 Sub Network connection Protection (SNC-P)
1+1 SNC-P can be applied to connections on all VC-levels and

in all kinds of network topology (ring, star, meshed network
etc.). SNC-P can be applied to either all of a traffic path or just
to a section of a traffic path.
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Furthermore, SNC-P can be layered on top of an MS-SPRing

ring – this is less efficient with respect to capacity utilization
and should be used only where a very high degree of protection
is required.
Protection
Working
Figure 2-11: SNC-P Protection
Multiplex Section Protection (MSP) 1+1 Protection
Here the signal is duplicated and sent over two line interfaces.
The node at the receiving end will decipher both signals and
choose the best. The disadvantage of this is double amount of
fibers and line interface is needed. The advantages of MSP
protection is that it is easy to handle from an administrative
point of view, and it is efficient for traffic. It can also be
regarded as equipment protection.
Working
NE NE
Standby
MS-Section
MS-Section
MS-Section
Figure 2-12: MSP Protection
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ATM
ATM HISTORY
ATM can be traced back to the early 1980s when operators were
investigating the use of Broadband ISDN for the transport of
voice and data.
ITU-T
The CCITT, as it was known then, received a proposal from
British Telecom, France Telecom, Deutsche Telecom and
AT&T for a new transport mechanism, which was studied over
the next four years.
The CCITT eventually became the ITU-T (International

Telecommunications Union-Telephony) which undertook the
study of the ATM standards. The ATM standards were
eventually issued in 1989.
ATM FORUM
It became clear to a number of companies that ATM could
equally well be applied to the LAN environment. The ITU-T
was seen as an unsuitable vehicle for the development of ATM
technology. Thus, in 1991 the ATM Forum was formed. Nortel,
Sprint, Adaptive/NET and Cisco were involved in the formation
of the ATM Forum. Today over 1,000 interested companies and
organizations are involved in the implementation of ATM.
The ATM Forum generates recommendations and is considered

by many to be the de facto standards body for ATM.
ATM BASICS
ATM can be considered a connection-oriented way of
transporting different service classes of information, in fixed
length packages.
The ATM cell is a small packet having a fixed length of 53

octets, five of which comprise the header. The remaining 48
octets make up the information field.
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Figure 2-13: The ATM cell
The 48 bytes in the payload is a size compromise between the

transport efficiency for data and the delay requirements for
voice and video traffic. Having cells with a fixed length results
in faster switching as no additional software is required at the
receiving end to determine the cell length.
ATM relies on good transmission quality, preferably using

optical fiber. Hence the error control on the cell is not extensive.
Error control is only performed on the header which contains the
Logical Channel Number (LCN) required to route the cell
through the network. As a result the switching speed is
increased.
The function of ATM is to act as a transport mechanism for a

variety of services. One of the advantages of ATM is that it can
support many applications with high transmission speeds. ATM
transmission can be broken down into three main stages:
Segmentation:
The incoming bit stream is broken down into fixed size

packages of 48 bytes. This process is known as segmentation.
Addressing:
A 5-byte header is then added on to each chunk of 48 bytes. The

5 byte header contains the Logical Channel Number (LCN)
which is used to route the cell through the network.
Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is the final stage in ATM transmission where the

ATM cells are transmitted on to the physical line.
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Figure 2-14: ATM multiplexing principle
TRAFFIC DESCRIPTORS
For the transmission of voice and data in the network a set of
characteristics must be defined to specify the requirements on
the network for that type of traffic. This combination of
characteristics is referred to as a traffic descriptor.
Different traffic descriptors are defined to support different

services. Within a traffic descriptor we specify the bandwidth
required in the network for the connection as well as the quality
of service required. The quality of service is characterized by a
number of parameters such as Cell Loss Ration, CLR, Cell Error
ratio, CER etc. The bandwidth required is specified by a number
of service categories.
The ATM forum has specified a number of these service

categories. The ITU-T has also specified a number of service
classes.
ATM SERVICE CATEGORIES
CBR
The ATM forum has defined Constant Bit Rate (CBR) to

support constant bit rate connection-oriented traffic where end-
to-end synchronization is required. ITU-T refers to this type of
traffic as Class A performance. This service should meet the
LZM 112 299 R4A – 83 –

requirements for performance comparable to current digital line

services such as El.
VBR-RT
The ATM Forum has defined Variable Bit Rate Real Time
(VBR-RT) to support variable bit rate connection oriented
traffic where end-to-end synchronization is required. ITU-T
specifies this type of traffic as Class B performance. This
service is intended for compressed video and voice.
VBR-NRT
Variable Bit Rate Non-Real Time (VBR-NRT) is for types of

traffic which are predictable, yet do not require a timing
relationship to be maintained end-to-end. VBR-NRT is specified
by ITU-T as Class C and Class D performance.
ABR
Available Bit Rate (ABR) is designed for economical support of

applications with unknown requirements for throughputs and
delays. For example, a user may know that a particular
application runs well across a lightly loaded Ethernet network
and poorly through an ISDN connection. In these
circumstances, the ABR service category would be best.
ITU-T has specified this as Class C and D performance.
UBR
Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) operates on a 'best effort' basis,

with no reservation of bandwidth. Signaling used to set-up and
clear down calls is normally transmitted as UBR, as is LANE
traffic. ITU-T specifies this type of traffic as Class C and Class
D performance.
UBR+
The UBR+ service is the same as UBR except that there is a

Minimum Cell Rate (MCR) defined. This service category is
used in WCDMA Systems 2.0.
GFR
Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR) is a new service category still

being defined. It is intended to provide a mechanism that will
deliver frames. If one cell is lost, the entire frame is lost. Frame
rates rather than bit rates are Guaranteed.
LZM 112 299 R4A

ATM PROTOCOL LAYERS
ATM has its own protocol stack in order to take care of different
types of services. It consists of the following three layers:
• The ATM adaptation Layer, AAL

• The ATM layer
• The Physical layer
Figure 2-15, below illustrates the three layers:
Figure 2-15: Protocol layer in ATM
• The ATM Adaptation Layer, AAL.

The bit stream is divided into 48-byte pieces in this layer. This
is also the layer responsible for specifying the class of service.
• The ATM layer.

Here the header is added or deleted to enable the cell to be
routed through the network based on the LCN.
• The physical layer.

It takes care of the mapping of the bits to the physical medium.
Error checks on the cell header are also performed on this layer.
LZM 112 299 R4A – 85 –

The ATM Adaptation Layer

A number of AALs are required to cater for different services
such as voice and data, each of which has different
characteristics and hence places different bandwidth
requirements on the network.
In WCDMA systems, AAL2 is used for CS traffic and AAL5

for PS traffic and signaling.
ATM adaptation layer 2
AAL2 defines the transport of VBR real time traffic such as

compressed audio (that is, speech) and video.
AAL5 can also be used to transport variable bit rate traffic. The
utilization of AAL5 is limited however due to the absence of
delay parameters.
Figure 2-16: AAL2 supported services
However, the development of WCDMA systems has resulted in

an increased interest in AAL2 for the transport of real time
traffic. One of the main features of AAL2 is its ability to accept
several streams of video traffic and multiplex them together.
AAL2 accepts 16 octets of MPEG traffic at a time, appending a
header to each 16-octet sample.
Short periods of inactivity can be identified by the use of an

additional header, added on when the data is transferred to the
LZM 112 299 R4A

ATM cell payload. Figure 2-17, shows the format of the AAL2
header.
Payload Payload Payload Header, 5 bytes
5 5 6 8 8
HEC UUI LI CID STF
STF, Start Field
CID, Channel Identity

LI, Length Indicator
UUI, User-to-user Indicator
HEC, Header Error Control
Figure 2-17: AAL2 header
ATM adaptation layer 5
AAL5 was developed to handle IP traffic on top of ATM in

WCDMA systems. AAL5 overcame some of the complexity of
the previous AAL3/4. In addition, AAL 5 has significantly
lower overhead than AAL3/4 and is therefore very widely used
in the transport of both connection oriented and connectionless
services.
Figure 2-18: ATM adaptation layer 5
LZM 112 299 R4A – 87 –

Figure 2-19, shows the format of the AAL5 header.
User Information
8 bytes
Payload (1-65535 bytes)
32 16 8 8
CRC L CPI UU
UU, User-to-user indicator

CPI, Common Part Indicator
L, Length
CRC, Cyclic Redundancy Check
Padding
0 0 1
Pay-load Type (PT) AAU=0 or 1
Figure 2-19: AAL5 header
AAL5 is used for carrying IP packets. Furthermore AAL5 is a

part of Signaling ATM Adaptation Layer (SAAL). SAAL
provides similar signaling transport functionality as MTP2 in
the Signaling System Number 7. It is used for broadband
signaling links in both the CS and PS part of the WCDMA
systems network.
VIRTUAL PATH AND VIRTUAL CHANNEL

The ATM header contains the address field. Two of the main
components in the address field are the virtual path and the
virtual channel IDs. The ATM switch uses both of these
components to route the cell through the network.
Virtual Paths
The physical link carrying ATM cells can be subdivided into a

number of smaller pathways know as virtual paths. The Virtual
path can be compared to a route in circuit switched telephony
networks.
In ATM, a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) represents this path

through the network. The VPI is represented by 8 bits in UNI
signaling and by 12 bits in NNI signaling resulting in 256/4096
possible simultaneous paths.
LZM 112 299 R4A

Virtual Channels
Within a virtual path several virtual channels can exist. The

virtual channel can be compared to the circuit identification
code (CIC) in telephony networks. A virtual channel is
represented as a Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI). The VCI
value can either be assigned by network management or chosen
by the ATM switch at the time of call setup.
The VCI value is represented by16 bits in both UNI and NNI
signaling giving 65,536 possible simultaneous channels per
path. Figure 2-20, illustrates the VPI and VCI values in the cell
header.
Figure 2-20: Virtual Path and Virtual Channel
The Logical Channel Number (LCN) in the header contains the

VPI / VCI values. The VPI and VCI values together indicate a
specific connection for one unique call on a specific physical
interface between two nodes in an ATM network.
Cross connecting and switching
Cross connecting
A cross connection is set up by a management procedure and

can not be controlled by the subscriber. Both VPI and VCI cross
connections can be established as illustrated in figure 2-21 on
next page:
LZM 112 299 R4A – 89 –

Figure 2-21: VPI and VCI cross connect
Switching
Switching is controlled via a signaling procedure initiated by an

end user. The virtual path must first be terminated in order for
the switched connections to be set up. A virtual path is
terminated by creating a virtual path connection (VPC) end
point.
Figure 2-22: Switching
Public ATM networks have until recently only been cross

connected, meaning that there have only been virtual paths, set-
up by the operator on request of the customer. Today however,
Public ATM networks can be both cross connected and
switched.
LZM 112 299 R4A

VC (VIRTUAL CHANNEL) PLANNING
PVC Topology
In order to exchange signaling or data between two ATM nodes
an ATM Permanent Virtual Channel (PVC) between these
nodes has to be set up. These PVCs are defined according to
required signaling and data channels and the logical network
topology of the ATM network.
An ATM end-to-end virtual connection consists of a set of

PVCs. These PVCs are configured manually by an operator in
routing tables and characterized by a set of unique VPI/VCI
combinations as well as the respective physical port numbers.
These values will be generated in the VP and VC Topology
process.
Figure 2-23 shows a pattern of an ATM end-to-end virtual

connection, which is made up of two PVCs.
ATM end-to-end
PVC PVC
Figure 2-23: ATM end-to-end virtual connections
VP Topology
For each PVC, channels are put together and a certain VPI value
is assigned to them. At this stage a separation as to the
functionality of single channels or logical interfaces can be
expressed in different VPI values.
VC Topology
This process consists of the assignment of VCIs to every
signaling or data channel
Figure 2-24 shows an ATM switch with randomly chosen

VPI/VCI combinations.
LZM 112 299 R4A – 91 –

VCI 39 VCI 39
VPI 57 VPI 68
VCI 40 VCI44
VCI 38 VPI 68 VPI 68 VCI 40

VCI 39 VCI 41
Physical Interfaces
Figure 2-24: VP, VC and Port combinations
VPI, VCI ADDRESSING AND PLANNING
I=1
VP =1 SGSN W
I
VPI=1 VC
VCI=1 VPI=1
VCI=2 VCI=1
SGSN W VCI=3 ATM
VP GGSN
I
VC =1
I=1
SGSN W
Figure 2-25: VPI, VCI Numbering
For a simple example consider Figure 2-25. Here the Gn

interface between the SGSN W and the GGSN can be seen. The
dashed lines represent the different ATM Virtual Channel
Connections (VCC). Seen on the right hand side of the diagram
(after the ATM node), the same VPI and VCIs values can be
used. This is because they are on different physical interfaces.
These VPI and VCIs are allocated on the interface of the node
and not on the link. The end points of a Virtual Channel Link
(VCL)(VCC segment) must have the same VPI and VCI
numbers on the interface as on either side of the physical link.
As the bandwidth settings for the VCL that makes up the VCC
can be different, care must be taken when setting up the entire
path. This is important as improper bandwidth settings at any of
LZM 112 299 R4A

the nodes along the whole VCC might cause a bottleneck and
thus ATM will be lost.
The physical connection, that is, STM_1, can be divided into

logical chunk of bandwidth either by using only one VPI with
several VCIs or a combination of several VPIs and VCIs. The
method used depends on the technique used for the VPI/VCI
numbering.
The VPI/VCI numbering can be done in several ways, these

different ways are as follows:
• The first way to do the VPI/VCI numbering in a physical

link is on the ‘first come, first served’ basis. This implies
that the OAM person would allocate any unused settable
VPI/VCI to the VCL that the person is setting up. The same
VPI/VCI number must be used at both endpoints of the
VCL.
• The second way is to assign the VPI/VCI numbers to certain

Permanent Virtual Connections (PVC). For example, a
certain range of VCIs will be reserved for Gn PVCs only
and another range is for Iu PVCs. This would depend on
what the use of the VPI/VCI numbering has and if it should
have importance on just that VCL, the node or the whole
network.
− The use of the VPI/VCI number might differ for a VCL

connection. One example could be the GSN on one end
of the VCL (that is, a connection between the GSN and
the physical site access node). Another example could be
a VCL connection with ATM transport nodes at both
ends of the VCL (that is, a connection between two
ATM CC in the backbone). This is because the Gx
traffic from the GSN comes from separate interface
boards. In this case a single VPI might be used for a Gx
physical interface and the different VCIs to identify what
is the end destination node.
− For the case of a VCL with ATM transport at both ends

of the VCL, the physical link between the ATM
transport nodes might carry VCL segments of PVCs that
are for different interfaces or even from different nodes.
Different VPIs might be used here to identify the source
node and the different VCIs are used to identify the
traffic type.
• Another way might be to use VPI to identify a particular

physical link (that is, only one VPI for the physical link).
LZM 112 299 R4A – 93 –

This might make it easier when changing the physical

interface for a VCL, in case of link failure.
The ITU and ATM forum reserve certain VPI/VCI combinations

so they can be used by the system. Usually VPI = 0 should not
be used except by the system. Also the operator can set other
PVCs for use in a WCDMA Systems network but these
VPI/VCI combinations are operator dependent.
VC PLANNING
In WCDMA Systems R2 (Ericsson CN2.0), only PVC
functionality is available for the ATM interfaces. Soft
Permanent Virtual Connection (SPVC) functionality in the
backbone network can be implemented using certain Ericsson
ATM products. SVC functionality requires NNI/UNI signaling
to be supported throughout the ATM network. As this signaling
is not supported in the GSN, MGW, AXE and RNC nodes, SVC
cannot be deployed. This implies that the routes using the ATM
interfaces will be manually configured PVCs. In the GSN nodes,
each G(x) (Gn/Gp, Gi, Gom) interface will require separate
interface boards and thus different VP. Within each G(x)
interface board, different VCs can exist for different destination
connection points.
Figure 2-26: A connection with PVC
We will take Figure 2-26 as an example where the solid lines

represent the physical links and connections between the
different nodes. In order to make a communication path between
the GSNs, let’s say for the Gn , a PVC connection is established
between the GSNs (the dashed line). In order to make the PVC
work in an ATM network, permanent VPI and VCI associations
will have to be made between the solid lines ending (endpoint)
in the ATM node on both sides. This in effect is like making a
permanent cross connection in the ATM switch. This must be
done for the entire path of the PVC across the ATM nodes that
provide the physical connection for the path and this is done
with manual operator commands. This must be done for every
PVC connection, that is, Gn, Gp, Gom or backup connections.
LZM 112 299 R4A

If in the case of a ATM link failure (that is, one of the solid lines
in the figure is down), the entire PVC will be out of service and
traffic disruption will occur if a hot second, physically different
PVC does not exist.
If SPVC is implemented in the ATM backbone network, the

ATM nodes that make up the SPVC network will require ATM
node addressing as well as PNNI (Private Network to Network
Interface) signaling. The OAM person will have to specify the
target endpoint (at the edge of the SPVC network) for every
SPVC startpoint and the SPVC backbone will automatically
setup the VCLs for the SPVC VCC.
Figure 2-27: ATM backbone with SPVC
If there is a VCL link failure in the backbone network, the

SPVC backbone will automatically find and setup another path
to replace the failed path (if node-to-node VP links already exist
along the new path). For this to work, the ATM nodes involved
need to have some sort of unique node addressing, and NNI
signaling will have to be implemented in the backbone network.
Note that in GSN 4.0 release, SPVC is not supported and
intermediate nodes will be required if SPVCs are to be used in
the ATM backbone network.
An SVC is put in place where the VCC or VPC connection is

setup on demand and is removed when not used. This is done
automatically by the system but requires UNI and NNI signaling
between the ATM nodes involved. SVCs will not be
implemented in Ericsson WCDMA Systems R2.0.
LZM 112 299 R4A – 95 –

PVC RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION

User data flow should be separated from the control data flow
by use of different PVCs
• Separate PVC for NNI signaling in SPVC case (+1

redundancy)
• Separate PVC for ATM signaling in VC (VPI/VCI = 0/5)(+1

redundancy)
• Separate VP for system usage, VPI = 0
• Separate PVC for Q2630.1 signaling (CS) (+1 redundancy)
• Separate PVC for RANAP (+1 redundancy)
• Separate PVC for GTP_U tunnels
• Separate PVC for GTP_C (+1 redundancy)

Table 2-1 Reserved VPI, VC
VPI VCI Comments

All 0-31 Reserved by ITU and ATM Forum for System use
Table 2-2 Minimum needed to separate PVC’s in a physical link
No. of PVC Use VPI/VCI Interface

1 For ATM signaling 0/5 All
1 GTP_C Setable Gn
1 Q.AAL2 signaling Setable Iu-CS
1 SS7 signaling Setable Gr
1 RANAP Setable Iu
Multiple GTP_U Setable Iu, Gn
LZM 112 299 R4A

ATM NODE ADDRESSING

If only PVCs are used, there is no need for node addressing of
the nodes as the VPs, VCs and VCCs are permanently
configured by operator commands. If SPVCs are used,
addressing of the node is required for when the network
automatically finds a new VCL to replace the failed VCL. For
this, ATM End System Addressing (AESA) is used to identify
the ATM node The AESA format is based on the OSI Network
Service Access Point (NSAP). Only E.164 AESA variant will be
used. As the E.164 format AESA addresses are public within a
country (similar to SPC for SS7 signaling network), these
AESA addresses will have to be received from a countrywide
governing body. The AFI value is set to 45hex for E.164 AESA
addresses. (Figure 2-28)
PAD Country Code Nationally significant number
15 BCD digits E.164 format number (8 octets)
AFI E.164 number DSP ESI SEL
1 8 bytes 4 6 1
Figure 2-28: NSAP E.164 address format
AFI – One byte of authority and format identifier. The AFI field
identifies the type of address.
E.164 – Eight bytes ISDN-style subscriber number
RD – Two bytes routing domain
Area – Two bytes area identifier
ESI – Six bytes of end system identifier, which is an IEEE 802

MAC address
Sel – One byte NSAP selector
LZM 112 299 R4A – 97 –

WCDMA SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE OF CN2.0
As seen in the previous chapter, the WCDMA Systems

Core Network has two domains: Circuit Switched (CS) and
Packet Switched (PS).
CS TRANSPORT, ATM AAL2
MSC BICC MSC

Server Server
Transit
AAL2
switch
MGW MGW
Q.AAL2 AAL2 Q.AAL2
AAL2 AAL2
ATM ATM
ATM
AAL2
transport view
Transit AAL2
switch
Hierarchical AAL2 transport network
Figure 2-29: AAL2 Switching in CN2.0
When ATM AAL2 is used as the transport backbone of the Core

Network, it will have a similar network topology to STM.
AAL2 connections are setup over ATM semi-permanent
connections, in a similar way to STM over SDH links. When the
number of MGWs present is low (1-5), the network would be
meshed, but as the network size increases, then there would be
transit switching with a high speed ATM transit backbone, as
seen in Figure 2-29. For example, with 8-12 MGWs, the
network would require 2-5 backbone routers.
Call and Bearer Control
LZM 112 299 R4A

The use of ATM in CN2.0 also allows the separation of Call

Control from Bearer Control. Call session control is via a new
protocol, Bearer Independent Cal Control (BICC), end to end
between servers. AAL2 connections are set up link by link,
using the Q.AAL2 protocol. BICC is not available until CN 3.0.
Hence there is a separation of call and connection functions as

they are handled by different networks.
Transport Technology Trends

In the GSM network, operators currently have an STM Core
Network, with Circuit Switched services – speech, data, ISUP
all running on SDH/PDH. The GPRS network has an IP
backbone network for the transportation of PS data. For the
transition to a WCDMA Systems network, an evolution of the
backbone network through the following transmission
technologies is proposed:
• STM based
• STM/ATM
• IP over ATM backbone
• All IP network
So far the concentration has been mainly on an ATM backbone

network, but another alternative is to us IP as the transport
backbone for all types of data – both traditional datacom and
real-time services such as voice and multimedia. The Core
Network solution specified by 3GPP R’99 assumes transport of
CS traffic on ATM via AAL2 . The PS traffic is transported
according to classical IP over ATM. The current Ericsson
strategy is to have ATM as the transport technology before
migrating towards IP.
ATM BACKBONE
LZM 112 299 R4A – 99 –

EIR SCP HLR

AUC
MSC
server
Control Plane
BSS
UTRAN
Media ISDN/PSTN
BS User Data Plane
Media AAL2 Gateway
RNC
GatewaySGSN GGSN
BS
Internet
Intranets
IP/AAL5
ATM
SDH
User data flows, packet mode Router

User data flows, circuit mode AAL2 switch
Figure 2-30: WCDMA Systems Network over an ATM

Backbone.
Figure 2-30, represents a CN2.0 Network that transports Circuit

Switched data including voice over AAL2/ATM/SDH and
transports Packet Switched data over IP/AAL5/ATM/SDH. This
shall be looked at in more detail in the next chapter when
routing is discussed.
IP BACKBONE
LZM 112 299 R4A

EIR SCP HLR AUC

MSC
server
Control Plane
BSS
UTRAN
ISDN/PSTN
BS Media
RNC
Media SGSN
Gateway Gateway
BS
Internet
User Data Plane GGSN Intranets
IP/PPP
SDH
User data flows, packet mode
User data flows, circuit mode
Router
Figure 2- 31: Ericsson WCDMA Systems Network Architecture,

IP Based Data Transport
Figure 2-31, shows an all IP WCDMA Systems network, that is

the CS data and the PS data is transported over IP/PPP/SDH.
IP has the following limitations:
• Quality of service handling in the IP network
• Interworking between IP based network domains
• Security
• Increased protocol overhead
• Delay and jitter
But it also has the following advantages:
• Efficient protocol for data transport
• IP stack on “all terminals”
• Automatic routing and protection
• Easy to interconnect heterogeneous networks
• Service creation platform
LZM 112 299 R4A – 101 –

One reason to move the transport for both the CS and PS

domain to IP now and to skip the ATM layer is that this step can
simplify the network and be more cost efficient.
When discussing CN 2.0, we are largely dealing with an ATM

network. The main advantage of ATM is that it provides Quality
of Service (QoS). This QoS has yet to be achieved with an IP
backbone. It may be several years before IP telephony is able to
compete with CS domain services in terms of radio spectrum
efficiency, error robustness and voice quality. What is required
now is a Core Network transport solution that meets the CS
demands of today, but can be smoothly and economically
migrated to an all IP network in the future.
In order to ensure proper support for QoS in the network, one

possible solution is to use Multi Protocol Label Switching
(MPLS) trunking combined with the differentiated services
(Diffserv) architecture.
Call Cases
In Figure 2-29 and Figure 2-30, the call cases for an originating
WCDMA Systems call are illustrated:
• ATM Transport
• IP Transport
Network Control Layer
MSC TSC
Server Server
Q.BICC
SGW
RANAP N-ISUP
External
WCDMA RAN
(ATM based) GCP GCP Networks
(TDM based)
Q.AAL2
Q.AAL2 Q.AAL2
ATM VCC CIC
AAL2
ATM VCC ATM VCC
Switch TRA
AAL2
MGW
Switch ATM Transport
Signalling
User Plane
Connectivity Layer
LZM 112 299 R4A

Figure 2-32: ATM Connectivity, WCDMA Systems Originating

Call
Network Control Layer
MSC TSC
Server Server
Q.BICC
SGW SGW
RANAP N-ISUP
External
WCDMA RAN Iu
(ATM based) GCP GCP GCP Networks
(TDM based)
Q.AAL2
CR-LDP CR-LDP
ATM VCC CIC
LSP LSR LSP
H.245 TRA
MGW & MGW &
LER IP Transport LER
Signalling
User Plane
Connectivity Layer
Figure 2-33: IP Connectivity, WCDMA Systems Originating Call
LZM 112 299 R4A – 103 –

MULTI PROTOCOL LABEL SWITCHING (MPLS)

MPLS introduces a path switching mechanism that can be
applied in an IP or an ATM backbone or even a combination of
both. It uses connection-oriented label switching mechanisms
inside the otherwise connectionless IP technology.
MPLS uses Quality of Service provision based on the

differentiated services (DiffServ) Class of Service architecture.
The prime motive for MPLS, in the near term solution for the
WCMDA Systems Core Network, is to use it for dynamic
(distributed) resource reservation and as a tool for traffic
engineering over routes. This accommodates the traffic flows
with strict QoS requirements (primarily voice) as well as other
traffic classes with loose QoS requirements. The main benefit of
using MPLS in an IP core is optimisation of resources through
dynamic bandwidth allocation and traffic engineering (other
benefits include scalable IP over ATM support, separation of
routing and forwarding, and support for VPNs).
MPLS PRINCIPLES
We will firstly look at the overall principles of MPLS. These

principles are as follows:
• Each node within an MPLS network runs routing protocols,

or has static routes defined, and thus knows the best path
through the network.
• When a packet arrives at the incoming node of an MPLS

network, the packet is analyzed and put into a forward
equivalence class (FEC). A forward equivalence class is
defined as all layer three packets that can be treated
identically by the network.
• Each FEC is associated with a route through the network.
• To this end, the packet has a label attached. This label

specifies the first portion of the route, that is, the portion
between the incoming node and the next node on the
packet’s intended route.
• When the packet arrives at the next node, the label attached
to it is read and used as a reference into a label database. A
new label is obtained from this database. This new label
LZM 112 299 R4A

corresponds to the next section of the packet’s intended

route.
• The new label is switched with the old label (hence the name
Multiprotocol Label Switching) and the packet is forwarded
with the new label attached.
• This process is repeated throughout the network until the

packet arrives at the far edge of the MPLS network. When
the packet reaches the outgoing node of the MPLS network,
the final label is stripped off and the packet returns to
whichever method of forwarding is used outside the MPLS
network.
MPLS IMPLEMENTATION
There are a number of possible types of MPLS implementation:
• MPLS as a layer three or IP solution. In this case, the label is

an additional piece of data appended to the beginning of the
IP packet. MPLS components know to switch using the
label, rather than routing on the contents of the IP header.
• MPLS as an IP over Frame Relay solution. In this case, the

label is the data link control identifier (DLCI) in the Frame
Relay header.
• MPLS as an IP over ATM solution. In this case, the label is

the ATM VPI/VCI value within the ATM cell header.
• The subject of this chapter is the specific implementation of

MPLS as an IP over ATM technology, and all further
mention of MPLS will refer to MPLS as an IP over ATM
technology.
MPLS –IP OVER ATM

In implementing MPLS as an IP over ATM technology, the
label is not attached on as an extra piece of data. Instead, the
label is carried within the ATM cell in the header. Specifically,
the MPLS ‘label’ is the ATM VPI/VCI value contained within
the ATM cell header.
We define a ‘traditional’ ATM network as a network of ATM

hardware in which connections are set up using ATM signaling
protocols, such as PNNI signaling. These connection set-up
requests always stem from an end-user and are routed on the
LZM 112 299 R4A – 105 –

basis of information gained from ATM routing protocols, such

as PNNI routing.
Broadly speaking, we can define an ATM network as a network

of ATM hardware, in which this hardware is controlled by ATM
software.
In contrast, an MPLS network is a network of ATM hardware in

which this hardware is controlled by MPLS software.
The significant difference between MPLS and other IP over

ATM solutions, is that the MPLS connections are set up by the
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP), and not by traditional ATM
signaling protocols. These MPLS connections are termed label
switched paths (LSPs).
The MPLS LDP understands and uses IP addresses, thus

providing seamless integration with existing IP networks while
harnessing the high-speed switching of ATM. In addition to
using IP addressing, the routing protocols used in MPLS
networks are the same as those used in IP networks.
The MPLS architecture does not assume that there is only a

single LDP. In fact, a number of different label distribution
protocols are being standardized.
In the following sections, the LDP, which is a protocol

specifically developed for use with MPLS, is discussed. Some
existing protocols have been extended so that label distribution
can be carried with them for example, border gateway protocol
(BGP) and the resource reservation protocol (RSVP).
MPLS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

MPLS network architecture employs two main types of routers,
label edge routers and label switching routers.
Label Edge Routers

Label edge routers (LERs) are located at the edge of the network
to perform traditional routing functions and to provide
connectivity to user networks. The LERs analyze and classify
the incoming IP packet, adding a short label, which indicates
which LSP the packet should take.
In practice, the LERs are IP routers with an ATM interface

running the LDP.
LZM 112 299 R4A

Label Switching Routers

Label switching routers (LSRs) are located in the center of the
network to perform high-performance label switching routing.
The LSRs forward packets, identified by the label, along the
LSP.
In practice, the LSRs are ATM switches running LDP.
LABEL DISTRIBUTION PROTOCOL
A label distribution protocol is a set of procedures by which

MPLS nodes inform each other of the meaning of labels used to
forward traffic between and through the nodes. LDP is a new
protocol defined for distributing labels. It is the set of
procedures and messages by which LSRs establish LSPs
through a network by mapping network layer routing
information directly to data link layer switched paths.
These LSPs may have an end point at a directly attached

neighbor (comparable to IP hop-by-hop forwarding), or may
have an end point at a network egress node, enabling switching
via all intermediary nodes.
LDP associates a forwarding equivalence class (FEC) with each

LSP it creates. The FEC associated with an LSP specifies which
packets are mapped to that LSP.
Routing in an MPLS network is performed in the same way as

in a legacy IP network. Both LDP and routing information travel
through the network on a default channel reserved for that
purpose.
LZM 112 299 R4A – 107 –

Label D istribution Label S w itch

LD P R outer
P rotocol
LS R LS R
LDP
LD P IP R outer
M odu le
IP R outer
M odu le LD P
ingress egress
3 6 6 8
IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT

.... 3 3 6 6 8 8 ....
Figure 2-34: MPLS Operation
FORWARD EQUIVALENCE CLASS (FEC)

FECs are mapped directly to LSPs. An FEC is defined as a
group of layer three (network layer) packets that can be
forwarded in the same manner. An FEC may comprise traffic to
a particular destination or it may be more specific, comprising
traffic to a particular destination and distinct service
requirements.
Mappings from IP Packet to Forwarding Equivalence Class

MPLS allows the IP packet to forwarding equivalence class
mapping to be performed only once, that is, at the ingress to an
MPLS network. This facilitates complex mappings from IP
packets to FEC that would otherwise be impractical.
For example, consider the case of provisioned QoS. Some ISPs

offer a service whereby specific customers subscribe to receive
differentiated services, such as preferential forwarding
treatment. The customer pays a premium price for such a
service.
LZM 112 299 R4A

Mapping IP packets to this service level may require knowledge

of the customer who is transmitting the packet, which may in
turn require packet filtering based on source and destination
address, incoming interface, and other characteristics. The sheer
number of filters that is needed in a moderate sized ISP
precludes repetition of the filters at every router throughout the
network.
Also, some information, such as incoming interface, is not

available except at the ingress node to the network. This
indicates that the preferred way to offer provisioned QoS is to
map the packet at the ingress point to the preferred QoS level,
and then to label the packet in some way. MPLS offers an
efficient method of labeling the QoS class associated with any
particular packet. Other examples of complex mappings from IP
packet to FEC are also likely to be developed as MPLS is
deployed.
MPLS ADVANTAGES
Simplified Forwarding
Label swapping allows packet forwarding to be considerably
simplified. This means that it is easier to build a high-speed
router using MPLS technology.
Efficient Explicit Routing

Explicit routing, which is also called source routing, is a very
powerful technique which can be useful for a variety of
purposes. However, with pure datagram routing, the overhead of
carrying a complete explicit route with each packet is
prohibitive. However, MPLS allows the explicit route to be
carried only at the time that the label switched path is set up, and
not with each packet. MPLS makes explicit routing practical and
can make possible a number of advanced routing features which
depend upon explicit routing.
Service Differentiation
Since a packet is assigned to an FEC when it enters the network,
the ingress router may use any information it has about the
packet to determine the assignment, even if that information
cannot be gleaned from the network layer header. For example,
packets arriving on different physical router ports may be
assigned to different FECs. In contrast, conventional forwarding
LZM 112 299 R4A – 109 –

can only consider information which travels with the packet in

the packet header.
A packet that enters the network at a particular router can be

labeled differently than the same packet entering the network at
a different router. As a result forwarding decisions that depend
on the ingress router can be easily made. This cannot be done
with conventional forwarding, since the identity of a packet's
ingress router does not travel with the packet.
Multiple Services
MPLS control components can coexist with traditional ATM
control components, thus supporting all existing ATM
applications.
MPLS SCALABILITY
Previously available methods for interconnecting routers in an
IP over ATM environment make use of one of the following:
• A full mesh 'n- squared' overlay (where ‘n’ is an integer) of

virtual circuits between n ATM-attached routers
• A partial mesh of VCs between routers
• A partial mesh of VCs, plus the use of NHRP to facilitate on

demand cut-through SVCs.
MPLS improves the scalability of routing due to the reduced

number of peers and the elimination of the 'n-squared' logical
links between routers used to operate the routing protocols.
Because all LSRs run standard routing protocols, the number of
the peers that routers need to communicate with is reduced to
the number of the LSRs and LERs a given LSR is directly
connected to. This is instead of having to peer with large
number of routers at the ends of the switched L2 paths. This
benefit is possible because the LERs do not need to peer with
every other LER in the domain, as is the case on a hybrid switch
and router network.
MPLS may also be used for:
• Traffic Engineering
• Protection Switching
• Basic Security
LZM 112 299 R4A

SIGNALING
CR-LDP (Label Distribution Protocol) or RSVP (Resource
ReSerVation Protocol) may be used to set up and release MPLS
LSPs with the appropriate characteristics according to the type
of traffic they carry.
BICC CS2 is used on the call control level for ISUP/ISDN

services.
H.248 will be the protocol to control the MGW by the MSCs

and GMSCs/TSCs servers.
To control the bearer service, the H.245 protocol (or a subset of

it) is the choice.
Admission control is performed at the edge by the MGW. In

combination with MPLS signaling, this will prevent degradation
of QoS for voice traffic at heavy load. Multiplexing and
compression schemes are proposed to increase bandwidth
efficiency.
MPLS is seen as a first step for operators to migrate from a

circuit based (STM, ATM) UMTS to a packet switched IP
network.
Conversational
class
MGW MGW/
LSR GGSN
MP
LER s ig LS LER
LS sig LSR PSTN/ISDN
LSR MP
WCDMA RAN LSR

Internet
Intranets
Figure 2-35: MPLS and Associated Signaling
LZM 112 299 R4A – 111 –

Transmission Network: Objectives

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Transmission Network: Objectives

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Transmission Network

This chapter will provide the student with an overview of the

• Explain the OSI model.

LZM 112 299 R4A

OSI REFERENCE MODEL ..................................................................63

TRANSMISSION MEDIA .....................................................................67

SDH (SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY).................................72

WCDMA SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE OF CN2.0 .................................98

LZM 112 299 R4A – 61 –

MULTI PROTOCOL LABEL SWITCHING (MPLS)............................104

LZM 112 299 R4A

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The ISO sub-committee started its work by defining a reference

In 1984, Comité Consultatif International Télégraphique et

LZM 112 299 R4A – 63 –

Figure 2-1: Analogy for the OSI model.

1. Manager A writes the classified message and hands it over

2. The assistant codes the message into a secret cipher and

3. The secretary puts the coded message in an envelope, writes

4. The delivery boy collects the outgoing mail from the

5. At the post office the mail is sorted for distribution to

6. After sorting, the mail is put in boxes or mailbags to ensure

7. Finally, the mail is transported to the destination. At the

LZM 112 299 R4A

1. At the receiving post office the mailbag is received and

2. The mailbag is opened, and the mail is inspected for

3. After the mail has been checked, it is sorted for distribution

4. The letter is delivered by a mailman to the correct address.

5. Manager B’s secretary opens the envelope and gives the

6. The ciphering expert decodes the message and presents it to

7. The message has at last reached its final destination.

The physical communication is transferred from layer to layer,

Logically, each layer communicates with the corresponding

LZM 112 299 R4A – 65 –

Data Link Layer

LZM 112 299 R4A

For communication between two exchanges only, the physical

An Easy Way to Remember the Different Layers

Data link Deliver

LZM 112 299 R4A – 67 –

In a multi mode fiber the different modes (propagation

Figure 2-2: Multi mode

LZM 112 299 R4A – 67 –

A single mode fiber suppresses all wavelengths but one, so that

Figure 2-3: Single mode

With a 1310 nm wavelength the maximum distance without

A fiber cable usually consists of 24, 48 or 96 optical fibers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fibers:

• Superior transmission quality

• Buried optical fiber

LZM 112 299 R4A

Buried optical fiber:

• Faster implementation compared to buried fiber

Network operators can deploy Ericsson's ERION WDM

With the ERION (Ericsson Optical Networking) portfolio,

ERION offers multibit rate support, i.e. 100 Mbit/s to 2 Gbit/s in

ERION Metro has been designed to meet the specific needs of

LZM 112 299 R4A – 69 –

For GSM outdoor applications pair cable is pre-dominant,

There are several technologies for synchronous metal cable

With an indoor coaxial cable a distance of 200 m is possible

With a twisted pair cable a distance up to 1.5 km is possible.

• HDSL, High bit rate Digital Subscriber Line