Trafffic and Routing: Objectives

TRAFFFIC AND ROUTING
Chapter 3
This chapter is designed to provide the student with a basic

knowledge of traffic and routing for both circuit-switched and
packet switched networks.
OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
• Explain the alternative network solutions for the CS and PS

part of the Core Network
• State two major advantages of using transit exchanges
• Outline the basics of IP routing
• Calculate traffic volume given relevant input data
• Calculate the OH for different services.
GSM Network Planning – Core Network
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2 LZM 112 300 R4A

3 TRAFFIC AND ROUTING

Table of Contents
Topic Page
NETWORK TOPOLOGY....................................................................115
NETWORK ARCHITECTURES ................................................................................. 116
LARGE REGIONAL OR NATIONAL NETWORKS.................................................... 118
BENEFITS OF USING TRANSIT EXCHANGES COMPARED TO A MESHED
NETWORK WITH DIRECT ROUTES ........................................................................ 120
GPRS NETWORK TOPOLOGY.........................................................123

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 123
SITE TYPES .............................................................................................................. 124
TOPOLOGY DESIGN PROCESS ............................................................................. 127
CENTRALIZED TOPOLOGY..................................................................................... 129
DISTRIBUTED TOPOLOGY...................................................................................... 130
MIXED TOPOLOGY................................................................................................... 131
TRAFFIC ROUTING...........................................................................132
PLMN TO PSTN......................................................................................................... 132
PSTN TO PLMN......................................................................................................... 134
GSN ROUTING METHODS....................................................................................... 136
IP ROUTING .............................................................................................................. 136
CALCULATING TRAFFIC VOLUME .................................................147
OH FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES .....................................................150
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114 LZM 112 300 R4A

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
When planning the network architecture, it is important to take the
future expansion of the network into consideration, so that a stable
and preplanned development of the network architecture can be
achieved. Changing the network architecture is costly and the time
required for migration into a new architecture is considerable. It
requires a large number of intermediate reconfigurations and re-
dimensioning, if the network is large. The architecture planning
should, therefore, have a time horizon of approximately three to
five years and be co-ordinated with the general goals of the PLMN
operator’s business plan.
Some factors that influence the network architecture are:
• Number of MSCs
• Transmission costs
• Traffic distribution
• Traffic volume
• PSTN tariffs
• Availability requirements
The objective of the PLMN operator should be to reduce the

costs of network implementation, O&M, and leased lines costs
as far as possible, preserving flexibility of the network. If
transmission costs are high, more efforts can be spent on traffic
planning and management and vice versa. High transmission
costs will lead to requirements on trunking efficiency and, most
likely, more meshed regional and national backbone network
architectures will be beneficial.
Traffic distribution determines the traffic volume between the

MSCs implemented in the network and, consequently, the
dimensioning and costs of the backbone network, as well as, the
load on any transit exchanges in the network. A high proportion
of local traffic generally implies lower backbone network costs
and a lower load on transit exchanges.
PSTN tariffs have a large impact on the most economical way to

route traffic in the network. Generally, the PSTN tariffs may be
distant dependent or non distant dependent. In the first case, it is
most economical for the PLMN operator to drop the traffic to
the PSTN Point Of Interconnect (POI) close to the called party
(far-end drop). In the second case, traffic to the PSTN should be
dropped at the closest POI (near-end drop).
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Backbone networks should be designed with requirements on

reliable network operation. Generally, more than one routing
alternative should be defined. Over-dimensioning may be used
to reduce blocking at transmission failures, the degree of traffic
protection should be defined.
The network topology plan should present the nominal design of the
network, i.e. the functionality to be located at each site chosen, the
structure of the network, the approximate number of GSNs to be
located per site chosen and the type of connectivity between sites. This
design is termed “nominal”, as further design and dimensioning must
be carried out, and this would normally involve some alterations and
refinement to the Network Topology.
NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
The basic examples below show possible traffic network
configuration principles for small (1 - 4 MSCs), medium sized
(5 - 10 MSCs), and large (>10 MSCs) regional or national
networks.
For large metropolitan areas, possibilities of simplifying the

PLMN to PSTN interfaces using metro GMSCs are described
and a variant of a large regional or national network is also
presented. Finally, common use of transit exchanges for analog
and digital PLMNs are discussed.
SMALL NETWORK
The diagram below represents an example of a small network
with three GMSCs. A simple meshed network with trunks
connects the GMSCs. Each MSC is connected to the PSTN.
Two GMSCs are connected to networks other than the PSTN

since the traffic to these networks is assumed to be low. Two
interconnections are used to ensure the reliability of the
connection, but these are not mandatory. Other networks may be
the ISDN, if the ISDN service is not introduced into public
exchanges and international networks. They may also be
PLMNs owned by other operators, or dedicated data networks
as, for example, PSPDN networks.
116 LZM 112 300 R4A

G G
INT INT
Figure 3.1 Small Regional or National Traffic Network.
MEDIUM SIZED REGIONAL OR NATIONAL NETWORKS

In the medium sized network in the following diagram, two
MSCs have been chosen as combined MSC and transit exchange
with gateway functionality, TGMSC. The traffic between
GMSCs and between GMSCs and networks other than the
PSTN is routed over the two TGMSCs. The traffic between your
own PLMN and PSTN is routed directly to/from the GMSC or
via TGMSC.
Generally, direct routes are not implemented between GMSCs.

Only, if traffic is large, high usage routes with a traffic overflow
possibility over the TGMSCs (or low congestion direct routes)
are used. GMSCs located in the same city area or in neighboring
cities, are likely to be interconnected by high usage routes,
whereas it is more economical to route the traffic between
distant GMSCs over the TGMSCs.
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TGMSC TGMSC
G G G
Figure 3.2: Medium Sized Regional or National Traffic

Network.
LARGE REGIONAL OR NATIONAL NETWORKS

The diagram below shows the principles of large regional or
national networks. For such networks, it is often motivated to
have stand- alone transit exchanges on the upper level of the
PLMN network, since the traffic requiring transit routing
becomes large.
The traffic between GMSCs and between GMSCs and networks

other than the PSTN is routed over the two transit exchanges
similarly as in the smaller networks. As for medium sized
networks, high usage routes (with risk of traffic overflow over
the transits) between GMSCs are only implemented if the traffic
is sufficiently large.
P TG TG P
other other
G G G G
P P P P
City .....High usage trunk
Figure 3-3: Large Regional or National Traffic Network.
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LARGE METROPOLITAN AREAS using TGMSCs for incoming PSTN

TRAFFIC from PSTN
For a large metropolitan area where many MSCs are needed for
capacity or other reasons, a network structure, as shown in the
following diagram, is preferred. The benefit of the structure is
simplification of the PSTN trunk interface.
T T
P P P
Figure 3-4: Large Metropolitan Areas with Common Metro

GMSCs for Incoming PSTN Traffic.
In the considered structure, all MSCs have an interconnection

with the PSTN for outgoing calls.
Two TGMSCs handle all incoming calls from the PSTN

exchanges in the metro area. After regular HLR interrogation in
any of the two TGMSCs, the call is forwarded to the serving
MSC/VLR, if required. Therefore, the TGMSCs are connected
to all MSC/VLRs in the area.
The TGMSC may be any of the GMSCs having BSCs

connected. They should be chosen among the least loaded
GMSCs, if possible. GMSCs covering suburban parts of the
metro area and surrounding rural areas generally experience the
least load, and, furthermore, handover and roaming are less
frequent in these areas.
As the TGMSCs are located in the same metropolitan area, there

is practically no traffic between them so they need not be
directly interconnected.
The TGMSCs will experience additional load in comparison to

the GMSCs of the previously mentioned architectures, since
these handle HLR interrogation for all MSC/VLRs in the area.
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In large metro areas, it is, therefore, recommended to use a TG,

that is, an architecture with TGMSCs may evolve into a stand-
alone TG architecture during growth from a medium sized to a
large metro network.
BENEFITS OF USING TRANSIT EXCHANGES COMPARED TO A

MESHED NETWORK WITH DIRECT ROUTES
There are many benefits of using transit exchanges instead of
direct routes between all MSCs. Benefits that often become
more obvious the larger the network gets. The use of transit
exchanges implies a more stable network structure and some of
the most important benefits are:
• Increased flexibility
• Easily expandable network
• Platform for functional development
• Lower handling costs
• Improved signaling network
Increased flexibility
In a situation where it is difficult to forecast subscriber growth,
subscriber behavior, transmission costs and switching
equipment, it is important to build a network that is very
flexible.
Estimates of the total traffic from subscribers covered by an

MSC can often be made with relatively high accuracy. The
distribution of that traffic to other individual MSCs is, however,
much more difficult to predict. The use of transit exchanges
provides flexibility when the traffic distribution is difficult to
predict, since the transit routes will serve as a common resource
for all traffic cases from each MSC.
Easily expandable network

The work to introduce a new MSC is considerably reduced in a
transit network where the routing analysis for the inter-MSC
traffic is handled by the transits. It is then, no longer necessary
to change MSC Data Transcripts in each existing exchange.
Additional MSCs are simply connected to the two transit
exchanges and no changes need to be made in already installed
MSCs, with the exception of a few directly connected MSCs
using high usage trunks.
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Figure 3.5, below illustrates the difference between introducing

a new MSC into a network with transits and into a meshed
network. The advantages are, of course, even more obvious in a
larger network.
TRANSIT TRANSIT MS C MS C
MSC NEW M S C MS C NEW M S C
MSC MSC MS C MS C
: New links : New info. in existing exchange
Figure 3-5: Expansion of a Network with Transits versus a

Meshed Network.
Platform for functional development

A hierarchical network structure, for example, one with transits,
facilitates the introduction of a functionality common to the
whole network. Since all MSCs have connections to the transits,
a function implemented in the transit nodes can easily be
reached from all MSCs. This implies, for example, that the
introduction of Mobile IN services and the implementation of
Value Added Services can easily be accomplished, if integrated
in the transit nodes. A check that the processor capacity is
sufficient should be performed.
Lower TRAFFIC handling costs

Since using high capacity transits may reduce the total number
of direct connections, the administrative costs associated with
each logical traffic route for traffic measurement, the routing
analysis administration, and decisions about capacity extension
are reduced.
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COMMONALITY with signaling network ARCHITECTURE

If the STP functionality is integrated in the transit exchanges,
the combined transit/STPs can be used to build a simple and
reliable no.7 signaling network architecture. The signaling links
can be implemented in the same digital transmission systems
between the MSCs and transits that are used for voice traffic.
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GPRS NETWORK TOPOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The general topology for any GPRS network can be designed, and later
dimensioned, using individual components including GSNs, Routers,
FR Multiplexers, TDM Cross-connects, Ethernet Switches, Servers for
Management and GPRS Support Services (e.g. RADIUS, DNS, DHCP,
NTP), PoS Links, ATM Links, FR over E1 Links, etc. The combination
of components possible at any site in the network could vary greatly.
In order to simplify topology design, however, all sites can be classified

into a small number of generic Site Types, following the functional
requirements and the topological distribution. These Site Types can be
upgraded, or added to an existing network to meet changing traffic
requirements. Each Site Type can then have a generic (“off-the-shelf”)
configuration, designed using Ericsson best practice and experience.
GPRS topology design then consists of identifying the function of each

site required by the customer, selecting the Site Type, which achieves
this function, and connecting these sites according to standard
guidelines given. In some cases, especially in small networks, a single
Primary Site will be the starting point for a new GPRS network.
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SITE TYPES
The site types that make up a GPRS Network are described below:
Site Type Generic Function
Primary Site Core site with Services LAN

Type 1
Site with GSN functionality, IP core functionality, optionally ATM-Switching
functionality, frame relay switching and Services LAN including application
servers.
Services LAN combines application servers and GPRS services like NTP,
DNS, Billing Gateway, RADIUS, and Network Management.
Core Site with one or more GGSNs (or CGSNs) with normal IP Routers or
one Carrier-Class Router as core element. SGSNs may be co-located. The site
can contain ATM-Switches for Gn and Gb connectivity.
Primary Site Core Site without Services LAN

Type 2
Site with GSN functionality, IP core functionality, optionally ATM-Switching
functionality, frame relay switching, and Services LAN including application
servers.
Core Site with one or more GGSNs (or CGSNs) with normal IP Routers or
one Carrier-Class Router as core element. SGSNs may be co-located. The site
can contain ATM-Switches for Gn and Gb connectivity.
Secondary Access Site

Site
Site with GGSN functionality, no IP core elements, optionally ATM
switching functionality, frame relay switching
Access point for Corporate or ISP connections with GGSN functionality,

redundantly homed to two primary sites
Concentrator Concentrator site

Site
Site with no GSN functionality but BSC/PCUs located here, frame relay
access.
Concentrator site for BSC/PCU and corporate or ISP access with no core
functionality and no ATM switching capabilities. Concentrator sites are
connected to secondary or primary sites
Access point for indirect Corporate or ISP connections, redundantly homed to

two secondary or primary sites
Table 3.1 Overview of used site types
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In addition to these Site Types making up the core IP network, there

will be BSC/PCU Sites, some of them aggregating Frame Relay traffic
from other BSC/PCUs. These Gb Concentrator Sites could follow the
topology of an existing GSM network and can be easily be added to the
network and connected to any of the Site Types listed in the table
above.
For SGSN and GGSN sites, it is normal (for Ericsson GSM equipment)
that these are also BSC/PCU sites, i.e. Ericsson BSCs originally located
there, PCUs added, as well as GSNs.
Functional blocks may be added to the Site Types, e. g. to add Mobile

ISP functionality. Adding a Service LAN to a Primary Site Type 2
upgrades it to a Primary Site Type 2, for example.
The table below gives a set of criteria on which to select the Site Type
required at any location. Detailed guidance is given the section on
Topology Design Process.
Site Type Core Site NM & Gp GGSN SGSN Direct Gi Indirect

(Part of GPRS connection(s) corporate Gi
Core IP Services or ISP corporate
Network) LAN location or ISP
location
Primary Site Yes Yes Optional Yes Yes Yes Yes

Type 1
Primary Site Yes No Optional Yes Yes Yes Yes

Type 2 *
Secondary No No No Yes Optional Yes Yes

Site
Concentrator No No No No No No Yes
Site
Table 3.2 Comparison of site types
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Connecting the Site Types

The recommended options for connecting the Site Types in order to design the
GPRS Topology are summarized below:
• The Primary Sites form a Core Network with redundant

connections in a ring structure, partial, or full mesh
• All Secondary Sites connect to one or two Primary Sites
• All Concentrator Sites connect to one or two Primary or
Secondary Sites
Detailed guidance is given the section on Topology Design Process, below.
Inputs
The following inputs are required for the planning of the network topology:
• Forecast of Customer Services and Deployment,

• Existing GSM Infrastructure and Future Expansion
• Topology Preference – Number of Regions and any other
requirements stated on where SGSN or GGSN functionality
should be located, e.g. operator may have specified one of
the following:
- Totally Distributed (or decentralized) Topology, i.e. each given region has
its own SGSN and GGSN functionality
- Totally Centralized Topology, i.e. all SGSNs and GGSNs placed in one
central site and all other regions only have BSC/PCUs.
- Mixed Topology, i.e. some regions have only SGSN functionality, some
regions have both SGSN and GGSN functionality, some have only
BSC/PCUs
Separate designs for several scenarios with different topologies may be required.
Outputs
• Number of Regions,
• Number of Sites,
• Type of Site (Primary, Secondary, Concentrator),
• Hierarchy
• Connectivity between sites
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TOPOLOGY DESIGN PROCESS

1. Select Number of Regions – areas served by one or more SGSNs, probably
given, otherwise decide based on topology preference.
2. Decide location of GGSN functionality based on:

- External interfaces required per Region (Gi for external networks and
internal Mobile ISP).
-
3. Dimension number of SGSN, GGSN, CGSN required per Region if every region
were independent and decide between GSN options. For each region, decide on
use of integrated (S/GGSN) or separated SGSN and GGSN based on traffic
profile, unless already specified by operator. Hints: If external network
(corporate network or ISP) access point is found in the same routing area as its
customers then use integrated node. If external network access point is found in
same region (but not same RA) then one site may be appropriate, including a
number of SGSNs and GGSNs interconnected to one another. Where there are
large GPRS regions but the external network access point is far away, separate
SGSNs can be deployed in each of these regions, served by one or more GGSNs
centrally in the network. Here there is a trade off between the cost of the SGSN
and cost saving for transport due to efficient IP multiplexing (more efficient than
FR, for example).
-
4. List sites per region, including all BSC, MSC, etc., sites
5. Decide type of site for central site in region - based on:

- Total traffic for region
- Number of SGSN required per region
- Primary Site (Core Site) required per Region (one or more)
- Only one or two Primary Sites Type 1 are needed in the network
-
6. Decide Type of Site for other sites in region, Concentrator Sites, Gb
Concentrator Sites, BSC/PCU sites.
7. Decide Topology, following the Generic Scenario:

- Full or partial mesh, e.g. ring structure of Primary Sites to form the Core
Networks
- Double star topology with two Primary Sites (two central regional sites as
hub, all others as spokes)
- Consider reliability
-
8. Decide Gb (FR) or Gn (IP) connectivity between sites, based on the GSN
locations and the availability of ATM to transport IP and FR.
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9. Decide Layer 2 implementation for IP Backbone - choose between IP on PPP or

ATM based on operator preference expressed and size of planned network.
10.Consider the physical topology of other related networks – GSM nodes, SDH /
Leased Lines, ATM, FR or other data networks, Interconnect point to other
PLMNs. This helps to identify node co-location possibilities and to recommend
the location of GSNs.
11.Decide Gi connectivity, i.e. connect Corporate or ISP Location to a network Site,

based on:
Direct or indirect interface with these recommendations:
Direct for ISPs and large corporates
Indirect for ISPs and corporates. This is the recommended solution, as
additional routers provide a greater choice of interface types and
redundancy options.
Interface required per Direct Corporate or ISP. Current GSN nodes
support ATM or E1 interfaces for direct Gi. ATM is supported by GSN
1.0 on short reach (30 m) Multi-Mode Fiber. E1 may also be used but the
total of 8 E1 interfaces may not accommodate the required Gi capacity.
Location and type of Gi access routers and interfaces for indirect Gi
connections.
Location, i.e. connect to nearest Site that supports that interface
-
12.Decide Gp connectivity, i.e.
- Location of BG functionality, in GGSNs or in separate BGP routers. The
higher the traffic and number of connections, the more appropriate the use
of a separate router. Even with lower traffic, a separate router is
recommended for ease of use and full benefit from BGP complexity,
including routing policy.
- Number of BGs – two should be used for redundancy
- Type of connection – Direct PLMN-to-PLMN connection (Layer 1, 2 or 3)
or Indirect connection through GPRS Roaming Network (GRN). The GRN
is an inter-PLMN backbone network that consist of interconnected GRX
nodes and connections between PLMNs and GRXs.
- The GRX topology and BGP peering is similar to a normal Internet
Exchange Point (IEX). The GRX is the serving point of GPRS Roaming
Network. It provides for routing, interconnecting and some additional
services, such as DNS.
- Location of BG Routers – Locate in Primary Sites depending on existing
interconnect points to other PLMNs or GRX location.
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CENTRALIZED TOPOLOGY
In the Centralized Topology, the FR network will constitute the
major part of the network, with the IP backbone for Gn
interfaces internal to the central site (probably Ethernet based).
A number of frame relay switches or multiplexers will be placed
in each region and connected to two or more centralized FR
hubs, co-located with the GSNs and feeding E1s into them. The
interfaces between regional FR device and the hubs can be E3 or
STM1 (ATM).
The FR network from the regions to the central hubs can use a
double star (or dual-homed) architecture. It should include
resilience by having two diverse links to each of the central hubs
(see figure below). These links can be protected in the transport
(ATM or SDH) level.
Using ATM for the FR Network facilitates easy service

provisioning of FR PVCs using soft ATM PVCs. Load
distribution and Resilience is also achieved through the dynamic
routing and re-routing capabilities of PNNI (Private Network-
Network Interface).
A centralized topology is a good way to start GPRS services in

an existing network, since investments have to be made
primarily in one Site. By adding site modules (Primary Sites
Type 1 or Secondary Sites), the network can evolve to a
distributed or mixed topology.
Primary Site Type 1 BSC / PCU
GPRS Network
FR
Services LAN
FR network to
FR External
other BSC/PCU CGSN Networks
sites
e.g. ISP,
Corporate
FR
R
Gb FR on E1s CGSN
The FR
FR
backbone
network R
Indirect Gi
FR
CGSN DirectGi Various WAN
links as
required.
Gb FR on E1s R Gi Forwarder for the
Ethernet indirect Gi
Figure 3-6: Centralized Topology
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DISTRIBUTED TOPOLOGY
The FR interface will only be used in the regions (to the SGSN
in the same region). The IP backbone will form the major part of
the network and will be described below in Gn section.
This network topology describes a regionally distributed

network, and would be a good solution, if the operator already
operates an IP backbone and has an advanced datacom
infrastructure.
External Networks
e.g. ISP, Corporate
Primary Site Type 2 Primary Site Type 2 Primary Site Type 2

AR
CGSN CGSN
CGSN CGSN
CGSN CGSN
CS CS
CS CS CS CS
Backbone Network
GPRS Network GPRS Network

Services LAN Services LAN
CS CS CS CS
CGSN
CGSN CGSN CGSN
Primary Site Type 1 AR AR Primary Site Type 1

CS Core Switch (ATM
of IP with FR
functionality for Gb
External Networks FR Gb External Networks
e.g. ISP, Corporate e.g. ISP, Corporate
AR Gi Access Router for indirect Gi Ethernet
or ATM
BSC/PCU IP or ATM connection
Figure 3-7: Distributed Topology
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MIXED TOPOLOGY
The FR interface will only be used in the regions (to the nearest
SGSN, which may be in the same region or another region).
For all topologies, if BSC / PCUs are co-located with the SGSN
and sufficient E1 interfaces are available on the SGSN to handle
the Gb capacity (without any reduction due to multiplexing)
then FR multiplexers may not be justified. If the number of E1s
is small, even if they are not co-located then the cost of the
equipment vs. the cost of extra transmission saved should be
considered carefully.
Most networks will end up in this kind of a mixed topology,

scaled to the needed size by adding other site modules.
Secondary Site
Secondary Site
Secondary Site
CGSN
CGSN CGSN
GPRS Network
Services LAN
GPRS Network
Services LAN CS CS CS CS
CGSN CGSN CGSN CGSN CGSN CGSN
BSC / PCU
AR AR
Primary Site Type 1 Primary Site Type 1
Ethernet
External Networks External Networks
FR Gb e.g. ISP, Corporate e.g. ISP, Corporate
BSC / PCU
AR Gi Acess Router for

indirect Gi
CS Core Switch (ATM or IP)
Figure 3-8: Mixed Topology
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TRAFFIC ROUTING
We will consider two MSCs, which we assume to be located in
two different cities A and B, see below.
Figure 3-9: Two MSC and the PSTN Exchanges

Connected to These.
The two MSCs handle the radio network in cities A and B,

respectively, and these have BSCs and BTSs connected. PLMN
internal direct trunks also connect the MSCs. To handle the
traffic to/from the PSTN, the MSCs are connected to Point Of
Interconnect (POI) in the PSTN.
PLMN TO PSTN
Often, the PSTN operator requires the PLMN operator to
implement a PSTN network routing analysis in the MSCs and to
direct the traffic to specific PSTN exchanges within a city area,
as previously mentioned.
The PLMN operator may want to improve the service quality of

traffic to the PSTN by routing the traffic to switches closer to
the destination of the PSTN call. This may be desired if
blocking in the PSTN between transits and local exchanges in
the PSTN is high.
132 LZM 112 300 R4A

Long distance traffic

For outgoing traffic to the rest of the country there are two
cases, alt 1 and alt 2, to be considered depending on the tariff
paid by the PLMN operator for carrying traffic in the PSTN
long distance network, see below.
Alternative 1.
Flat rate is applied, which means that the cost of carrying traffic
in the PSTN is distance independent. The traffic should,
therefore, be dropped to the closest possible PSTN transit
exchange. This is called near-end drop.
Alternative 2.
A long distance tariff is paid by the PLMN operator, being

substantially higher than the local tariff. In this case, it is usually
more economical for the PLMN operator to carry traffic as far
as possible within the PLMN.
The Alt 2 routing is also applied if there is an agreement

between the PLMN and PSTN operator, that both should carry
the traffic as far as possible using their own network resources.
When traffic has reached the far end MSC, it is routed to the
PSTN. This routing principle is called far-end drop.
TE TE
Near end drop Far end drop
Figure 3-10: Routing of Long Distance Traffic to the

PSTN.
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PSTN TO PLMN
The most frequent way of routing mobile terminated traffic from
PSTN subscribers is illustrated in the figure below. In this case,
the PSTN operator drops the traffic from PSTN subscribers at
the closest possible GMSC. One reason for this routing principle
is that the MS's MSC/VLR is unknown to the PSTN exchange.
When the call has been handed over to the PLMN, the most
common PLMN/PSTN operator-to-operator agreement is that
the call should be kept within the PLMN, if the call is
terminated in the PLMN. If the call is redirected to a PSTN
subscriber using a PLMN redirection service, a call transfer
back to the PSTN is allowed.
Figure 3-11: Traffic Routing of Incoming Traffic from the

PSTN. Routing to the closest GMSC.
In some countries, there exist agreements between PLMN and

PSTN operators, that both should route the traffic as far as
possible within their own networks. For the PLMN operator,
this implies that outgoing traffic to the PSTN is routed
according to the Far End Drop principle.
For traffic incoming from the PSTN to the PLMN, a problem

arises in the PSTN, since the PSTN exchanges do not have an
HLR interrogation possibility and, thus, cannot know the current
location of the MS.
134 LZM 112 300 R4A

The principle used is that PLMN subscribers are assigned

MSISDN numbers indicating a geographical region to which
they are assumed to belong. The PSTN operator will then route
the call to a GMSC in the geographical area corresponding to
the MSISDN number, regardless of the current location of the
MS.
This routing principle causes inefficient routing of traffic if the

MS is roaming in a foreign region. Traffic routing in the long
run becomes more and more inefficient, unless subscribers are
forced to change MSISDN numbers when changing home
addresses.
Drop Back Routing

A solution to the problem described in the paragraph above, is
to use drop-back routing, see below.
Figure 3-12: Drop-Back Routing
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GSN ROUTING METHODS

An Ericsson GPRS Support Node (GSN) contains IP routing
functionality. It supports both static routing and the following routing
protocols:
RIP
OSPF
BGP
These protocols will be explained in the next section on IP routing
IP ROUTING
One of the basic functions of IP is its ability to form connections
between different physical networks. This is due to the
flexibility of IP to use almost any physical network below it.
Routing is the act of moving information across an Internet from
the source to a destination. Routers interconnect the various
network segments making up the Internet. A router receives an
IP packet on one of its interfaces, and forwards the packet out
on another of its interfaces (or possibly more than one if the
packet is a multicast packet), in accordance with the contents of
the IP header. Routing from the source IP address to the
destination IP address is performed by the IP forwarder. The IP
forwarder performs this function by extracting the destination IP
address from the IP packet and comparing it to entries in a list of
IP addresses, each with an affixed path. The path is primarily an
identification of the correct router’s physical port to send the IP
packet. The list of IP addresses used by the IP forwarder is
contained in the route table (RT).
IP Routing
Source Intermediate Destination
router router router
Internet Internet
Link Link
Physical Physical
Figure 3-13: IP Forwarder Architecture
136 LZM 112 300 R4A

Destination Route Mask Next Hop Port Metric Type Source

0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 129.192.64.28 J4.1 0 DIR Static
129.192.16.0 255.255.0.0 129.192.16.3 J3 2 REM RIP
129.192.17.0 255.255.0.0 129.192.16.6 J4.2 3 REM OSPF
129.192.18.0 255.255.0.0 129.192.18.3 J3 2 REM BGP
129.192.64.0 255.255.0.0 129.192.40.3 J4.3 2 REM BGP
172.20.1.3 255.255.255.255 129.192.40.3 J4.3 2 DIR LOC
Figure 3-14: Sample IP Route Table (RT)
There are two types of routing, which are:
Static routing
Routing table entries can be configured manually by a network

operator. Changes to routes must be configured manually when
static routing is being used. This is suitable for small (not many
hops), and stable networks. But, this is not suitable for networks
with large numbers of routes or networks that change often.
What happens if a link goes down? Routers must be
reconfigured manually.
Dynamic routing
Dynamic routing adjusts in real time to network changes by

analyzing routing update messages. Dynamic routing is a
mechanism for routers to automatically learn the network
topology. Routers automatically decide the optimal routing
paths and notify other routers of topology changes (new links,
links going down, etc). The network administrator can still have
final control over route selection. The mechanisms used for
dynamic routing are called routing protocols.
Routing Protocols
There are two kinds of routing protocol, Interior Routing

Protocols, and Exterior Routing Protocols. An autonomous
system (AS) is defined as a logical portion of larger IP networks
that are administered by a single authority. The AS would
LZM 112 300 R4A –137

–
normally comprise the internetwork within an organisation, and

would be designated as such to allow communication over
public IP networks with ASs belonging to other organisations.
Interior routing protocols allow routers to exchange information
within an AS. Exterior routing protocols allow the exchange of
information between separately administered ASs. Examples of
interior routing protocols include Routing Information Protocol
(RIP) and Open Short Path First (OSPF). An example of an
exterior routing protocol is Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
Dynamic Routing
Interior Exterior
Vector Distance Link State

BGP EGP
(RIP) (OSPF)
Figure 3-15: Dynamic Routing Categories
138 LZM 112 300 R4A

Internet
BGP
area-2
OSPF
area-0
area-1
RIP area-3
OSPF
area-0
Figure 3-16: Scope of Dynamic Routing Protocols
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
RIP is an interior routing protocol. It is a distance vector routing

protocol suitable for small networks. The principle behind
distance vector routing is very simple. Each router in an
internetwork maintains the distance from itself to every known
destination in a distance vector table. Distance vector tables
consist of a series of destinations (vectors) and costs (distances)
to reach them and define the lowest costs to destinations at the
time of transmission. The distances in the tables are computed
from information provided by neighbour routers. Each router
transmits its own distance vector table across the shared
network. The sequence of operations for doing this is as follows:
Each router is configured with an identifier and a cost for each

of its network links. The cost is normally fixed at 1, reflecting a
single hop, but can reflect some other measurement taken for the
link such as the traffic, speed, etc.
LZM 112 300 R4A –139

–
Each router initializes with a distance vector table containing

zero for itself, one for directly attached networks, and infinity
for every other destination.
Each router periodically (typically every 30 seconds) transmits

its distance vector table to each of its neighbours. It can also
transmit the table when a link first comes up or when the table
changes.
Each router saves the most recent table it receives from each
neighbour and uses the information to calculate its own distance
vector table.
The total cost to each destination is calculated by adding the

cost reported to it in a neighbours distance vector table to the
cost of the link to that neighbour.
The distance vector table (the routing table) for the router is then
created by taking the lowest cost calculated for each destination.
The distance vector algorithm produces a stable routing table after a

period directly related to the number of routers across the network. This
period is referred to as the convergence time and represents the time it
takes for distance vector information to traverse the network. In a large
internetwork, this time may become too long to be useful. Routing
tables are recalculated if a changed distance vector table is received
from a neighbour, or if the state of a link to a neighbour changes. If a
network link goes down, the distance vector tables that have been
received over it are discarded and the routing table is recalculated. The
chief advantage of distance vector is that it is very easy to implement.
There are also the following significant disadvantages:
• The limit to the size of an internetwork imposed by

maximum hop counts.
• The fact that distance vector tables are always transmitted
even if their contents have not changed.
There are two versions of RIP. Version 1 (RIP-1) is a widely

deployed protocol with a number of known limitations. Version
2 (RIP-2) is an enhanced version designed to alleviate the
limitations of RIP while being highly compatible with it.
RIP packets are transmitted onto a network in User Datagram

Protocol (UDP) datagrams, which in turn are carried in IP
datagrams. RIP sends and receives datagrams using UDP port
520. RIP datagrams have a maximum size of 512 octets and
tables larger than this must be sent in multiple UDP datagrams.
140 LZM 112 300 R4A

RIP RIP
Port 520 Port 520
UDP UDP
Protocol 17 Protocol 17
IP IP
Figure 3-17: RIP Architecture
RIP data grams are normally broadcast onto LANs using the LAN
MAC all-stations broadcast address and the IP network or subnetwork
broadcast address. They are specifically addressed on point-to-point and
multi-access non-broadcast networks, using the destination router IP
address. Routers normally run RIP in active mode; that is, advertising
their own distance vector tables and updating them based on
advertisements from neighbours. Endnodes, if they run RIP, normally
operate in passive (or silent) mode; that is, updating their distance
vector tables on the basis of advertisements from neighbours, but not in
turn advertising them. RIP specifies two packet types: request and
response. A request packet is sent by routers to ask neighbours to send
part of their distance vector table (if the packet contains destinations),
or all their table (if no destinations have been specified). A response
packet is sent by routers to advertise their distance vector table in the
following circumstances:
• Every 30 seconds
• In response to a request packet
• When distance vector tables change (if triggered updates
are supported)
LZM 112 300 R4A –141

–
LAN or WAN neighbors
route table
route table
update update update
update update update
30 180 seconds
seconds (maximum)
(minimum) >180, set inactive
120 seconds
(delay) purge from RT
Figure 3-18: RIP Operation
Active and passive systems listen for all response packets and update
their distance vector tables accordingly. A route to a destination,
computed from a neighbours distance vector table, is kept until an
alternate is found with lower cost, or it is not re-advertised in six
consecutive RIP responses. In this case the route is timed out and
deleted. When RIP is used with IP, the address family identifier is 2 and
the address fields are 4 octets. To reduce problems of counting to
infinity the maximum metric is 16 (unreachable) and directly connected
networks are defined as having a metric of one. RIP makes no provision
for passing subnet masks with its distance vector tables. A router
receiving a RIP response must already have subnet mask information to
allow it to interpret the network identifier and host identifier portions of
the IP address correctly. In the absence of subnet mask information a
router will interpret routes as best as it can. If it knows an IP network
has a specific subnet mask, it will interpret all other route information
for that network on the basis of that single mask. If it receives a packet
with bits set in the field that it regards as the host field, it will interpret
it as a route to a host with a mask of 255.255.255.255. The above
makes it impossible for RIP to be used in an internetwork with variable
length subnet masks.
142 LZM 112 300 R4A

RIP-2 extends RIP-1. It is less powerful than other recent interior

gateway protocols such as OSPF, but it has the advantages of easy
implementation and lower overheads. The intention of RIP-2 is to
provide a straightforward replacement for RIP-1 that can be used on
small to medium-sized networks and can interoperate with RIP-1. RIP-
2 takes advantage of the fact that half of the bytes in a RIP-1 message
are reserved (must be zero) and that the original RIP-1 specification
was well designed with enhancements in mind, particularly in the use of
the version field. One notable area where this is not the case is in the
interpretation of the metric field. RIP-1 specifies it as being a value
between 0 and 16 stored in a four- byte field. For compatibility, RIP-2
preserves this definition, meaning that it agrees with RIP-1 that 16 is to
be interpreted as infinity, and wastes most of this field
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF OSPF
IP IP
Link and Physical Layers
Figure 3-19: OSPF Architecture
OSPF is an interior routing protocol. It is a link state routing protocol.

The principle behind link state routing is straightforward, although its
implementation can be complex:
• Routers are responsible for contacting neighbours and

learning their identities.
• Routers construct link state packets which contain lists of
network links and their associated costs.
• Link state packets are transmitted to all routers in a
network.
LZM 112 300 R4A –143

–
• All routers therefore have an identical list of links in a

network, and can construct identical topology maps.
• The maps are used to compute the best routes to all
destinations.
Routers contact neighbours by sending hello packets on their network
interfaces. Hello packets are sent directly to neighbours on point-to-
point links and non-broadcast networks. On LANs, hello packets are
sent to a predefined group or multicast IP address that can be received
by all routers. Neighbours who receive hellos from a router should reply
with hello packets that include the identity of that originating router.
Once neighbours have been contacted in this way, link state information
can be exchanged. Link state information is sent in the form of link
state packets (LSPs), also known as link state advertisements. LSPs
provide the database from which network topology maps can be
calculated at each router. LSPs are normally sent only under the
following specific circumstances:
• When a router discovers a new neighbour

• When a link to a neighbour goes down
• When the cost of a link changes
• Basic refresh packets are sent every 30 minutes
LSD
LSD LSD
identical
LSD
Figure 3-20: OSPF Link State Database
144 LZM 112 300 R4A

Once a router has generated an LSP it is critical that it is received

successfully by all other routers in a network. If this does not happen,
routers on the network will calculate network topology based on
incorrect link state information. Distribution of LSPs would normally
be on the basis of each router's routing tables. However, this leads to a
chicken and egg situation. Routing tables would rely on LSPs for their
creation and LSPs would rely on routing tables for their distribution. A
simple scheme called flooding overcomes this, and ensures that LSPs
are successfully distributed to all routers in a network. Flooding
requires that a router that receives an LSP transmits it to all neighbours
except the one from which it was received. All LSPs must be explicitly
acknowledged to ensure successful delivery and they are sequenced and
time stamped to ensure duplicates are not received and retransmitted.
When a router receives an LSP it looks in its database to check the
sequence number of the last LSP from the originator. If the sequence
number is the same as, or earlier than, the sequence number of the LSP
in its database, then the LSP is discarded. Otherwise the LSP is added
to the database. The flooding process ensures that all routers in a
network have the same link state information. All routers are then able
to compute the same shortest path tree topology map for the network,
and hence select best routes to all destinations.
OSPF is important because it has a number of features not found in

other interior gateway protocols. Support for these additional features
makes OSPF the preferred choice for new IP internetwork
implementations especially in large networks. The following features
are covered within OSPF:
• Provides load balancing

• Allows site partitioning into subsets by using areas
• Information exchange between routers requires
authentication
• Support for host-specific routes as well as network-
specific routes
• Reduces table maintenance overhead to a minimum by
implementing a designated router
• Allows definition of virtual links to provide support to a
non-contiguous area
• Allows the usage of variable length subnet masks
• Will import RIP and Exterior Routing Protocol routes into
its database
LZM 112 300 R4A –145

–
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP-4)
BGP BGP
Port 179 Port 179
TCP TCP
IP IP
Figure 3-21: BGP Architecture
The Border Gateway Protocol is an exterior routing protocol used to

exchange network reachability information among ASs. BGP-4 was
introduced in the Internet in the loop-free exchange of routing
information between autonomous systems. Based on Classless Inter-
Domain Routing (CIDR), BGP has since evolved to support the
aggregation and reduction of routing information. In essence, CIDR is a
strategy designed to address the following problems:
• Exhaustion of Class B address space

• Routing table growth
CIDR eliminates the concept of address classes and provides a method

for summarizing n different routes into single routes. This significantly
reduces the amount of routing information that BGP routers must store
and exchange.
146 LZM 112 300 R4A

CALCULATING TRAFFIC VOLUME
Traffic Theory
Circuit Switched traffic is measured in a unit of traffic flow termed

Erlang (E) and traffic intensity is defined as the product of the number
of calls per unit time and the mean holding time for the calls:
A = y. s Erlang
y = no. of calls per unit time

s = Mean Holding Time
As a simple illustration, we can use the PSTN as an example.

In a local exchange, the total number of calls during one hour was 1800.
The mean holding time was 3 minutes, therefore the traffic intensity
was:
A=1800.3/60 = 90 Erlangs.
The mean holding time is the average holding time for call attempts. It
can be calculated from the percentage of answered calls multiplied by
the holding time for answered calls plus the percentage of unanswered
calls multiplied by their holding time.
Grade of Service
The probability of blocking (congestion), here referred to as P, should

be less than a specified value. For example:
GoS criteria: P < 1%
By using the Erlang table the required number of devices can be

determined once the GoS and the offered traffic is known. For
Example:
Offered traffic = 4.5 E

P = 1%
Therefore: Number of devices = 11
Busy hour
By monitoring daily and weekly variations in traffic intensity, the busy

hour traffic may be determined. This is a continuous one hour period
during which traffic in a part of the network is at its most intensive.
This may occur at different times of the day, depending on which
category of subscribers is dominant. The busy hour peak traffic is a
mean value, measured over several days. The aim is to calculate for
minimal congestion, while obtaining full utilisation of the network.
LZM 112 300 R4A –147

–
Packet switched traffic is usually measured in Mbits/s or Kpackets/s.

Average packet size is usually 300 bytes. Below is an example of
converting from Kpackets/s to Mbits/s.
Assume packet data rate of 4 Kpackets/s

300 bytes in a packet therefore
4 Kpackets/s = 300*4 = 1200 Kbytes/s
8 bits in a byte therefore
1200 Kbytes/s = 8*1200 = 9600 Kbits/s
1000 Kbits in a Mbit therefore
9600 Kbits/s = 9600/1000 = 9.6 Mbits/s
PDP context
A GPRS MS is assigned one or more IP addresses. A PDP context is a

context in the MS, SGSN and GGSN containing parameters associated
with a packet data flow. Parameters contained in the context are for
instance PDP address, PDP Type, Access Point Name and QoS profile.
A PDP context is connected to a Mobility Management Context and is
identified by the IMSI and a PDP context index on the control plane.
Circuit Switched versus Packet Switched Traffic
BHCA vs. PDP context activation

Erlang vs. Mbits per second
VLR subscribers vs. Simultaneous Attached Users
Blocking vs. Delays
GoS vs. QoS
Traffic measurement
Traffic volume will be calculated using fictional data from a fictional

operator. The distribution of the traffic will be covered in more detail in
the exercises relating to this chapter
Etson Mobile is a GSM opertator. They are expecting to have about

250,000 GSM subscribers at the end of 2002. Below is a table listing
the number of subscribers and the circuit traffic per subscriber in each
of three cities.
148 LZM 112 300 R4A

City No of subs Traffic per sub

Johnstown 100 000 20mE
Duncree 87 500 25mE
Albertstown 62 500 20mE
Total 250 000
Table 3.3 The total circuit traffic can be calculated as follows:
(100 000 * 20) + (87 500 * 25) + (62 500 * 20) = 5,437,500 mE
It is important to remember that the way this traffic is split up is

important in planning the network and that this will be covered fully in
the accompanying exercises.
An initial stock of around 10% of the 250,000 subscribers is expected to

sign up for GPRS.
GPRS SAU: 25 000
GPRS data rate: 0.2 Kbps/subscriber
The total packet traffic can be calculated as follows:
25,000 * 0.2 = 5,000 Kbps.
LZM 112 300 R4A –149

–
OH FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES

This section aims to describe the extra overhead capacity needed for the
different protocols used on the different GSN interfaces.
All added overhead is stated in bytes and the resulting “Total overhead” is
stated as a percentage of the mean packet size of 300 bytes.
Formula: Of used protocols/Mean packet size = Overhead of total packet

in %
The IPSec column in the tables below are based on the outer IPSec Header
for Transport mode, if Tunneling is used an additional 20 bytes have to be
added.
Gb Interface OverHead calculations
The Gb Interface can be implemented as:

FR over point-point
FR over Ethernet
FR over ATM
Gb Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Mean Total

OH OH OH OH OH OH OH Packet OH
Size
FR over BSSGP NS FR
point-point 42.5 4 6 300 18%
FR over BSSGP NS FR Ethernet
Ethernet 42.5 4 6 18 300 24%
FR over BSSGP NS FR ATM*
ATM 42.5 4 6 30 300 28%
* 30 equals 6 ATM-cells with 48 bytes each and 5 bytes header (10% OH)
NS = Network Service Protocol
Table 3.4
The Gb interface is compliant with the relevant standards in order to

facilitate interoperability with third party BSS and MSCs.
The Gb Interface protocol stack

BSSGP is responsible for flow control between BSC and SGSN
NS level is multi-link protocol for load distribution and redundancy
Link level is Frame Relay (FR)
Physical level is E1 (T1), channelised or fractional
For FR the Ericsson GSN product supports DL-Core over PVCs and has
the ability to run FR either as DTE (towards a FR network) or DCE for
point-to-point connections in the case where there is no FR network.
150 LZM 112 300 R4A

Gn Interface OverHead calculations
The Gn Interface can be implemented as:

IP over point-point
IP over FR
IP over Ethernet
IP over ATM
Gn Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Mean Total

Size
IP over GTP UDP/TCP IP PPP Ipsec* 17%/
point-point 16 8/20 20 8 20 300 21%
IP GTP UDP/TCP IP FR Ipsec* 17%/
FR 16 8/20 20 6 20 300 21%
IP Ethernet GTP UDP/TCP IP Ethernet Ipsec* 21%/
16 8/20 20 18 20 300 25%
IP GTP UDP/TCP IP ATM AAL5 Ipsec* 27%/
ATM 16 8/20 20 30 8 20 300 31%
* Optional overhead. Not included in total overhead calculation.
Table 3.5
The Gn Interface Protocol Stack
GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol) tunnels user data and signalling between
GSNs in the GPRS backbone network. GTP encapsulates all point-to-
point (PPP) Packet Data Protocol Packet Data Units (PDUs). GTP
provides mechanisms for flow control between GSNs if required.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) carries PDUs for protocols that do not
need a reliable link. IP (Internet Protocol) is the GPRS backbone protocol
used for routing user data and signalling.
Gi Interface OverHead calculations
The Gi Interface can be implemented as:

IP over point-point
IP over FR
IP over Ethernet
IP over ATM
Gi Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Mean Total

Size
IP over PPP Ipsec*
point-point 8 20 300 3%
IP FR Ipsec*
FR 6 20 300 2%
IP Ethernet Ethernet Ipsec*
18 20 300 6%
IP ATM AAL5 Ipsec*
ATM 30 8 20 300 13%
* Optional overhead. Not included in total overhead calculation.
Table 3.6
LZM 112 300 R4A –151

–
The Gi interface is the connection from the GGSN towards the external
networks e.g. ISP or corporate LANs. The choice of interface is with the
operator but ATM or Ethernet are recommended.
Gp Interface OverHead calculations
The Gp Interface can be implemented as:

IP over point-point
IP over FR
IP over Ethernet
IP over ATM
Gp Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol Mean Total

Size
IP over GTP UDP/TCP IP PPP Ipsec* 24%/
point-point 16 8/20 20 8 20 300 28%
IP GTP UDP/TCP IP FR Ipsec* 23%/
FR 16 8/20 20 6 20 300 27%
IP Ethernet GTP UDP/TCP IP Ethernet Ipsec* 27%/
16 8/20 20 18 20 300 31%
IP GTP UDP/TCP IP ATM AAL5 Ipsec* 31%/
ATM 16 8/20 20 30 8 20 300 35%
Table 3.7
The Gp traffic comes from each SGSN and GGSN. It is carried to the BGs
(Border Gateways). Traffic over the Gp is in two parts: traffic generated
by other PLMN customers roaming in your network and traffic generated
by your customers roaming in other PLMNs. These are calculated
separately and summed.
Capacity calculation from each SGSN and GGSN to BGs, the overhead is
similar to the Gn case above. The network capacity is dimensioned for full
redundancy.
OverHead calculations - Example
User data load (including user IP header) = 2000 kbits/s
Transport mechanisms:
Gb: FR over ATM
Gn: GTP(UDP)-IP over PPP
Gi: IP over ATM
The links should be dimensioned for:

Gb: 2000 * 1.28 = 2560 kbits/s
Gn: 2000 * 1.17 = 2340 kbits/s
Gi: 2000 * 1.10 = 2200 kbits/s
152 LZM 112 300 R4A

Trafffic and Routing: Objectives

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TRAFFFIC AND ROUTING

This chapter is designed to provide the student with a basic

• Explain the alternative network solutions for the CS and PS

2 LZM 112 300 R4A

3 TRAFFIC AND ROUTING

GPRS NETWORK TOPOLOGY.........................................................123

CALCULATING TRAFFIC VOLUME .................................................147

OH FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES .....................................................150

LZM 112 300 R4A –113

114 LZM 112 300 R4A

Some factors that influence the network architecture are:

The objective of the PLMN operator should be to reduce the

Traffic distribution determines the traffic volume between the

PSTN tariffs have a large impact on the most economical way to

LZM 112 300 R4A –115

Backbone networks should be designed with requirements on

For large metropolitan areas, possibilities of simplifying the

Two GMSCs are connected to networks other than the PSTN

116 LZM 112 300 R4A

Figure 3.1 Small Regional or National Traffic Network.

MEDIUM SIZED REGIONAL OR NATIONAL NETWORKS

Generally, direct routes are not implemented between GMSCs.

LZM 112 300 R4A –117

Figure 3.2: Medium Sized Regional or National Traffic

LARGE REGIONAL OR NATIONAL NETWORKS

The traffic between GMSCs and between GMSCs and networks

City .....High usage trunk

Figure 3-3: Large Regional or National Traffic Network.

118 LZM 112 300 R4A

LARGE METROPOLITAN AREAS using TGMSCs for incoming PSTN

Figure 3-4: Large Metropolitan Areas with Common Metro

In the considered structure, all MSCs have an interconnection

Two TGMSCs handle all incoming calls from the PSTN

The TGMSC may be any of the GMSCs having BSCs

As the TGMSCs are located in the same metropolitan area, there

The TGMSCs will experience additional load in comparison to

LZM 112 300 R4A –119

In large metro areas, it is, therefore, recommended to use a TG,

BENEFITS OF USING TRANSIT EXCHANGES COMPARED TO A

Estimates of the total traffic from subscribers covered by an

Easily expandable network

120 LZM 112 300 R4A

Figure 3.5, below illustrates the difference between introducing

MSC NEW M S C MS C NEW M S C

: New links : New info. in existing exchange

Figure 3-5: Expansion of a Network with Transits versus a

Platform for functional development

Lower TRAFFIC handling costs

LZM 112 300 R4A –121

COMMONALITY with signaling network ARCHITECTURE

122 LZM 112 300 R4A

GPRS NETWORK TOPOLOGY

In order to simplify topology design, however, all sites can be classified

GPRS topology design then consists of identifying the function of each

LZM 112 300 R4A –123

Site Type Generic Function

Primary Site Core site with Services LAN

Primary Site Core Site without Services LAN

Secondary Access Site

Access point for Corporate or ISP connections with GGSN functionality,

Concentrator Concentrator site

Access point for indirect Corporate or ISP connections, redundantly homed to

Table 3.1 Overview of used site types