Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

PRELIMINARY : Course overview: the VMGO, QP, Core values, grading system,
and classroom Rules: attendance and assignments.
WEEK : 1st Week (Sept 14-18, 2020)

INSTRUCTION
ASSESSMENT TASK
RESOURCES NEEDED
:
Dear students kindly memorize and reflect the ASSCAT,
VMGO &QP & Core values.
: Recitation and Quiz
:

Factsheets /brochure/leaflet /module, Electronic devices (laptop/computer, mobile,

internet connectivity, projector, load, etc.)

VALUES INTEGRATION :

Patriotism, Patience, Gratefulness and Honesty

REFERENCES:
1. ASSCAT student’s manual
2. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/key-messages-and-actions-for-covid-
19-prevention-and-control-in-schools-march-2020.pdf?sfvrsn=baf81d52_4
3. Abellanosa, A.L. and H.M. Pava (1987). Introduction to Crop Science.
4. Abbas, A. (2011). Introduction to Agriculture
5.. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia and the Pacific/Philippines-
Agriculture
6. Resources Units in Animal Science.2nd Edition. (1984). Central Mindanao University,
Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon
7. Shekara, P.C. et al. (2016). Farmers handbook on Basic Agriculture. Desai Fruits &
Vegetables Pvt. Ltd. Navsari, Gujarat, India
8.. Introduction to Agriculture. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282905517_ Introduction to Agriculture (accessed
Aug.01, 2018)

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

TOPICS :

ASSCAT Vision, Mission and Goals

Vision
ASSCAT as the premier agro-industrial Higher Education Institution in CARAGA
Region capable of producing morally upright, competent and globally competitive human
resource capable to effectively undertake and implement sustainable development.

Mission
ASSCAT shall primarily provide higher professional, technical and special
instructions for special purposes and to promote research and extension services, advanced
studies and progressive leadership in agriculture, education, forestry, fishery, engineering,
arts and sciences and other relevant fields.

Goals
A. Develop and offer curricular programs that are relevant and relevant and responsive to
the peculiar needs and urgencies of the region;
B. Generate, develop and transfer appropriate technologies to address the needs of the
agro-industrial sector in the service area;
C. Develop disciplined, responsible and well-trained students to become effective citizens
in the community and ready to face the challenge in the highly competitive world of
works;
D. Have a pool of service and person-oriented professional workforce who are
educationally and technologically prepared well equipped to effect desired and
necessary changes to the service area and among the clientele;
E. Acquire state-of-the-art facilities and equipment to be attuned to the trend of the
changing times;
F. Build, construct, improve and upgrade appropriate physical facilities in harmony with
the ecosystem to attain harmonious co-existence of man and nature;
G. Adopt and institutionalized efficient, effective and judicious utilization of resources to
maximize, strengthen and sustain development and fiscal security and autonomy and;
H. Expand networking and linkages locally, nationally and globally.

Quality Policy

Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology’s vision to be a premier
agro-industrial Higher Education Institution in Caraga Region is fostered by the following
principles:

*sustaining quality education experience and community engagement;

*encouraging optimum resource management;
*developing an environment that is conducive for intellectual and personal growth
and
*generating relevant knowledge through innovative thinking.

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

To continually improve our Quality Management System, we commit to comply with

all applicable requirements and provide service excellence in our four fold functions.

Core Values of ASSCAT

A- Assertive
S-Service oriented
S-Spiritually motivated
C-Compassionate
A-Accountable|
T-Timely

Grading System

Criterion Reference : Semestral Grade:

Students Output 60% Middle Term 40%
Term Exam 40% Final Term 60%
TOTAL 100% TOTAL 100%

Students report/output on PHT 1 will be based on the following criteria (60%):

Punctuali Content Materials
ty Used/Provid
ed
Week before 5 Relevance of 5 Best 5
deadline Informations exceeds
than expected w/
reference
Week within 4 Information just as 4 Better 4
deadline expected
On the day of 3 Lacking of relevant 3 Good 3
deadline information given
Days/week after 2 Misleading 2 Needs 2
deadline information improveme
nt
For compliance 1 1 1
***Note: submit report in the form of electronic copy (PDS or Power Point or Word)

Covid- 19 and its precautionary safety measures

What is COVID-19
COVID-19 is a disease caused by a new strain of coronavirus. ‘CO’ stands for corona, ‘VI’
for virus, and ‘D’ for disease. Formerly, this disease was referred to as ‘2019 novel coronavirus’

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

or ‘2019-nCoV.’ The COVID-19 virus is a new virus linked to the same family of viruses as Severe
Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and some types of common cold.
Symptoms can include fever, cough and shortness of breath. In more severe cases,
infection can cause pneumonia or breathing difficulties. More rarely, the disease can be fatal.
These symptoms are similar to the flu (influenza) or the common cold, which are a lot more
common than COVID-19. This is why testing is required to confirm if someone has COVID-19.
The virus is transmitted through direct contact with respiratory droplets of an infected
person (generated through coughing and sneezing). Individuals can also be infected from and
touching surfaces contaminated with the virus and touching their face (e.g., eyes, nose, and mouth).
The COVID-19 virus may survive on surfaces for several hours, but simple disinfectants can kill
it.
We are learning more about how COVID-19 affects people every day.  Older people, and
people with chronic medical conditions, such as diabetes and heart disease, appear to be more at
risk of developing severe symptoms.  As this is a new virus, we are still learning about how it
affects children. We know it is possible for people of any age to be infected with the virus, but so
far there are relatively few cases of COVID-19 reported among children. This is a new virus and
we need to learn more about how it affects children. The virus can be fatal in rare cases, so far
mainly among older people with pre-existing medical conditions.

Recommended precautionary safety measures:

1. Frequent hand washing
2. Covering ones mouth when coughing
3. Maintaining social distance
4. Wearing a face mask & face shield when in a public setting
5. Monitoring and self- isolation for people who suspect they are
infected
6. Staying home when sick
7. Covering mouth and nose with flexed elbow or tissue when coughing or sneezing.
8. Dispose of used tissue immediately;

ACTIVITIES/ASSIGNMENTS
Assignment 1:
1.What is the global trends on agricultural production and consumption; and in the Philippines scenario?
(Import and export crops in the Phil, (30)
2. Determine the contribution of Agriculture sector in gross domestic product (20)
3.What are the banner programs of the agriculture (20 ) and its laws to strengthen agriculture (50 refer pg
6)
4. Determine the factors that causes low yield (30)
5. What are the techniques in increasing productivity or How the government address these problems (30
6. What is biotechnology and differentiate traditional and modern biotechnology (30)
7.References (5)
Deadline 4th week of class schedule Total Score = 215

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

Assignment 2:
1.Illustrate the anatomical region of plant cell, label the part and describe briefly the functions (90)
2. What are the type of plant tissue and its function? (20)
3. Illustrate the stem modification and give examples each? (15)
4.What are the anatomical parts of the leaf and its function (15)
5. Illustrate the parts of the male and female flower, label its function and describe briefly.(15)
6. What are the parts of the seed and its function (10)
7. Compare gymnosperm and angiosperm. (10) (Matrix)
8. Differentiate between dicot and monocot and give 3 example each (40 matrix)
9. Differentiate between variety and cultivar. (10)
10. Differentiate germination and dormancy (10)
11. Illustrate and discuss the difference between meiosis and mitosis. (30 points)
12. What is totipotency and give example. (5)
13. Differentiate between seed and spore (5)
14. What is the importance of aerobic respiration in the plants (5)
15. Compare the Physical and Chemical properties of the Soil? (15 Points)
16. References (5)
Deadline __6th week of class schedule Total Score = 165

Assignment 3:
1. Illustrate Animal Cell, Label the part and describe briefly the functions (100)
2. Differentiate cell, tissues, organs and system and give example each (110)
3. What is the difference between plant and animal cell (30)?
4. Determine the major nutrients needed by the animal and poultry (50)
5. What are the sources of the nutrients? (30)
6. Describe the following: feeds, forage and pasture, crumble, mash and pellets (30)
7. Reference (5)
Deadline: 10th week Total Score = 355

Activity no.4
1. List 12 terminologies on different sexes on the kinds of animal (example: term called for female goat
and male goat, its meat, offspring, pregnancy, delivery of its offspring in matrix form) (36 points)
2. What are the common guide in animal production based on the Good Agriculture Practices (GAP)?
(50points)

3. What are the common guide in poultry production based on the GAP (50)?

4. Reference (4points)

Deadline : 14th week Total Score: 140

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 Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

Module 1
BACKGROUND/OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURE

discuss briefly: 1. The Global trends on agricultural production and consumption and Phil setting: import
and export products and its contribution to GDP. Explain what Gross Domestic Product.

Top 10 export products. (2018)

1.Electrical machinery, equipment: US$32.9 billion (48.7% of total exports)

2.Machinery including computers: $9.6 billion (14.3%
3.Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $2.2 billion (3.3%)
4.Fruits, nuts: $2.1 billion (3.1%)
5.Gems, precious metals: $1.5 billion (2.2%)
6.Copper: $1.4 billion (2.1%)
7.Ores, slag, ash: $1.2 billion (1.8%)
8. Ships, boats: $1.2 billion (1.8%)
9.Animal/vegetable fats, oils, waxes: $1.2 billion (1.7%)
10.Mineral fuels including oil: $1.1 billion (1.7%)
Top 10 Imports
1. Electrical machinery, equipment: US$28.3 billion (24.6% of total imports)
2. Mineral fuels including oil: $13.9 billion (12.1%)
3. Machinery including computers: $12.8 billion (11.1%)
4. Vehicles: $8.6 billion (7.5%)
5. Iron, steel: $5.2 billion (4.5%)
6. Plastics, plastic articles: $3.8 billion (3.3%)
7. Aircraft, spacecraft: $3.3 billion (2.8%)
8. Cereals: $2.7 billion (2.3%)
9. Articles of iron or steel: $2 billion (1.7%)
10. Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $2 billion (1.7%)

1.1 History of World Agriculture

Period/Age Development/Advancement Resources Issues
1.Pre historic Hunter-gatherers of food to feed Abundant-cultivated Control of growing
the population first the crops plants and discovery
that some plants
possess seeds that
could produce new
plants, some plants
grown in specific
location.
Milking, meat & fur 2nd Livestock
2. Early Resonance in agricultural science Workforce
civilization and technology-invention of
irrigation Egypt-Nile river Inundation

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

Development of Complex societies- laws

agriculture drives civilization-
(human development)
Agriculture tech as an industry( Sustain the city’s
commercial/ economic activity population
concerned with the processing of
raw materials)
European colonizers-agriculture America static
based economy agriculture/not
Meso/native America-Corn universal throughout
South America- potato the tribe
3. Modern 18th century-British Agricultural (Several advances Massive increase in
/industrial revolution and changes in a yield and more efficient
Agriculture/Fa Depends heavily on engineering short space of time)- process
rming and technology, biological and Technology- Crop Surplus of livestock’s
physical sciences rotation system,
cross breeding
Produce food as much as possible (creating several
at the lowest cost cultivars.
Hydroponics,
packing and
processing and
marketing of
products
Intensive tillage,
monoculture, use of
synthetic fertilizers,
chemical pest
control, genetic
manipulation (GMO)
Charles Darwin’s theory of Military powers( war
Evolution-put agriculture on the
modern path of science as we
understand the development of
crops

Green Revolution-Norman
Borlaug-
4. Ecological Sustainability 20th century Conflicting needs to
Age To produce economically viable, protect the environment
nutritious food without damaging for the growing future
natural resources ( farmland & population growth.
watershed)
Healthy environment, economic Environmental issues
profitability and social-economic on
equity. Global Warming:
Person involved in the food system (Natural greenhouse-
( growers, food processors more heat escapes into
,distributors, retailers ,consumers space and less re
and waste managers can play a role emitted heat

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

in ensuring a sustainable Human enhance

agricultural system greenhouse effect less
heat escapes and more
re emitted heat)

depletion of aquifers,
deforestation, antibiotic
resistance, and growth
hormones in industrial
meat production.

The Phil Agriculture

The aboriginal people in the Philippines
1. Negritos- from Central Asia were wanderers from place to place,
2. Indonesians-from Southeastern Asia- start of Philippine Agriculture
Introduced 2 methods: kaingin and regular tillage (use of wooden plows and horrows drawn by
carabao), irrigation was used in some region as evidenced by the famous ifugao rice terraces.)
@ 4 sub sectors- Crops, fisheries, livestock and forestry
@ Main Agricultural Crops- are rice, corn, coconut, sugarcane, bananas, pineapple, coffee, mangoes,
tobacco, and abaca.
@ Secondary crops -peanut, cassava, camote, garlic, onion, cabbage, eggplant, calamansi rubber, and
cotton.

@ Major export products are coconut, pineapple and abaca bananas, and prawns, tuna, seaweed, and
carrageenan

1.2. Banner Programs of Philippine Agriculture

-Rice, Corn, High Value Crops, Fisheries, Livestock and Organic Agriculture, Post-Harvest Support,
Research, Training and Extension Services and Marketing Assistance.

1.3 Describe each Phil. Laws for the development of Agriculture Sector
RA 8435 RA 10601 RA 7607 RA 5185 EO 128 1968, EO 116 1987; EO 292
RA 10068 RA 10848 RA 10816 CARP 6657 RA 3844
RA 10611 RA 10915 RA 8175

1.4 Definition of agriculture

Agri is latin word ager- mean field and culture latin word is cultura- mean cultivation/growing
- all the products and services associated with the utilization of soils for the efficient growing of crops and
the rearing of animals for human and animals’ consumption (to produce food, fiber, fuel, medicines, and
raw materials).

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

Abiotic- non-living, not associated with life.

Annual crop- a plant which germinates, matures and dies all in the span of one year
Apical dominance-the suppression of the development or lateral buds by high concentration of auxin in
the shoot apex
Apical meristem-a meristem at the tip of the root or stem.
Asexual Propagation-used in reference to reproduction of plants by any method in which sexual
fertilization is absent.
ATP-Adenosinetriphosphate, a high energy organic phosphate of great importance in energy transfer in
cellular reactions.
Biennial-plants of two years duration
Biotic –relating to life or with life
Broadcast-to sow or scatter seed or fertilizer on the surface of the land by hand
Canopy-the spreading branchy portion of a plant;the roof-like structure of plants.
Component crop-the crops involved in a cropping pattern or any crop production strategy.
Cover crop-a plant grown to reduce soil erosion
Crop production-the cultivation of crops that are utilized by man for any purpose,the management of
useful crops
Cultivar-A cultivated variety within plant species that differs in some respect from the rest of the species.
Imperfect flower-flower lacking either the stamen or pistil
Lodging-plants bend at or near the soil surface and lie more or less flat on the ground
Mulching-the application of materials like straw for the purpose of reducing evaporation of moisture,
runoff, or preventing weed growth
Perennial crop-a plant that grows more or less indefinitely from year to year and may produce seed more
than once.
Thinning-the removal of extra plants
1.5 AREAS OR BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
Agronomy -Horticulture-Agricultural Bio-engineering, -Animal Science, Agricultural Economics
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

1.5 Factors that cause low yield in the Philippines

1.6 Techniques to increase yield/production
1.7 Importance of agriculture
- it provides us with a reliable source of food, clothing and shelter
-Produces goods and services which maintains life.
-Source of Livelihood
-Contribution to National Economy
-Supply of food and Fodder
-Source of raw materials
-Foreign Exchange Resources
-Great Employment Opportunities

Sphere/Scope of Agriculture
1.Geoponic
2. Hydroponic
3. Aeroponic

MODULE II
CROP SYSTEM (Week 6-9)
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS
Terms: 1. Cultivar-cultivated variety
2. Family-is usually the highest taxon commonly included in plant identification or study
3. Variety-a group of individual (plants) within a species that differ from the rest of species.
4. Plant Taxonomy- a science that includes classification, nomenclature and identification of plant

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

Purpose of classification: bases for discussion and identification.

3 ways for classification: 1. Botanical 2. Agricultural (upon utilization) 3. Descriptive
1. Botanical Classification-plants are named in 3 ways
1. Common name-usually English name
2. Local name-varies from place to place
3. Scientific name-follows the binomial system of nomenclature (genus and species)

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME

Palay Oryza Sativa Linn Palay/Paddy
Mais Zea mays L. Corn/Maize
Niyog Cocos nucifera L. Coconut
Tubo Saccharun officinarum L. Sugarcane
Saging Musa sapientum var. Banana
Pinya Ananas comosus L. Pineapple
Kape Coffea sp. Coffee
Mangga Mangifer indica L. Mango
Tabako Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco
Abaka Musa textiles Nee Abaca
Mani Archis hypogea Linn. Peanut
Mongo Vigna radiata L. Mungbean
Kamoteng kahoy Manihot esculenta Crantz. Cassava
Kamote Ipomoea batatas Lam Sweet Potato
Kamatis Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Tomato
Bawang Allium sativum Linn. Garlic
Sibuyas Allium cepa Linn. Onion bulb
Repolyo Brassica oleracea L. (Capitata grp) Cabbage
Talong Solanum melongena Linn. Eggplant
Kalamansi Citrus madurensis Lour. Calamansi
Goma Hevea brasilliasis Mull. Ara Rubber

2.2 Grouping of plants. In modern classification, the plants are grouped from the largest to the smallest.
Kingdom and proceeds to division, subdivision, class subclass, order, family, genus and species.

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

A. Agricultural (upon utilization)

2.1. Agronomic Classification
a.Cereals or grain crops
b.Legume seed crops
c. Root and tuber crops
d.Sugar Crops
e.Oil and beverage crop
f.Fiber crop
g.Rubber crop
h.Pasture and Forage Crops
i. Medicinal Plant
2.2 Horticultural Crops
a.Vegetable crops-edible groups: tree fruits,nuts,small fruits
b. Fruit Crop-vegetable and herbs
c. Ornamental crops
d.Weeds- are classified into grasses, sedges and broadlea
B. Descriptive Classification
1. Growth habits
a. Annuals- single growing season
-perpetuated by seed
- include major crops in the worlds – all grains and many legumes.
b.Biennials
c.Perennials
2. Structure and Form
a.Herbaceous- soft and succulent
b.Woody- develop secondary tissues,building materials
c.Vines- trailing or climbing plants

2.3 Concept of growth Week 5-6 and Quiz #3)

Growth-is an irreversible increase in size including length and volume - the increase in SIZE is
accompanied by the increase in dry weight and a change in form and shape.
Development-refers to the change in size, shape, form degree of differentiation and state of complexity.

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

2.3.1 Phases of growth- growth of plants follow theSsigmoid pattern

1. lag phase 4 3
2. Exponential Phase/Log (total growth) 5
3. Declining Phase
4. Steady Phase 2
5. Senescence
1

Lag phase-period in which internal changes occur preparatory to growth (early vegetative growth). initial
growth from germination.
Log phase-the ever increasing rate of growth (middle and last stage of vegetative growth) it is the grand
period of growth.
Declining phase-onset of flowering when the plants have fully developed the number of leaves, size of
leaves, increase in growth due to the flower formation is offset by leaf abscission.
Steady state-a point at which pods or grains are being filled up and ripening starts until maturity and
growth ceases.
Senescence-death of organisms sets in.
2.3.2 Factors affecting Growth and Development
A. Genetic factor (gene- gene is the unit of inheritance located in the chromosomes which is composed
of coded information in the form of DNA –deoxyribonucleic acid
B. Environmental factor (Biotic- e.g. man, soil micro, animals, ,weeds, plant diseases; Topographic,
Climate ,Soil Factor , Light intensity, available water, day length, humidity, temperature,
chemicals, fertilizer nutrients).
B.1 Light- Plants with high percentage of light utilization (Eu) has a high efficiency of converting
light into dry matter. Maximum use of intercepted sunlight can be possibly only with proper
cultural and management practices.
Examples: proper spacing, balance fertilization, proper control of pest and diseases, proper weed
control, multiple cropping and varieties with high efficiency of light utilization (upright leaves)
can poduce high dry matter (DM) even under a low light intensity. (e.g. varieties with upright
leaves, high harvest index.
B.2 Temperature-determines the diffusion rates of gasses and liquids in plant system. As
temperature decreases, the viscosity of water increases, hence the rate of absorption slows down.
-Solubility of various substances is temperature dependent.CO2 is twice as soluble in cold water
as it is in warm. The inverse is true for most solids like sugar.It is much more soluble in warm
than in cold water.
-temperature affects the stability of enzyme systems-at optimal temperature, enzyme systems
function well and remain stable for long period of time. At Colder temp,enzyme remain stable
but are non-functional. At high temperature, they completely breakdown.
B.3 Atmospheric gases as part of the environment Oxygen is required for respiration of all living
organism.CO2 along with water obtained through the roots from the soil constitute the major
chemical building blocks use in Ps and plant growth. Nitrogen (N2) is inert and exert a little

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

influence upon plant growth not until it is converted to NH4 or NO3 forms in the soil or not until
these chemicals form of N2 are added to the soil as fertilizers.
B.4 Soil Factors-major source of minerals and water used by the plants.

2.4. Plant Cell, structure and form as assignment (Week 6)

2.4.1. Plant Cell ( discuss the assignment)
2.4.2. Plant Structure and Form
organelles cell tissues organs systems organism(plant)
A cell contains the different organelles, and a group of cell composed the tissues, and the tissues
formed the organs, group of organs comprise the system and the system will make up the organism.

The Plant Body

Divided into 2: below ground (which is the root, tubers & rhizomes) and
above ground parts (which is the shoot)
1. Root System-composed of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and non-vascular tissue ( pericycle
cortex which is between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder)
Functions: a. anchorage and support in the soil
b. absorption of plant nutrients and water
c. Plant propagules for some crops
d. Nitrogen fixation for leguminous nodulating plants in association with bacteria.
e. Storage of water and carbohydrates (cassava and sweet potato)
f.) Soil conservation-roots prevent soil erosion to some extent

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

2 types of root system

1.Fibrous root-e.g monocot roots such as grasses. No central primary root, composed of
numerous roots that are of similar sizes
2.Tap root-composed of one central primary root and several branches, usually has deep
penetration in the soil,(dicot roots)
2. The Shoot System-with phototropic response
3 main parts
a. Stem b. leaf c. reproductive structure
a.) Stem function as support of the leaves, connects the leaves and the roots, provides storage and as plant
propagule
b) The leaf- the most important food manufacturing
Functions: .as the principal photosynthetic organs of higher plants
b.Absorbing organ for chemical and micronutrients(ectodermata)
c.Transpiration organ to regulate plant body water through the stomata.
d. As storage organ for specialized leaf
e. as plant propagule
f. As ornamental

Anatomical view of leaf

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

2.5. Reproductive system

Flower-is a reproductive structure of a plant.
1. Receptacle is the enlarged based of a flower where the floral organs are arrange such as the
petals, sepals and stamens.
2. Petals collectively called corolla are highly colored part of a flower
3. Sepals collectively called calyx are the green leaf-like structures enclosing the flower at bud
stage.
4. Carpels (Pistil) collectively called gynecium consist of ovary-contains the ovules which will
become the seeds, stigma0where pollen lands and grow and style –connects the ovary and stigma,
this may be absent- female flower
5. Stamen collectively called androecium consists of anther-contains the pollen and filament-
stalk of the anther. (male flower)
C.2. Fruits-fruits are formed as a result of fertilization of the egg cell. Some fruits develop even
without fertilization like banana, pineapple, seedless grapes (parthenocarpic fruits), fruit also refer
to the mature ovary.
C.3. Seed-a miniature plant in an arrested stage of development. It is a mature ovule. Food stored
in seeds is present as carbohydrates, fats and protein

Plant Reproduction/propagation
-Refers to the art, science and business of increasing or multiplying the number of plants, each specie or
variety for the economic uses of man. It is also involving the development of new individual plants.
-Plant propagation is the process of growing new plants from a variety of sources: seeds, cuttings, and
other plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the artificial or natural dispersal of plants.

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2 Methods of Plant Propagation

1. Sexual method-Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (through e.g. sowing). Seeds are typically
produced from sexual reproduction within a species, because genetic recombination has occurred.
A plant grown from seeds may have different characteristics from its parents.
Sexual reproduction-involves the union of male and female gametes through meiosis. (meiosis is
the reduction division process undertaken by the microspore in the anther and the megaspore
mother cells in the ovary). Upon fertilization (union of sperm and egg) a diploid zygote is formed
which becomes the embryo or the new plant.
2. Asexual method-this involves the multiplication of plants using vegetative parts like stems, leaves, roots,
etc hence called vegetative method. This method does not involve union of sexual gametes thus
termed asexual method. This is a true to type or exactly the same as the parent.
2.5.1 Methods of asexual propagation
1. by Cuttings- a method by which a piece of vegetative tissues like leaf and stem or root is place under a
favourable media and environmental conditions is induced to regenerated the missing parts and
continue to develop as a self-sustaining plant.
2. Grafting- the art of joining two plant parts together in such a manner that these plant will continue to
grow as one plant. These graft –parts are the stock, the one which provides the root system, and the
scion which give rise to upper portion of the graft union.
3. Approach Grafting-the method of uniting two plants together while still growing on their own roots,
independently. Seedlings are brought from an established plant that will provide the scion from the
graft.
4. Budding- a specialized form of grafting similar to grafting but utilizes a bud instead of a scion or shoot
5. Marcotting-is a method of inducing the stem to form roots while still growing on the parent plant. When
the process is done above the ground it is termed marcotting or air layering but if below the ground
the method is called layering.
6. Micro-propagation-is a method of mass reproduction of plants utilizing a cell or small pieces of tissues
or organs using artificial media under aseptic conditions.
2.5.2 Comparison between sexual and asexual method of propagation.
Points of Comparison Methods of Plant propagation
Sexual Asexual
1. Plant material used seeds Vegetative
parts,shoots,leaves,roots
2. Cell division process involved meiosis mitosis
3. Plant size Grow tall with big canopy Short to medium height and
canopy
4. Earliness to bearing Late 5-10 yrs in fruit trees Early(3-5 yrs in fruit trees
5. Life span Longer shorter

Germination and Dormancy (10th week)

Germination- is the resumption of active growth by the embryo resulting in the rapture of the seed coat
and the emergence of a new seedling plant capable of independent existence.

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

Requirements for germination

1. The seed must be viable-the embryo must be alive and capable of germination
2. Internal conditions of the seed must be favoured for germination (that is a physical and
chemical barriers to germination must be disappeared)
Factors affecting seed germination
External Factors
3.Water-helps by providing necessary hydration for the vital activities of protoplasm, provides
dissolved oxygen for the growing embryo, softens the seed coats, increases the seed permeability,
helps in the rupturing of a seed, and also converts the insoluble food into soluble form for its
translocation to the embryo
4. Oxygen-It is an important and essential source of energy required for a seed growth. It is
required by the germinating seed for the metabolism and is used as a part of aerobic respiration
until it manages to grow green leaves of its own. Oxygen can be found in the pores of sand
particles, but if the seed is buried too deep it will be deprived of this oxygen.
Germinating seeds respire vigorously and release the energy required for their growth. Therefore
deficiency of oxygen affects the seed germination
5. Temperature-For a seed to germinate, it requires a moderate temperature of around 25-30°C.
Quite obviously different seeds require different optimum temperatures. There are some seeds
which require special requirements either lower or higher temperature between 5 to 40°C. This
affects growth rate as well as metabolism of the seed.
6. Light or darkness: This can act as an environmental trigger. Many seeds refuse to germinate
until sunlight falls on them
Internal Factors
Seed dormancy: This is a condition in which the seeds are prevented from germinating even
under favorable conditions .
The main reason behind this conditions is that they require a period of rest before being capable
of germination. This conditions may vary from days to months and even years. These conditions
are the combination of light, water, heat, gases, seed coats and hormone structures
Process of Seed Germination
(1) Imbibition (2) Respiration (3) Effect of Light on Seed Germination (4) Mobilization of Reserves
during Seed Germination and Role of Growth Regulators and (5) Development of Embryo Axis into
Seedling.
(i) Imbibition:
The first step in the seed germination is imbibition i.e. absorption of water by the dry seed. Imbibition
results in swelling of the seed as the cellular constituents get rehydrated. The swelling takes place with a
great force. It ruptures the seed coats and enables the radicle to come out in the form of primary root

Imbibition is accomplished due to the rehydration of structural and storage macromolecules, chiefly the
cell wall and storage polysaccharides and proteins. Many seeds contain additional polysaccharides, not
commonly found in vegetative tissues. Seeds packed dry in a bottle can crack it as they imbibe water and
become swollen.

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(ii) Respiration:
Imbibition of water causes the resumption of metabolic activity in the rehydrated seed. Initially their
respiration may be anaerobic (due to the energy provided by glycolysis) but it soon becomes aerobic as
oxygen begins entering the seed. The seeds of water plants, as also rice, can germinate under water by
utilizing dissolved oxygen.

The seeds of plants adapted to life on land cannot germinate under water as they require more oxygen.
Such seeds obtain the oxygen from the air contained in the soil. It is for this reason that most seeds are
sown in the loose soil near the surface. Ploughing and hoeing aerate the soil and facilitate seed
germination. Thus the seeds planted deeper in the soil in water-logged soils often fail to germinate due to
insufficient oxygen.

(iii) Effect of Light on Seed Germination:

Plants vary greatly in response to light with respect to seed germination. The seeds which respond to light
for their germination are named as photoblastic. Three categories of photoblastic seeds are recognized:
Positive photoblastic, negative photoblastic and non-photoblastic. Positive photoblastic seeds (lettuce,
tobacco, mistletoe, etc.) do not germinate in darkness but require exposure to sunlight (may be for a brief
period) for germination.

Negative photoblastic seeds (onion, lily, Amaranthus, Nigella, etc.) do not germinate if exposed to
sunlight. Non-photoblastic seeds germinate irrespective of the presence (exposure) or absence (non-
exposure) of light.

In these light sensitive seeds, the red region of the visible spectrum is most effective for germination. The
far-red region (the region immediately after the visible red region) reverses the effect of red light and
makes the seed dormant. The red and far-red sensitivity of the seeds is due to the presence of a blue-
coloured photoreceptor pigment, the phytochrome. It is a phycobiloprotein and is widely distributed in
plants.

Phytochrome is a regulatory pigment which controls many light-dependent development processes in

plants besides germination in light- sensitive seeds. These include photo-morphogenesis (light-regulated
developmental process) and flowering in a variety of plants.

Phytochrome and Reversible Red-Far-red Control of Germination:

The pigment phytochrome that absorbs light occurs in two inter-convertible forms Pr and Pfr. Pr is
metabolically inactive. It absorbs red light (660 nm.) and gets transformed into metabolically active Pfr
(Fig. 4.10). The latter promotes germination and other phytochrome-controlled processes in plants. Pfr
reverts back to Pr after absorbing far-red (730 nm.).

In darkness too, Pfr slowly changes to Pr. Owing to this oscillation of phytochrome between Pr and Pfr
status, the system has been named as “reversible red—far-red pigment system” or in brief phytochrome
system. Treatment with Red light (R) stimulates seed germination, whereas far-red light (FR) treatment,
on the contrary, has an inhibitory effect.

Let US examine seed germination in positive photoblastic seeds e.g. lettuce (Lactuca sativa). When brief
exposure of red (R, 660 nm.) and far-red (FR, 730, nm.) wave lengths of light are given to soaked seeds in
close succession, the nature of the light provided in the last exposure determines the response of seeds.
Exposure to red light (R) stimulates seed germination. If exposure to Red light (R) is followed by
exposure to far-red light (FR), the stimulatory effect of Red light (R) is annulled. This trick can be
repeated a number of times. What is crucial for seed germination is the quality of light to which the seeds

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are exposed last. This also indicates that responses induced by red light (R) are reversed by far-red light
(FR). Whole of this can be shown as given ahead:

Light requirement for seed germination may be replaced by hormones such as gibberellins or cytokinins.
Several development processes of plants controlled by phytochrome may be mimicked by appropriate
hormones given singly or in combination with other hormones at the correct time.

(iv) Mobilization of Reserves during Seed Germination and Role of Growth Regulators:
During germination the cells of the embryo resume metabolic activity and undergo division and
expansion. Stored starch, protein or fats need to be digested. These cellular conversions take place by
making use of energy provided by aerobic respiration.

Depending upon the nature of the seed, the food reserves may be stored chiefly in the endosperm (many
monocotyledons, cereal grains and castor) or in the cotyledons (many dicotyledons such as peas and
beans). Thorough investigations in the mobilisation of reserves from the endosperm to the embryo via a
shield-like cotyledon (scutellum) has been done in several cereal grains (Fig. 4.11).

The outer layer of special cells (aleurone layer) of endosperm produces and secretes hydrolyzing enzymes
(such as amylases, proteases). These enzymes cause digestion i.e. breakdown of the stored food such as
starch and proteins in the inner endosperm cells.

The insoluble food is rendered soluble and complex food is made simple. These simpler food solutions,
comprising of sugars and amino acids thus formed, are diluted by water and passed towards the growing
epicotyl, hypocotyl, radicle and plumule through the cotyledon.

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Gibberellic acid plays an important role in initiating the synthesis of hydrolyzing enzymes. Gibberellin,
therefore, promotes seed germination and early seedling growth. Assimilation of this food by the growing
organ induces growth and the seedling soon assumes its ultimate shape.

It is very significant to note that the dormancy inducing hormone, abscisic acid (ABA), prevents the
germination. The concentration of ABA has been shown to increase during the onset of dormancy of the
embryo during seed development in several kinds of seeds.

When young embryos of cotton are removed and grown in culture, they continue to grow without the
development of any dormancy. Dormancy in such cases can be induced by the addition of ABA at a
crucial stage of growth.

(v) Development of Embryo Axis into Seedling:

After the translocation of food and its subsequent assimilation, the cells of the embryo in the growing
regions become metabolically very active. The cells grow in size and begin divisions to form the seedling.

During seed dormancy,

1. The seed coat, which is resistant to water and gases, restrict water uptake and oxygen exchange.
2. The seeds with undeveloped or immature embryo do not germinate.
3. Certain seeds contain plant growth regulators which inhibit seed germination.
4. Some seeds require more time for their germination

Reasons or Causes of the Seed Dormancy

There are certain major causes for the seed dormancy. Listed below are the few reasons for the seed
dormancy.

• Light
• Temperature
• Hard Seed Coat

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• Period after ripening

• Germination inhibitors
• Immaturity of the seed embryo
• Impermeable seed coat to water
• Impermeable seed coat to oxygen
• Mechanically resistant seed coat
• Presence of high concentrate solutes

Types of Seed Dormancy

The seed dormancy is of following types:

Innate dormancy
It is the condition of seeds which is incapable of germination even if conditions suitable for seedling
growth are supplied. This inability to germinate may be due in certain species to the embryo being
immature at the time of dispersal.
Enforced dormancy
It is the condition of seeds which is incapable of germination due to an environmental restraint which
includes, an adequate amount of moisture, oxygen, light and a suitable temperature.

Induced dormancy
This type of seed dormancy occurs when the seed has imbibed water but has been placed under extremely
unfavorable conditions for germination. Finally, seed fails to germinate even under more favorable
conditions.

Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy

The different methods of breaking dormancy are mentioned below:
The natural breaking of Seed Dormancy
Nature of dormancy stops when the embryo gets appropriate environment such as adaptive moisture and
temperature. The seed coat that exists in many species becomes permeable due to the rupturing of
smoothing action of natural agents like microorganism, temperature, and abrasion by the digestive tract of
birds and animals that feed on these seeds.
Other natural methods include:

• Completion of the over-ripening period.

• Leaching of inhibitors present in the seed coat.
• Inactivation of inhibitors by the supply of cold, heat, and light.
• Leaching of the excess and highly concentrated solutes from the seeds.
• Production of growth hormones which can neutralize the effect of inhibitors.

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Artificial Overcoming of Seed Dormancy

Some of the artificial methods used for breaking seed dormancy are listed below:

• Action with hot water for termination of waxes, surface inhibitors, etc.
• Rupturing of seed coats by filing, chipping, or threshing through machines.
• Exposure to heat, cold or light, depending upon the type of seed dormancy.
• By applying Hydraulic pressure for 5 to 20 minutes in order to weaken the tough seed coats.
• Seed coats are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for removing all traces of the mineral
acid.

Treatment to break dormancy in seeds

There are separate treatments to overcome dormancy and they are further divided into following
groups:
Seed coat treatment
These treatments make a hard seed coat permeable to water or gases either by softening or cracking. This
process is called as scarification. The treatment can be either chemical or physical in nature.
Embryo treatments
Stratification: The incubation of seeds at an appropriate low temperature over a moist layer before
transferring to a temperature suitable for germination.
High-temperature treatment: Incubation at 40-50 °C for a few hours to a few days may have an effect
in overcoming dormancy in some species. For instance, rice seeds treated in hot water of 40°C for at least
4 hours.
Chemical treatments
Growth regulators or other chemicals can be used in induced germination growth regulators.
Importance of Seed Dormancy

1. It follows storage of seeds for later use by animals and man.

2. It helps in the dispersal of the seeds through the unfavorable environment.
3. Dormancy induced by the inhibitors present in the seed coats is highly useful to desert plants.
4. Allows the seeds to continue to be in suspended animation without any harm during cold or high
summer temperature and even under drought conditions.
5. Dormancy help seeds to remain alive in the soil for several years and provide a continuous source
of new plants even when all the mature plants of the area have died down due to natural disasters.

Dormancy of seeds is for a long time, which acts as a survival mechanism. Seed can adapt to the adverse
situations and resist inappropriate germination. But there is no uniform germination. Dormancy makes it
difficult to maintain plant population and interferes in seed testing procedure.

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Agric 1: Introduction to Agriculture

MODULE III
Basics of Soils

3.CONCEPT OF SOIL
Soil-a mixture of organic and inorganic materials which developed on the earth’s surface through
weathering process of rocks and minerals and whose properties are conditioned in various
degrees by the influence of climate, living organisms and topography acting on the parent
material over a period of time.
-serves as a medium of plant growth (physical support for anchorage of plant roots; water and
nutrietnt supplier)
3.1Different Components of soil-the proportion of the different components varies in properties among
soils.
A. Soil Solids
1. Mineral Matter, 45% - comes from the weathering of rocks and minerals
-composed of sand, silt, and clay particles which vary among soils,
-major source of all nutrient elements (except nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen)
needed for plant growth.
2.Organic Matter, 5%- derived from the decayed and decaying remains of plants and animals intimately
mixed with the mineral matter.
-the chief natural source of nitrogen; indicative of the nitrogen status of the soil.
- also contributes phosphorus,sulphur, and micronutrients but in smaller amounts
compared to mineral sources
-enables the soil to store cations
B. Pore Spaces
1. Air, 20-30%
-occupies the pore spaces of the soil
-composed largely of elemental nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20%, CO2 (0.5%), and traces
of other gases.
- provides oxygen for respiration of plant roots
-There must be enough aeration at the root zone for easy exchange of CO2 and O2
between soil pores and the aboveground atmosphere so that CO2, would not build up to
high levels which can be toxic to plant roots.
2. Water, 20-20%
-also occupies the pore spaces of the soil
-contains dissolved gases and salts or compounds as well as dissociated ions of various
nutrient elements

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-carries the nutrients to the proximity of roots where they can be absorbed.
-needed by the plant in large amount for their metabolic functions.
- The dissolved CO2 in soil water forms carbonic acid which is a solvent that can release
nutrients from minerals.
3.2 PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
1.Physical properties of the soil
Soil Texture
-The relative proportion of the various soil fractions, sand silt and clay
-A relatively stable property of the soil.
-Generally,coarse-textured soils are less fertile because they can contain many primary minerals
such as feldspars,quartz with low bases and do not release many nutrients important to
plants.They are also easily leached.
-Upland crops are more suitably grown in coarse to medium-textured soils, particularly the tuber
crops where the tubers can more easily develop.
-Fine to medium-textured soils are more suitable for growing paddy rice because water can be
impounded longer than in sandy soils.
Soil Structure
-refers to the clustering of the soil particles into characteristics aggregates of various sizes,shapes
and stability.
-An unstable property (the nature of SS does not depend on the relative proportion of sand silt
and clay because it deteriorates with poor soil and crop management.)
-Humus,decomposing organic matter, fungi ,oxides of iron and aluminium, etc. help binds
particles together or act as cementing agents
- The best soil structure for good plant growth is the granular specifically. Crumb structure
because it has good distribution of large and small pore.
Soil Pore Spaces
-fraction of the soil occupied by air and water
-The microspores (small-sized pores) are formed within the aggregate; they store water
-The macropores(large-sized pores_ are formed in between aggregates;they drain excess water,
provide aeration and root proliferation.
-As a medium for plant growth,a soil should have good proportion of the micropores and
macropores.
Bulk Density
-a measure of degree oc compaction of the soil and an indicator of porosity.
-the more compacted the soil, the greater is the bulk density value and the less porous it is.
-The coarser the soil texture, the higher the bulk density and vice versa

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-Higher OM, Lower BD

-If cultivation results in compaction, BD is higher.
-If cultivation results in loosening of soil, BD is lower
Particle Density
-mass (dry weight) per unit volume of soil excluding the pore spaces within that soil volume.
-Low PD may indicate soils have high OM
Porosity
-porosity signifies the extent of pore space expressed as percentage of the bulk volume of the soil.
-The higher the bulk density of the soil, the lower is its porosity.
Soil Color
-Dark colored soils are generally more fertile since the dark coloring is usually due to abundant
humus content or parent materials.
2.Chemical Properties of Soils
Chemical nature of soil constituents
Soil is considered to have 3 phases:
1. Solid: organic and inorganic materials; serves as a skeletal framework of soils
2. Liquid: the soil solution which carries the dissolved nutrients.
3. Gas: soil air, composed mainly of N2, O2 and CO2
Ion Exchange
-a reversible process by which ions are exchange between solid and liquid phases and between
solid phases if in close contact with each other;occurs due to the presence of electrical charges in the soil .
Types of Ion exchange
-Cation Exchange-the attraction of cations (positively charged ions) on the surface of colloids and
exchange for ions in the soil solution.
-Anion Exchange- the attraction of anions (negatively charges ions) on the surface of colloids and
exchange for ions in the soil solution.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
-the ability of the soil to absorb and exchange cations with those in the surrounding soil solution
as well as with the plant roots.
-the sum of all adsorbed cations per unit amount of soil.
-increases with increasing amount of clay and organic matter.
Soil pH and nutrient availability

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-The most favourable pH for growing most agricultural plants is between pH 6-7 because at the
availability of the nutrients and activities of beneficial microorganisms are at maximum at his
range.
-The range of pH in the Phil is pH 5.5 to 6.5.
-When pH is too low, nutrients particularly Ca, Mg, K, P, Mo , N become less available to plants.
-When pH is too high, (alkaline pH is 8), Most micronutrients (except Mo) become unavailable
at high pH
Sources of Acidity
-Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) diassociation.
-Organic Acids from OM decomposition
-Fulvic,humic and other inorganic acids are formed during organic matter decomposition.
-Mineral weathering
-Acid rain
-Heavy Cropping removes basic cations and replaced by H+ ions from roots
- Long term use of acidifying fertilizers
Sources of Alkalinity
-Carbonates (CO3-2) and bicarbonates (HCO3)
**** Note *******
-Increasing the pH (liming), any Ca 0r Mg bearing compound added to the soil to neutralize the
H+ ions
- Too much liming can be harmful with the reduced availability of Fe,Mn,Vu,Zn,P and B and
antagonism between Ca,K and Mg.
Example of lime: minerals calcite CaCO3 or dolomite CaMg(C03)2, burned lime.
-Lowering the pH (Acidification), more difficult than raising the pH,addition of large amounts of
OM into the soil,or by adding ferrous sulphate or sulphur mineral(to transform into sulphuric
acid).
Buffering Capcity
-the resistance of the soil to drastic changes in pH
-The higher the buffering capacity of the soil, the higher the amount of liming needed to
neutralize the acidity.
-the higher the CEC, the higher the buffering capacity.
-More lime is needed to raise the pH of acidic clay soils than acidic sandy soils.
3.4 SOIL ORGANISMS AND ORGANIC MATTER
Soil Organisms

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-The larger organism (insects, worms, moles, etc) prepare the organic materials for further
degradation by breaking them into smaller pieces.
-The smaller organisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, nematodes, protozoa) cause
biochemical changes in the organic materials.
Roles : - responsible for biochemical changes
-agents in the decomposition of plants and animals residues
Improve soil structure through aggregation
Organic Matter
-refers to the totality of all carbon-containing compounds in the soil derived from either plants or
animals.
-accumulation is affected by temperature, soil moisture, vegetation, soil texture, and cropping
system
-sandy soils accumulate less organic matter than clayey soils.
-More accumulation of organic matter in grassland than in forested land due to faster turnover of
vegetative matter and shorter life cycle of grass (annuals) than of trees (perennials).
-Organic matter declines when the soil is cultivated because of the enhanced oxidation and
microbials activity brought about by the loosening of the soil.
Effects of organic matter to soil properties:
Physical : enhances soil aggregation and aggregates stability.
-reduces plasticity, cohesion and stickiness of clayey soils.
-increases soil water retention, infiltration rate, water holding capacity and aeration.
-Darkens soil
-reduces bulk density and compaction
Chemical: increases CEC of soils
-increases soil buffering capacity
-increases nutrient availability through solubilisation of minerals by organic acids and by
chelation of metal ions.
-reduces Al toxicity by binding the Al ions in nontoxic complexes.
-increases soil nature supply of N,P,S, etc.
-adsorbs pollutants such Pb,Cd and Cu
- inactivates toxin and pesticides
Biological: provides C and energy to soil organisms and thus increases their diversity and activity-
enhances microbial functions such as N fixation, decomposition, and nutrient transformations

system

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MODULE IV
ANIMAL SYSTEM
4.Terminologies
4.1 Animal cell, tissues, organs and system
4.2. Common guide in animal and poultry production for food safety.
4.3 Major nutrients needed by the animal & poultry for growth.
*End of topics for final term
4. Terminologies

Refer to PDF Animal System

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