DME - 4 - Pressure Vessels

4
PRESSURE VESSELS
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction to Pressure
Vessels
4.2 General Materials for
Pressure Vessels
4.3 Classification of Pressure
Vessels
4.4 Stresses in a Thin Cylindrical
Shell Due to an Internal
Pressure
4.5 Thin Spherical Shells
Subjected to an Internal
Pressure
4.6 Thick Cylindrical Shells
Subjected to an Internal
Pressure
4.7 Autofrettage or Pre-stressing
4.8 Types of End Closures
4.9 Gaskets and Gasketed Joint
Examples
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.1
4. Pressure Vessels Design of Machine Elements (3171917)
4.1 Introduction to Pressure Vessels

 Vessels, tanks, and pipelines that carry, store, or receive fluids are called pressure
vessels.
 A pressure vessel is defined as a container with a pressure differential between
inside and outside. The inside pressure is usually higher than the outside, except for
some isolated situations.
Fig 4.1 Typical Components of Pressure Vessels

 The fluid inside the vessel may change state as in the case of steam boilers or may
combine with other reagents as in the case of a chemical reactor.
 Pressure vessels often have a combination of high pressures together with high
temperatures and in some cases flammable fluids or highly radioactive materials.
Because of such hazards, the design must be such that no leakage can occur.
 In addition, these vessels have to be designed carefully to cope with the operating
temperature and pressure.
 It should be borne in mind that the rupture of a pressure vessel has the potential to
cause extensive physical injury and property damage. Plant safety and integrity are
of fundamental concern in pressure vessel design.
4.1.1 Applications of Pressure Vessels
 Industrial compressed air receivers
 Domestic hot water storage tanks
 Diving cylinders (Scuba diving)
 Recompression chambers
 Distillation towers
 Autoclaves (In medical industry to sterilize)
 Oil refineries and petrochemical plants
 Nuclear reactor vessels
Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 4.2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Design of Machine Elements (3171917) 4. Pressure Vessels
 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Reservoirs

 Storage vessels for liquefied gases such as ammonia, chlorine, propane,
butane, and LPG.
4.1.2 ASME Codes for Pressure Vessels
 It is a standard that provides rules for the design, fabrication, and inspection
of boilers and pressure.
 This establishes and maintains design, construction, and inspection standards
providing for maximum protection of life and property.
 ASME Section VIII: Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)
 Division 1 - Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels
 Division 2 - Alternative Rules
 Division 3 - Alternative Rules for Construction of High-Pressure Vessels
4.2 General Materials for Pressure Vessels
 The materials that are used in pressure vessel construction are:
 Steels
 Nonferrous materials such as aluminum and copper
 Metals such as titanium and zirconium
 Nonmetallic materials, such as plastic, composites, and concrete
 Metallic and nonmetallic protective coatings
 Various materials have some typical characteristics as below:
 Carbon steel: strength & moderate corrosion resistance
 Low-alloy steels: strength at high temperatures
 Stainless steels: corrosion resistance
 Nickel alloys: corrosion resistance
 Copper alloys: seawater resistance
 Aluminum: Light, low-temperature toughness
 Titanium: seawater, chemical resistance
 Refractories: very high temperatures
 Non-metallic: corrosion & chemicals
4.2.1 Factors Affecting Selection of Material:
 Factors Affecting Selection of Materials are as following:
 Process fluids (i.e. a plastic might be perfect for the fluid corrosiveness,
but will melt when the operators ‘steam’ the equipment during cleaning)
 Operating temperature
 Operating pressure
 Fluid Velocity
 Contamination of product
 Required life of the equipment (May choose to incur shorter life and
replace more often)
 Cost of the materials of construction (base material + fabrication costs)

4.3 Classification of Pressure Vessels

 Based on Wall Thickness:
1) Thin Wall Vessel
2) Thick Wall Vessel
 Based on Geometric Shapes:
1) Cylindrical Vessels
2) Spherical Vessels
3) Rectangular Vessels
4) Combined Vessels
 Based on Installation Methods:
1) Vertical Vessels
2) Horizontal Vessels
 Based on Operating Temperature:
1) Low-Temperature Vessels (less than or equal to - 20° C)
2) Normal Temperature Vessels (Between - 20° C to 150° C)
3) Medium Temperature Vessels (Between 150° C to 450° C)
4) High-Temperature Vessels (more than or equal to 450° C)
 Based on Design Pressure:
1) Low-Pressure Vessels (0.1 MPa to 1.6 MPa)
2) Medium Pressure Vessels (1.6 MPa to 10 MPa)
3) High-Pressure Vessels (10 MPa to 100 MPa)
4) Ultra High-Pressure Vessels (More than 100 MPa)
 Based on Technological Processes:
1) Reaction Vessel
2) Heat Exchanger Vessel
3) Separation Vessel
4) Storage Container Vessel
4.3.1 Difference Between Thin Shell and Thick Shell Pressure Vessels
 The pressure vessel, according to its dimensions, may be classified as a thin
shell or a thick shell.
 If the wall thickness of the shell (t) is less than 1/10 to 1/15 of the diameter of
the shell (d), then it is called a thin shell. On the other hand, if the wall
thickness of the shell is greater than 1/10 to 1/15 of the diameter of the shell,
then it is said to be a thick shell.
 Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks, and pipes, whereas thick shells are used
in high-pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels, etc.
 Another criterion to classify the pressure vessels as a thin shell or a thick shell
is the internal fluid pressure (p) and the allowable stress (σt).
 If the internal fluid pressure (p) is less than 1/6 of the allowable stress, then it
is called a thin shell. On the other hand, if the internal fluid pressure is
greater than 1/6 of the allowable stress, then it is said to be a thick shell.

4.4 Stresses in a Thin Cylindrical Shell due to an Internal Pressure

 The analysis of stresses induced in a thin cylindrical shell is made on the following
assumptions:
1) The effect of the curvature of the cylinder wall is neglected.
2) The tensile stresses are uniformly distributed over the section of the walls.
3) The effect of the restraining action of the heads at the end of the pressure
vessel is neglected.
 When a thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure, it is likely to fail in the
following two ways:
1) It may fail along the longitudinal section (i.e. circumferentially) splitting the
cylinder into two troughs, as shown in Fig 4.2.
2) It may fail across the transverse section (i.e. longitudinally) splitting the
cylinder into two cylindrical shells, as shown in Fig 4.3.
 Thus the wall of a cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure has to withstand
tensile stresses of the following two types: (a) Circumferential or hoop stress, and (b)
Longitudinal stress.
4.4.1 Circumferential or Hoop Stress
Fig 4.2 (a) View of Shell (b) Cross-section of Shell

 Consider a thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure as shown in the figure
above.
 Tensile stress acting in a direction tangential to the circumference is called
circumferential or hoop stress.
 In other words, it is tensile stress on the longitudinal section (or on the cylindrical
walls).
 Let p = Intensity of internal pressure,
d = Internal diameter of the cylindrical shell,
l = Length of the cylindrical shell,
t = Thickness of the cylindrical shell, and
σt1 = Circumferential or hoop stress for the material of the cylindrical shell.
 We know that the total force acting on a longitudinal section (i.e. along the diameter
X-X) of the shell
= Intensity of pressure × Projected area
= 𝑝 × 𝑑 × 𝑙 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖)
 Also, the total resisting force acting on the cylinder walls for two sections
= 𝜎𝑡1 × 2 𝑡 × 𝑙 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖𝑖)
 Equating equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝑝 × 𝑑 × 𝑙 = 𝜎𝑡1 × 2 𝑡 × 𝑙
𝑝𝑑
∴ 𝜎𝑡1 =
2𝑡
4.4.2 Longitudinal Stress
Fig 4.3 (a) View of Shell (b) Cross-section of Shell

 Consider a closed thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure as shown in the
above figure.
 Tensile stress acting in the direction of the axis is called longitudinal stress.
 In other words, it is tensile stress acting on the transverse or circumferential section
Y-Y (or on the ends of the vessel).
 Let σt2 = Longitudinal stress.
 In this case, the total force acting on the transverse section (i.e. along Y-Y)
= Intensity of pressure × Cross-sectional area
𝜋
= 𝑝 × 𝑑 2 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖)
4
 Also the total resisting force
= 𝜎𝑡2 × 𝜋 𝑑 𝑡 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖𝑖)
𝜋
𝑝 × 𝑑 2 = 𝜎𝑡2 × 𝜋 𝑑 𝑡
4
𝑝𝑑
∴ 𝜎𝑡2 =
4𝑡
4.5 Thin Spherical Shells Subjected to an Internal Pressure
Fig 4.4 Thin Spherical Shell

 Consider a thin spherical shell subjected to internal pressure as shown in the above
figure.
 Let V = Storage capacity of the shell,

p = Intensity of internal pressure,
d = Diameter of the shell,
t = Thickness of the shell,
σt = Permissible tensile stress for the shell material.
 In designing thin spherical shells, we have to determine the diameter of the shell and
the thickness of the shell.
 We know that the storage capacity of the shell,
4
𝑉 = × 𝜋 × 𝑟3
3
4 𝑑 3
∴𝑉 = ×𝜋×( )
3 2
𝜋
∴ 𝑉 = × 𝑑3
6
1
6𝑉 3
∴𝑑=( )
𝜋
 As a result of the internal pressure, the shell is likely to rupture along the center of
the sphere.
 Therefore, the force tending to rupture the shell along the center of the sphere or
bursting force
= Pressure × Area
𝜋
= 𝑝 × 𝑑 2 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖)
4
 Also resisting force of the shell
= Stress × Resisting area
= 𝜎𝑡 × 𝜋 𝑑 𝑡 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖𝑖)
𝜋
𝑝 × 𝑑 2 = 𝜎𝑡 × 𝜋 𝑑 𝑡
4
𝑝𝑑
∴ 𝑡=
4 𝜎𝑡
4.6 Thick Cylindrical Shells Subjected to an Internal Pressure
 When the ratio of the inner diameter (d) of the cylinder to the wall thickness (t) is
less than 10 to 15, the cylinder is called a thick cylinder.
 Hydraulic cylinders, high-pressure pipes, and gun barrels are examples of thick
cylinders.
 The radial stress (σr) is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of significant magnitude
in the case of thick cylinders.
 There are several equations for the design of thick cylinders. The choice of the
equation depends upon two parameters: Cylinder material (whether brittle or
ductile) and Condition of the cylinder ends (open or closed).
 In the design of thick cylindrical shells, the following equations are mostly used:

1. Lame’s equation,
2. Birnie’s equation,
3. Clavarino’s equation and
4. Barlow’s equation.
4.6.1 Lame's Equation
 When the material of the cylinder is brittle, such as cast iron or cast steel,
Lame’s equation is used to determine the wall thickness.
 It is based on the maximum principal stress theory of failure, where
maximum principal stress is equated to permissible stress for the material.
 Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows:
𝜎𝑟 = −𝑃𝑖 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖)
𝑃𝑖 (𝐷𝑜 2 + 𝐷𝑖 2 )
𝜎𝑡 = + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖𝑖)
(𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 2
𝜎𝑙 = + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
(𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )
 Therefore,
𝜎𝑡 > 𝜎𝑙 > 𝜎𝑟
 Hence σt is the criterion of design. From equation (ii)
𝜎𝑡 (𝐷𝑜 2 + 𝐷𝑖 2 )
=
𝑃𝑖 (𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )
∴ 𝜎𝑡 (𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 ) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝐷𝑜 2 + 𝐷𝑖 2 )
∴ 𝜎𝑡 𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝜎𝑡 𝐷𝑖 2 = 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑜 2 + 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 2
∴ 𝜎𝑡 𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑜 2 = 𝜎𝑡 𝐷𝑖 2 + 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 2
∴ 𝐷𝑜 2 (𝜎𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖 ) = 𝐷𝑖 2 ( 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖 )
𝐷𝑜 2 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴ 2 =
𝐷𝑖 𝜎𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖
𝐷𝑜 2 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴( ) =
𝐷𝑜 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴ =√
Substituting 𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + 2 𝑡 in the above equation
𝐷𝑖 + 2 𝑡 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴ =√
2𝑡 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴1+ =√

2𝑡 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴ =√ −1
𝐷𝑖 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑖
∴𝑡= √ −1
2 𝜎𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖
where
𝑆𝑢𝑡
𝜎𝑡 =
(𝑓𝑠)
4.6.2 Birnie’s equation
 In the case of open-end cylinders (such as pump cylinders, rams, gun barrels,
etc.) made of ductile material (i.e. low carbon steel, brass, bronze, and
aluminum alloys), the allowable stresses cannot be determined using the
maximum-stress theory of failure.
 In such cases, the maximum-strain theory is used. According to this theory,
failure occurs when the strain reaches a limiting value.
 Birnie’s equation for the wall thickness of a cylinder,
𝐷𝑖 𝜎 + (1 − 𝜇)𝑃𝑖
𝑡= [√ − 1]
2 𝜎 − (1 + 𝜇)𝑃𝑖
4.6.3 Clavarino’s equation

 This equation is also based on the maximum-strain theory of failure, but it is
applied to closed-end cylinders (or cylinders fitted with heads) made of
ductile material.
 According to this equation, the thickness of a cylinder,
𝐷𝑖 𝜎 + (1 − 2𝜇)𝑃𝑖
𝑡= [√ − 1]
2 𝜎 − (1 + 𝜇)𝑃𝑖
where
𝑆𝑦𝑡
𝜎=
(𝑓𝑠)
4.6.4 Barlow’s equation
 This equation is generally used for high-pressure oil and gas pipes.
 According to this equation, the thickness of a cylinder,
𝑝𝑖 𝐷𝑜
𝑡=
2 𝜎𝑡
where Do is the outer diameter of the cylinder
4.7 Autofrettage or Pre-stressing
 Autofrettage is the process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in service.
 It is used in the case of high-pressure cylinders and gun barrels.
 When the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential stress (σ t) at
the inner surface limits the pressure capacity of the cylinder.

 In the pre-stressing process, residual compressive stresses are developed at the

inner surface.
 When the cylinder is loaded in service, the residual compressive stresses at the inner
surface begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile as the pressure is
gradually increased.
 Autofrettage increases the pressure capacity of the cylinder.
 It has another advantage that the residual compressive stresses close the cracks
within the cylinder resulting in increased endurance strength.
 There are three methods of pre-stressing the cylinder. They are as follows:
1. Compound cylinder: It consists of two concentric cylinders with the outer
cylinder shrunk onto the inner one. This induces compressive stresses in the
inner cylinder. The compound cylinder is extensively used in practice.
(a) Compounded Cylinder (b) Cylinder (c) Jacket

Fig 4.5 Compound Cylinder
 A compound cylinder, consisting of a cylinder and a jacket is shown in figure
(a). The inner diameter of the jacket is slightly smaller than the outer
diameter of the cylinder.
 When the jacket is heated, it expands sufficiently to move over the cylinder.
 As the jacket cools, it tends to contract onto the inner cylinder, which induces
residual compressive stresses.
 There is a shrinkage pressure P between the cylinder and the jacket.
 The pressure P tends to contract the cylinder and expand the jacket, as
shown in figures (b) and (c).
 The shrinkage pressure P can be evaluated from the below equation for a
given amount of interference (δ).
𝑃 𝐷2 2 𝐷2 2 (𝐷3 2 − 𝐷1 2 )
𝛿= [ ]
𝐸 (𝐷3 2 − 𝐷2 2 ) (𝐷2 2 − 𝐷1 2 )
 The resultant stresses in a compound cylinder are found by superimposing
the two stresses-stresses due to shrinking fit and those due to internal
pressure.

2. Overloading the cylinder: The second method consists of overloading the

cylinder before it is put into service.
 The overloading pressure is adjusted in such a way that a portion of the
cylinder near the inner diameter is subjected to stresses in the plastic range,
while the outer portion is still in the elastic range.
 When the pressure is released, the outer portion contracts to exert pressure
on the inner portion which has undergone permanent deformation.
 This induces residual compressive stresses at the inner surface.
3. Wire method: In the third method, a wire under tension is closely wound
around the cylinder, which results in residual compressive stresses.
4.8 Types of End Closures
 Formed heads are used as end closures for cylindrical pressure vessels.
 There are two types of end closures:
1. Domed heads:
a) Hemispherical
b) Semi-ellipsoidal
c) Torispherical
2. Conical heads
1. Hemispherical heads:
 Hemispherical heads have minimum plate thickness, minimum weight, and
consequently the lowest material cost.
 However, the amount of forming required to produce the hemispherical
shape is more, resulting in increased forming cost.
Fig 4.6 Hemispherical heads

 The thickness of the hemispherical head is given by,
𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶𝐴
2 𝜎𝑡 𝜂 − 0.2 𝑃𝑖
where Ri is the inner radius of the cylindrical shell,

CA is Corrosion allowance
η is welded joint efficiency
2. Semi-ellipsoidal Heads:
 In a semi-ellipsoidal head, the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is
taken as 2:1.
Fig 4.7 Semi-ellipsoidal Heads

 The thickness of a semi-ellipsoidal head is given by,
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶𝐴
2 𝜎𝑡 𝜂 − 0.2 𝑃𝑖
 From the above equations, it is observed that the thickness of the semi-
elliptical head is more (almost twice) than the corresponding hemispherical
head, and to that extent, the material cost is more.
 However, due to the shallow dished shape, the forming cost is reduced.
 The length of the straight portion (Sf) is given by,
Sf =3 t or 20 mm (whichever is more)
3. Torispherical Heads:
 Torispherical heads are extensively used as end closures for a large variety of
cylindrical pressure vessels.
Fig 4.8 Torispherical Heads

 They are shaped by using two radii – the crown radius L and knuckle radius ri.
 The crown radius L is the radius of the dish that constitutes the major portion
of the head.
 The knuckle radius ri is the corner radius joining the spherical crown with the
cylindrical shell.
 Torispherical heads require less forming than semi-ellipsoidal heads.
 Their main drawback is the local stresses at the two discontinuities namely
the junction between “the crown head and the knuckle radius” and the
junction between “the knuckle radius and the cylindrical shell”.
 The localized stresses may lead to failure due to brittle fracture.
 The thickness of a torispherical head is given by,
0.885 𝑃𝑖 𝐿
𝑡= + 𝐶𝐴
𝜎𝑡 𝜂 − 0.1 𝑃𝑖
 The knuckle radius ri is taken as 6% of the crown radius, ri = 0.06 L
4. Conical Heads:
Fig 4.9 Conical Heads

 The thickness of a conical head is given by,
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶𝐴
2 cos 𝛼 (𝜎𝑡 𝜂 − 0.6 𝑃𝑖 )
where α is half the apex angle.
 The half apex angle is usually less than 30⁰.
4.9 Gaskets and Gasketed Joints
 A gasket is a device used to create and maintain a barrier against the transfer of fluid
across the mating surfaces of a mechanical assembly. It is used in static joints, such
as cylinder blocks and cylinder heads.
 There are two types of gaskets-metallic and non-metallic.
 Metallic gaskets consist of sheets of lead, copper, or aluminum.
 Non-metallic gaskets are made of asbestos, cork, rubber, or plastics.

 Metallic gaskets are used for high-temperature and high-pressure applications. They
can have corrugated construction or they can be made in the form of plain sheets.
 The limiting temperatures of metallic gaskets are as follows:
 Lead: 90° C
 Copper/brass: 250° C
 Aluminum: 400° C
 The metallic gasket takes a permanent set when compressed in assembly and there
is no recovery to compensate for the separation of contact faces.
 They are also susceptible to corrosion and chemical atmosphere. Their performance
also depends upon the surface finish of the contacting surfaces.
 Asbestos gaskets have excellent resistance to be crushing loads and cutting action
due to the sharp edges of the flanges. Dimensional stability is another advantage.
 They are used in the cylinder head, water and steam pipe fittings, and manifold
connections.
 Vulcanized compounds of rubber and cork are employed as gaskets in steam lines,
combustion chambers, and chemical environments.
 They are used for applications involving irregular surfaces. They are of low cost but
are affected by fungus and alkalis.
 Rubber compounds have excellent impermeability and the ability to flow into joint
imperfections when compressed.
 Asbestos gaskets can be used up to 250° C, while other non-metallic gaskets have a
limiting temperature of 70° C.
Fig 4.10 Shapes of Gasket

 Different shapes of gasket for cylinder head are illustrated in the above figure.

Example - 1
A hydraulic press has a maximum capacity of 1000 kN. The piston diameter is 250 mm.
Calculate the wall thickness if the cylinder is made of material for which the permissible
strength may be taken as 80 MPa. This material may be assumed as a brittle material.
Solution:
W = 1000 kN Di = 250 mm
t = 80 MPa
Load on the hydraulic press,

W  Di2  pi
4

1000  103  (250)2  pi
4
pi = 20.37 N/mm2
Wall thickness of the cylinder,
D   p 
t  i  t i  1
2  t  pi 
250  80  20.37 
t   1
2  80  20.37 
t = 37 mm
Example - 2
The piston rod of a hydraulic cylinder exerts an operating force of 10 kN. The friction due to
piston packing and stuffing box is equivalent to 10% of the operating force. The pressure in
the cylinder is 10 MPa. The cylinder is made of cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 5.
Determine the diameter and the thickness of the cylinder.
Solution:
Pi = 10 MPa ut = 200 MPa
Operating force = 10 kN F.S. = 5
Frictional force = 10% of Operating force
Total force on the piston, W = Operating force + Frictional force
= 10 + 10% of 10
= 11 kN

W  Di2  pi
4

11  103  (Di )2  10
4
Di = 37.4 mm
Di  40 mm
 200
t  ut  = 40 MPa
F.S. 5

The cylinder material is brittle and Lame’s equation is applicable.

Using Lame’s equation,
Di  t  pi 
t   1
2  t  pi 
40  40  10 
t   1
2  40  10 
t = 5.82 mm
t  6 mm
Example - 3
The inner diameter of a cylindrical tank for liquefied gas is 250 mm. The gas pressure is
limited to 15 MPa. The tank is made of plain carbon steel 10C4 (ut = 340 N/mm2 and  =
0.27) and the factor of safety is 5. Calculate the cylinder wall thickness.
Solution:
Di = 250 mm Pi = 15 MPa
ut = 340 MPa F.S. = 5
 = 0.27
ut 340
t  
F.S. 5
t = 68 MPa
The cylindrical tank is made of ductile material and the ends are closed. Therefore,
Clavarino’s equation is applicable.
Using Lame’s equation,
Di  t  (1  2)pi 
t   1
2  t  (1  )pi 
250  68  [1  2(0.27)]15 
t   1
2  68  [1  0.27]15 
t = 29.62 mm
t  30 mm
Example - 4
A seamless steel pipe of 100 mm internal diameter is subjected to internal pressure of 12
MPa. It is made of steel (yt = 230 N/mm2 and  = 0.27) and the factor of safety is 2.5.
Determine the thickness of the pipe.
Solution:
Di = 100 mm Pi = 12 MPa
yt = 230 MPa F.S. = 2.5
 = 0.27

yt
230
t  
F.S. 2.5
t = 92 MPa
The pipe has open ends and is made of ductile material. Therefore, Bernie’s equation is
applicable.
Using Bernie’s equation,
Di  t  (1  )pi 
t   1
2  t  (1  )pi 
100  92  (1  0.27)12 
t   1
2  92  (1  0.27)12 
t = 7.29 mm
t  8 mm
Example - 5
The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 220 mm in diameter. The pressure of the fluid is
14 N/mm2 by gauge. Determine the suitable thickness of the cylinder wall assuming that the
maximum permissible tensile stress is not to exceed 105 MPa.
Solution:
Di = 220 mm
pi = 14 N/mm2
t = 105 MPa
Since the pressure of the fluid is high, therefore thick cylinder equation is used.
Assuming the material of the cylinder as steel, taking Poisson’s ratio for steel,  = 0.3. The
thickness of the cylinder wall (t) may be obtained by using Birnie’s equation
Di  t  (1  )pi 
t   1
2  t  (1  )pi 
220  105  (1  0.3)14 
t   1
2  105  (1  0.3)14 
t = 16.5 mm
Example - 6
A high-pressure cylinder consists of a steel tube with inner and outer diameters of 20 mm
and 40 mm respectively. It is jacketed by an outer steel tube, having an outer diameter of 60
mm. The tubes are assembled by a shrinking process in such a way that the maximum
principal stress induced in any tube is limited to 100 MPa. Calculate the shrinkage pressure
and original dimensions of the tubes (E = 207 kN/mm2).
Solution:
D1 = 20 mm D2 = 40 mm
D3 = 60 mm max = 100 MPa E = 207 kN/mm2

The maximum principal stress is the tangential stress at the inner surface of the jacket.
P(D32  D22 )
t 
(D32  D22 )
P(602  402 )
100 
(602  402 )
Shrinkage Pressure, P = 38.46 N/mm2
Amount of Interference,
PD2  2D22 (D32  D12 ) 
  
E  (D32  D22 )(D22  D12 ) 
38.46  40  2(40)2 (602  202 ) 

207  103  (602  402 )(402  202 ) 
 = 0.0317 mm
Inner diameter of jacket = Outer diameter of inner tube – Amount if Interference
= D2 – 
= 40 – 0.0317
= 39.9683 mm
Example - 7
A hydraulic press has the following specifications:
Capacity = 80 kN
Fluid pressure = 16 MPa
Stroke = 80 mm
Permissible tensile stress for pillar and ram = 75 MPa
Permissible stress for C.I. cylinder = 30 MPa
Distance between the centerline of pillars = 800 mm
Distance between top supporting platform and bottom of the top plate when the
ram is in the down most position = 800mm
Design the ram, cylinder, and pillars.
Solution:
p = 16 N/mm2
W = 80 kN
For ram and pillar, t = 75 N/mm2
For C.I. cylinder, t = 30 N/mm2
Design of Ram
In the case of solid ram,
Maximum force to be exerted by the ram,

W  dr2  p
4


80  103  (dr )2  16
4
dr = 79.79 mm
Diameter of ram, dr  80 mm
In case the ram is made hollow to reduce its weight, then it can be designed as a thick
cylinder subjected to external pressure.
dro = Outer diameter of ram = dr = 80 mm
dri = Inner diameter of ram, and
Permissible stress for ram,
 (dri )2 
C  2P  2
 (dro )  (dri ) 
2
 (dri )2 
75  2  16  2
 (80)  (dri ) 
2
75  (dri )2 
 2
2  16  6400  (dri ) 
(dri )2
2.3437 
6400  (dri )2
2.3437  [6400  (dri )2 ]  (dri )2
15000  3.3437(dri )2
dri = 66.97 mm
dri  67 mm
dro = 80 mm
Design of Cylinder
dci = Inner diameter of cylinder, and
dco = Outer diameter of cylinder.
Assuming a clearance between the ram and the cylinder bore = 15 mm,
dci = dro + Clearance
= 80 + 15
= 95 mm
The cylinder can be considered a thick cylinder, the material of the cylinder is cast iron.
According to Lame’s equation,
d   p 
t  Ci  t  1
2  t  p 
95  30  16 
t   1
2  30  16 
t = 38.6 mm
t  40 mm

Outside diameter of the cylinder,

dco = dci + 2 t
= 95 + 2 × 40
= 175 mm
Design of Pillars
dp = Diameter of the pillar.
It is assumed that four pillars are equally sharing the load.
80  103
Load on each pillar   20  103 N
4

Load on each pillar  dp2  t
4

20  103  dp2  75
4
dp = 18.43 mm
From fine series of metric threads, let us adopt the threads on pillars as M 20 × 1.5 having a
major diameter of 20 mm and core diameter as 18.16 mm.
Fig 4.11 Hydraulic Press


DME - 4 - Pressure Vessels

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4

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

4.1 Introduction to Pressure Vessels

Fig 4.1 Typical Components of Pressure Vessels

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Reservoirs

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

4.3 Classification of Pressure Vessels

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.4 Stresses in a Thin Cylindrical Shell due to an Internal Pressure

Fig 4.2 (a) View of Shell (b) Cross-section of Shell

 Equating equations (i) and (ii), we have

Fig 4.3 (a) View of Shell (b) Cross-section of Shell

Fig 4.4 Thin Spherical Shell

 Let V = Storage capacity of the shell,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

4.6.3 Clavarino’s equation

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

 In the pre-stressing process, residual compressive stresses are developed at the

(a) Compounded Cylinder (b) Cylinder (c) Jacket

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

2. Overloading the cylinder: The second method consists of overloading the

Fig 4.6 Hemispherical heads

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

Fig 4.7 Semi-ellipsoidal Heads

Fig 4.8 Torispherical Heads

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig 4.9 Conical Heads

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

Fig 4.10 Shapes of Gasket

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

The cylinder material is brittle and Lame’s equation is applicable.

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani

Outside diameter of the cylinder,

Fig 4.11 Hydraulic Press

Prepared by: Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani Department of Mechanical Engineering

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