RADAR

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Created @November 9, 2022 6:45 PM

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Updated @November 10, 2022 5:04 AM

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES
DISAVANTAGES
APPLICATION
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE AND IMPROVED RADAR
FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS
PULSE RADAR
Components used in Pulsed RADAR
PLAN POSITION INDICATOR(PPI)
A-Scope
B-Scope

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 F-Scope
Limitation and Application:
MOVING TARGET INDICATOR ( MTI ) RADAR
Principle
Limitation:
Working
FM CW RADAR ALITMETER
Block Diagram of FMCW Radar
Advantages of FMCW Radars
Disadvantages of FMCW Radars
Continuous Wave Radar with non zero Intermediate Frequency

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
Radar is basically a means of gathering information about distant objects and targets
by sending EM waves to them and therefore analyzing the reflected waves or the
echo signal. radars gave birth to microwave technologies . in this high frequency
signal is used to find the accurate location of target object and other tasks.

ADVANTAGES
radar can see through darkness, haze , fog and rain and snow.

they can determine the range and the angle of the target very accurately.

radar acts as powerful eye for a weapon or machine

DISAVANTAGES
RADAR cant resolve in detail like the human eye especially at short distance

they cant recognize the color of the target

APPLICATION

💡 CIVILIAN USAGE

navigation aid on the ground and sea(navigation not affected by poor visibility)

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 radar alitmeters for determining the height of plane above ground.

radar blind lander for the airplane to land safely in the case of fog in the landing
runway

airborne radar for satellite surveillance of the plane or helicopter

police radar for direction and detecting speeding vehicles

radar for determining the speed of moving target like of a cricket ball or car or
bullet

💡 MILITARY USAGE

detecting and ranging of the enemy even at night

aiming guns at aircraft and ship automatically

bombing ships, aircraft and cities

early warning regarding approaching aircraft or ship

directing guided missile

searching for submarine

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE AND IMPROVED

RADAR
A simple radar consists of two antenna simultaneously for receiving and transmitting
the signal whereas in a improved radar only one antenna is used for both sending
and receiving the signal. In improved radar a duplexer switch is used which switches
the transmitter and receiver connection for the antenna simultaneously at the time of
transmitting and receiving respectively.

Below is the block diagram of a simple radar.

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 In this kind of radar two antennas are used hence this radar is also known as
BISTATIC RADAR
BELOW IS THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN IMPROVED RADAR

FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS
DUPLEXER : A duplexer is used in order to isolate as well as switch the control
of antenna from transmitter to receiver and vice versa. it is used to protect the
sensitive receiver from the high power transmitter so that is doesn’t get damaged
from it.

Functions of a duplexer

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 to isolate the receiver and the transmitter for transmission and receiving
respectively

to help use a single transmitter and receiver antenna

to protect the sensitive receiver from the high power transmitter

RECEIVER: a sensitive receiver is used in order to receive even very sensitive

echo for the detection of the target

TRANSMITTER: a very high power transmitter is used for transmitting a very

high frequency signal in order to pinpoint the target

PULSE RADAR
the radar which operates on the pulse signal for detecting stationary targets is called
a pulse radar.

a pulsed radar is more useful than a CW radar. here a pulse waveform generally a
train of narrow rectangular shaped pulses modulating a sine wave carrier is
transmitted. the range or distance is determined by the time taken by waveform to
return to the receiver.

Below is the block diagram of pulsed radar system

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 Components used in Pulsed RADAR
OUTPUT TUBE: Output tube is an oscillator tube such as a magnetron
oscillator or an amplifier such as klystron, TWT or a crossed field amplifier
.

Low power radar uses IMPACT or GUNN oscillator.

the pulses are radiated via this tube to the environment to find the target.

DUPLEXER: The receiver must be protected from damages caused by high

power of the transmitter. this is the function of the duplexer. it also serves
as a channelizer to give the returned output to the receiver not the
transmitter. it consists of a gas discharge tube known as transmitter
reciver and an anti transmitter receiver. the TR protects the receiver
during the transmission and the ATR helps in directing the received signal
to the receiver instead of the transmitter.

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 RECEIVER: YOU KNOW IT VERY WELL YOU TWAT , usually of super
heterodyne type whose function is to detected desired echo signal even in the
presence of noise, interference or clutter.

LOW NOISE RF AMPLIFIER: it is the first stage of the receiver. it amplifies the
weak rf signal which is received by the antenna it is a low noise transmitter
amplifier or a parametric type of amplifier or a TWT. silicon bipolar transistor is
used at a low radar frequency and a GaAs FET is used at higher frequencies.

MIXER: We know that Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the
frequencies that are applied to it. Among which, the difference of the frequencies
will be of Intermediate Frequency (IF) type. In a mixer carrier frequency is
removed from the received signal.

LOCAL OSCILLATOR: It produces a signal having stable frequency. The

output of Local Oscillator is connected to Mixer.

IF AMPLIFIER: It consists of the cascade of a tuned amplifier and provides a

main receiver gain. it should be designed as a main matched filter to get a max
peak signal to mean noise power ratio at the output. higher the signal to noise
ratio better the positioning of the target.

DETECTOR: It demodulates the signal and is often a schottky barrier diode

which extracts the pulse modulation from the if amplifier output. the detector
output is them amplified by the video amplifier to a level where it can be properly
displayed by the CRT directly or via a computer processing or enhancing.

The range information for the radar is obtained by the time and the location
information is detected via two properties known as azimuth(horizontal angle)
and elevation(vertical angle).

the data obtained can be displayed via a crt or a computer or a PLAN POSITION
INDICATOR.

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 PLAN POSITION INDICATOR(PPI)
This is an intensity modulation type display system which indicates both range and
the azimuth angle of the target simultaneously in polar co-ordinates.
The mapping of the target comes in a chart which includes a bright red spot outward
from the center which gives the distance of the target from the radar transmitter
while the direction in which the spot deflects at certain distance can be observed via
the angle . In this device the range of the target is obtained via a radius and the
velocity with direction is given by an arrow on the ppi screen.
BELOW IS THE DIAGRAM OF A PPI SYSTEM.

Normal PPI display are screen with diameter of 30 or 40 cm and the scanning
speed is rather slow so that the display doesn’t get dim in various portions. in it long
persistent phosporus is used so that the display doesn’t flicker.

A-Scope
It is a two dimensional Radar display. The horizontal and vertical coordinates
represent the range and echo amplitude of the target respectively. In A-Scope, the
deflection modulation takes place. It is more suitable for manually tracking Radar.

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 B-Scope
It is a two dimensional Radar display. The horizontal and vertical coordinates
represent the azimuth angle and the range of the target respectively. In B-Scope,
intensity modulation takes place. It is more suitable for military Radars.

F-Scope
If the Radar Antenna is aimed at the target, then F-Scope displays the target as a
centralized blip. So, the horizontal and vertical displacements of the blip represent
the horizontal and vertical aiming errors respectively.

Limitation and Application:

the distortion of the true map will occur if the ppi is used on aircraft and its
antenna is not pointing straight down.

used in search radars especially in conical scanning.

MOVING TARGET INDICATOR ( MTI ) RADAR

This is a radar used for tracking the moving targets as the other kind of radars used
are not ideal for this due to superimposition of the clutter on ground and the change
in velocity and positioning.

Principle
when desired to remove the cluttter due to statonary targets an mti radar is used. the
basic principle of this radar is to comapte a set of received rchos whith thise received
during the previous sweep and cancelling out those whose phase had remained
unchanged. moving targets will give change of phase and are not cnacelled . thus
clutter due to stationary targets both man made and natural are removed from the
display and this allows easier detection of moving targets.

the effects of dependance on phase of the echo are:

the targets which are too far away will give only mild echo are netted in the radar

time taken by the radar operator for observing the moving target id greatly
reduced due to elimination of ambiguities and clutter disturbance.

stationary or slow moving target cannot mask the faster ones in the display.

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 Limitation:
in this the objects moving with continuous speed can’t be detected as they will
appear stationary and will be cancelled out by the radar.

result in doppler shift may result in loss of information.

THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MTI RADAR IS GIVEN BELOW

Working
Mixer-2 in block diag generates the transmitter frequency (f0 + fc) which
(f0 + fc) which is obtain by the sum of frequency produced by two oscillators
the STALO and COHO (coherent oscillator producing fc).

Echo pulse from the target is received by the MTI radar antenna. If the echo is
due to moving target, the echo pulse undergoes Doppler frequency shift.

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 The received echo pulse is then passed through mixer-1 which mix (fo + fc) 
 with fo  and produce a difference frequency fc at its output.

The detector output is proportional to phase difference between two signals.

Phase difference is constant for all stationary targets but varies for moving
targets. Thus Doppler frequency shift is there as per phase difference.

This delay line acts as high pass filter to separate Doppler shifted echo signal of
moving target from stationary clutter.

FM CW RADAR ALITMETER
If CW Doppler Radar uses the Frequency Modulation, then that Radar is called
FMCW Doppler Radar or simply, FMCW Radar. It is also called Continuous Wave
Frequency Modulated Radar or CWFM Radar. It measures not only the speed of the
target but also the distance of the target from the Radar.

Block Diagram of FMCW Radar

FMCW Radar is mostly used as Radar Altimeter in order to measure the exact
height while landing the aircraft.
The following figure shows the block diagram of FMCW Radar −

In an FMCW system, the transmitter antenna emits frequency modulated continuous

radio waves, and the reflected signal from the target is received by the receiving
antenna. The output of the receiving antenna is given to the mixer stage of the
receiver via a pre-amplifier. In the mixer circuit, a part of the frequency-modulated

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 transmitted signal is mixed with the received signal, producing a new signal, which
can be used to determine the distance (R) and/or velocity of the moving object. The
frequency of the new signal is the difference between the frequency of the
transmitted and received (reflected) signal.

Now the signal from the mixer output passes through a lowpass filter, where clutter
signals (unwanted echo signals from stationary objects such as buildings, hills) are
filtered out. Finally, the signal passes via an amplifier, A/D converter, and is then fed
into a computer for processing to calculate the distance and velocity of the object.

Advantages of FMCW Radars

mm-wave FMCW radars offer high-resolution distance measurement (resolution
of 2 cm can be easily achieved over 20-30 meters)

Measures the target range and velocity simultaneously

FMCW provide quick updating of measurement compared to pulsed radar

system (because FMCW mm-wave radars are continuously transmitting the
signal)

Functions well in many types of weather & atmospheric conditions such as

heavy rain, humidity, fog, and dusty conditions.

Immune to effects from temperature differences or high temperatures.

Better electrical and radiation safety

FMCW radars offer a good range compared to other non-radio technologies

such as visible or infrared light spectrum or those using ultrasonic waves due to
the superior signal propagation.

Can be mounted invisibly (behind radome)

Can penetrate into a variety of materials; hence, FMCW radar can be used for
measurement or detection of concealed or covered targets

Better at detecting tangential motion than Doppler-based systems.

Disadvantages of FMCW Radars

Reduced range as compared to pulsed radar

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 More expensive than competing technologies such as infrared & ultrasonic
systems

Susceptible to interference from other radio-electronic devices because they are

continuously transmitting radio waves across a frequency band.

Continuous Wave Radar with non zero

Intermediate Frequency
The main disadvantage of normal continuous wave radar is that same antenna is
used for transmission and reception. The continuous wave radar with non zero IF
provides isolation between transmitter and receiver. Separate antennas are used for
transmission and reception to reduce the signal leakage. Local Oscillator provides
the carrier signal whose frequency is equal to intermediate frequency. The
transmitted signal along with the locally generated signal is modulated inside a
mixer. The output of the mixer is a signal consisting of sum components of frequency
and difference components of frequency. The signal is then passed through a side
band filter which removes the effect of noise and reduces the receiver sensitivity.

The output of the side band filter is fed onto a receiver mixer where the Doppler
frequency is added along with the original frequency of the signal. The Doppler
frequency can be positive or negative depending on the location of the target. The
output of the receiver mixer is then amplified and passed onto a detector. The
detector removes the IF component from the received signal and passes only the
doppler frequency component. The doppler frequency component is then amplified
by a doppler amplifier. The output of the doppler amplifier is fed onto an indicator
which provides the location of the target depending on the value of doppler
frequency.
The block diagram of Continuous Wave Radar with non zero Intermediate Frequency
is shown below.

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