Figure 21.

1-s3

Cellular level:
Muscle cell

Tissue level:
Cardiac muscle

Organ level:
Heart Organism level:
Multiple organ
systems
functioning
together
Organ system level:
Circulatory system

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Figure 21.2-s3

(b) At the organ level

(a) At the organism

level

(c) At the cellular level

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 Structure/Function: Anatomy and Physiology

• Biologists distinguish anatomy from physiology.

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of an
organism’s parts.
• Physiology is the study of the function of those
parts.

• The correlation of structure and function is a

fundamental principle of biology that is evident
at all levels of life’s hierarchy.

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 Tissues

• The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms.

• In almost all animals, including humans, cells are
grouped into tissues.
• A tissue is an integrated group of similar cells that
performs a specific function.
• Animals have four main categories of tissue:
1. epithelial tissue,
2. connective tissue,
3. muscle tissue, and
4. nervous tissue.

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 Epithelial Tissue

• Epithelial tissue, also known as epithelium,

• covers the surface of the body and
• lines organs.

• The architecture of an epithelium illustrates how

structure fits function at the tissue level.
• Your skin contains many layers of tightly bound epithelial
cells, forming a protective, waterproof barrier that
surrounds your body and keeps it safe from external
threats.
• In contrast, a single thin and leaky layer of epithelial
tissue lines capillaries, where it is well suited for the role
it plays of exchanging substances with the circulatory
system.

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 Epithelial Tissue

• The body continuously renews the cells of many

epithelial tissues.
• Such turnover requires cells to divide rapidly, which
increases the risk of an error in cell division, a
mistake that can lead to cancer.
• Carcinoma is a type of cancer that develops from
epithelial cells.
• Carcinomas occur when the DNA of a cell is
damaged or altered and the cell begins to grow
uncontrollably and become malignant.

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Figure 21.3

Examples of organs
lined with epithelial
tissue
Heart
Lung
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine Epithelial
Epithelial tissue
Urinary bladder
covering body (skin) cells

Spaces for
exchange Epithelial tissue
lining capillaries
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 Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue contains cells scattered

throughout a material called the extracellular
matrix.
• The structure of the matrix varies and matches the
function of each tissue.
• Two major functions of the connective tissue are to
support and join other tissues.

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 Connective Tissue

• Figure illustrates six of the major types of

connective tissue.
• Loose connective tissue
• is the most widespread connective tissue in the
body of vertebrates and
• binds epithelia to underlying tissues.

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 Connective Tissue: extracellular matrix
• Extracellular network of macromolecules
• Components secreted locally; organized by cells
associated with the matrix

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Figure 21.4

Loose connective Adipose

tissue tissue

Blood

Fibrous
connective
tissue
PowerPoint® Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko for
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Campbell Essential Biology
Cartilage
– Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, Kelly A. Hogan, and Jane B. Reece
 Connective Tissue
2. Fibrous connective tissue has a dense matrix
of collagen. It forms
• tendons, which attach muscles to bones
• Tendons are tough band of fibrous connective tissue
that connects muscle to bone and is able to
withstand tension.
• Tendons and muscles work together.
• ligaments, which strongly join bones together at joints.

• Ligaments are similar to tendons, but they connect bone to

bone and help to stabilize joints.

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 Connective Tissue
3. Cartilage
• is strong but flexible,
• has no blood vessels, so it heals very slowly, and
• functions as a flexible, boneless skeleton.
• structure of cartilage tissue

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 Connective Tissue

4. Bone
• is a rigid connective tissue with a matrix of collagen
fibers hardened with deposits of calcium salts.
• This combination makes bone hard without being
brittle.

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 Connective Tissue

6. Blood
• consists of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called
plasma
• transports substances in the plasma from one part
of the body to another,
• plays major roles in immunity, and
• seals broken blood vessels.

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 The Nature of Blood

• Consists of
• Several types of cells
• Called the formed elements
• Plasma
• Contains different kinds of dissolved molecules

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 Formed Elements

• Red blood cells

• Lack a nucleus
• Contain hemoglobin
• Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Carbonic anhydrase converts carbon dioxide to
bicarbonate that can be dissolved in the blood.
• Anemia is a lack of oxygen resulting from a lack of
red blood cells.

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 Formed Elements

• White blood cells

• Also called leukocytes
• Lack hemoglobin
• Have a nucleus
• Include basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils,
lymphocytes, and monocytes
• Defend the body against microorganisms, damaging
chemicals, and cancer

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 Formed Elements

• Platelets
• Not whole cells
• Fragments of white blood cells
• Important in blood clotting
• Collect at the site of a wound
• Release clotting factors
• Initiate a sequence of reactions that trap blood cells to form
a clot
• Eventually the clots (scabs) are replaced by healthy, living
tissue.

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 Plasma
• Liquid part of the blood
• Contains
• Salts that serve to
• Buffer and maintain blood pH
• Maintain osmotic balance
• Keeps the tissue fluid between cells at the right
solute concentration so that it flows into the
capillaries, maintaining blood pressure

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 Plasma
• Proteins
• Antibodies and other immune proteins
• Albumin to maintain osmotic balance
• Transports bilirubin from degraded RBCs to the liver
• Accumulated bilirubin can cause jaundice

• Nutrients
• Amino acids
• Sugars
• Lipoproteins carry fats and cholesterol

• Hormones

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 Composition of Blood

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 Functions of Blood
• Transports molecules, cells
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Waste products
• Immune cells and antibodies
• Hormones

• Regulates temperature
• If body temperature is too high, blood will be shunted to the
body surface to radiate heat.
• If body temperature is too low, blood will be shunted to the body
core to conserve heat.

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 Blood Vessels
• The tubes that transport blood from one place
to another in the body
• Types of blood vessels
• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries

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 Arteries

• Carry blood away from the heart

• Contraction of the ventricles increases the pressure
in the arteries.
• Called systolic blood pressure

• Relaxation of the ventricles decreases the pressure

in the arteries.
• Called diastolic blood pressure

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 Arteries

• Blood pressure readings include both types of

blood pressure.
• Systolic/diastolic
• 120/80

• Have thick, muscular, and elastic walls

• Can stretch when pressure increases

• Branch into arterioles to take blood throughout the

body

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 Veins

• Collect blood from the capillaries and return it

to the heart
• Have very low pressure
• Walls not very muscular

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 Veins

• Have valves to prevent backflow

• Dysfunctional valves cause varicose veins.

• Contraction of leg muscles aids in pushing blood

through veins.
• Sitting or standing for a long time can cause pooling
of blood in the feet.
• Causes swelling
• Can cause fainting because the brain doesn’t get
enough blood

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 The Structure of Arteries, Veins, and
Capillaries

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 Capillaries

• Tiny vessels, one-cell thick

• RBC go through capillaries single file

• Have thin walls

• Only one-cell thick
• Allows materials to diffuse into and out of the blood
• Allows liquid to be exchanged between the blood and tissue
fluid

• Are numerous
• All cells in the body have a capillary nearby.

• Flow of blood through capillaries is slow

• Allows
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 Capillaries

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 The Heart
• Pumps the blood
• Generates the pressure necessary to move
blood through vessels
• Blood must flow to move nutrients to
tissues and waste away from tissues.
• Heart must repeatedly contract in order to
keep blood moving.

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 Mammalian Heart

• Has four chambers with four valves

• Two atria and two ventricles
• Ventricles
• Are larger and more muscular
• Force blood through the arteries to the body
• The aorta and pulmonary artery flow out of the ventricles.
• Atria
• Are smaller with thinner walls
• Pump blood into the ventricles

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 Mammalian Heart

• Atria and ventricles are separated by atrioventricular

valves.
• Valves ensure that the blood only flows in one direction.

• Semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary arteries

• Act as “check valves” to prevent blood from flowing back into
the ventricles when they relax

• Damaged valves causes inefficient pumping.

• Detected as heart murmurs because some of the blood is
being pushed backward
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 The Anatomy of the Heart

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 Mammalian Heart
• Two different sides have different jobs
• The right atrium receives blood from the body.
• The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs.
• Called pulmonary circulation
• Allows for the exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen in the lungs
• The left atrium receives blood from the lungs.
• The left ventricle pumps blood to all other parts of
the body.
• Called systemic circulation
• Allows for the delivery of oxygen, nutrient, and
waste exchange in the tissues
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 Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

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 The Role of Hemoglobin in Gas Transport

• CO is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that can

bind to hemoglobin, even more tightly than O2
does.
• Breathing CO can therefore interfere with the
delivery of O2 to body cells, blocking cellular
respiration and causing rapid death.
• Despite its potentially deadly effects, millions of
Americans willingly inhale CO in the form of
cigarette smoke.

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 The Lymphatic System

• A second circulatory system

• A collection of thin-walled vessels
• Called lymph vessels
• Branch throughout body and lymph organs
• Functions
• Moves fat from digestive system to blood stream
• Transports excess fluid back to cardiovascular
system
• Carries immune cells

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 The Lymphatic System

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 The Lymphatic System

• Lymph
• Fluid tissue that is moved through the lymph
organs via lymph vessels
• Emptied into large veins near the heart
• Moved through lymph vessels by muscle
contraction

• Edema
• Accumulation of fluid in tissues

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 Lymph Organs
• Lymph nodes
• Filter lymph
• Contain large numbers of white blood cells
• Remove microorganisms and foreign particles from the
lymph
• When an infection is active, the lymph nodes enlarge

• Tonsils
• Near the throat
• Contain the tonsils and the adenoids
• Filter pathogens that enter through the mouth and nose

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 Lymph Organs

• Spleen
• Contains a large number of white blood cells
• Filters the blood
• Cleans out pathogens and dying RBCs
• Located just below the diaphragm

• Thymus
• Produces WBCs called T-lymphocytes
• Most active in children
• Shrinks as one ages

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 Lymph Organs

• Red bone marrow

• Found in children’s bones
• Reduced in adult bones
• Produces RBCs, WBCs, and platelets

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 Smoking Damages the Structure and Function
of the Lungs
• Every breath you take exposes your respiratory
tissues to potentially damaging chemicals.
• One of the worst sources of air pollution is cigarette
smoke.
• More than 4,000 different chemicals are contained
in cigarette smoke, many of which are known to be
toxic and even potentially deadly.

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 Smoking Damages the Structure and Function
of the Lungs
• Smoking slowly damages the respiratory system
and leads to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD), characterized by
• a chronic cough and difficulty breathing,
• irritated and swollen epithelial tissue lining the
bronchioles, and
• damaged alveoli in which the walls lose their
elasticity, affecting their ability to expel air.

• With fewer alveoli and less surface area, gas

exchange decreases.

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 Evolution Connection: Evolving Endurance

• Tibetans
• live and work at altitudes above 13,000 feet,
• have evolved the ability to thrive at high altitude,
and
• have a higher frequency of versions of genes that
• are otherwise rare in low-dwelling Chinese groups
and
• are known to contribute to the functioning of the
circulatory and respiratory systems.

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• Iron has three main functions :
• carrying oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
• maintaining a healthy immune system. (Body protects
itself from antigens, which includes virus, bacteria and
foreign substances that make sick)
• aiding energy production.(Iron is constituent of several
enzymes including : iron catalase, peroxidase, and
cytochrome enzymes)