Chapter 31

Animal Tissues and

Organ Systems

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31.1 Stem Cells – It’s All About
Potential
• Animals commonly replace tissues lost to injury
– Invertebrates have the greatest capacity for
regeneration
• Some salamanders can regrow a limb
• Many salamanders and lizards can replace a lost tail
– Mammals do not replace limbs or tails
• Can replace skin and blood cells

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Stem Cells – It’s All About Potential
• Stem cells are key to tissue replacement
– Can differentiate into specialized cells of a specific
body part
– Or divide to produce a duplicate stem cell
• Variations of stem cells
– Totipotent embryonic
• Fertilized egg and first four divisions
• Can develop into a new individual if placed in a womb

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Stem Cells – It’s All About Potential
• Variations of stem cells (cont’d.)
– Pluripotent embryonic
• Can give rise to any of the cell types in the body
– Unipotent
• Can differentiate into one type of cell only
• Few cells can differentiate into muscle or nerve cells
• Growing embryonic stem cells and directing
differentiation into muscle or nerve cells
– Possible method to provide replacement tissues for
patients

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© Cengage Learning 2016
 stem cell
cell type 1

or

stem cell
stem
cell type 2
cell

or

stem stem cell

cell cell type 3

mitosis differentiation
mitosis differentiation Stepped Art
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31.2 Organization of Animal Bodies
• Adult humans have about 400 different kinds of
cells
• Tissues
– Group of cells of a similar type
• Types of tissues in vertebrates
– Epithelial tissue
– Connectivity tissue
– Muscle tissue
– Nervous tissue

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Organization of Animal Bodies
• Organ
– Structural unit consisting of two or more tissues
– Capable of carrying out specific tasks
• Organ system
– Two or more organs and other components
• Interact physically, chemically, or both in a common task
– Example: circulatory system
• Consists of the heart, tissues, and blood vessels
• Transfers gases and solutes to and from body cells

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The Internal Environment
• Animal body is mainly fluid by weight
– Bulk of fluid is intracellular
• Extracellular fluid
– Environment in which cells live
– Bathes cells and carries away wastes
– Must stay within a narrow range of solute
concentration and temperature
• In order for cells to survive

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A C e ll B T is su e C O r g a n (heart) D O r g a n Sy s t e m E O rg a n is m
(cardiac muscle cells) (cardiac muscle) (circulatory system) (human)

(3 A, C, D) © 2016 Cengage Learning; (3B) Ed Reschke; (3E) © Yuri Arcurs/ Shutterstock.com.

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Evolution of Animal Structure
• Anatomy (structural traits) and physiology
(functional traits)
– Genetically determined
– Vary among individuals
– Become optimized for specific environments
– Example: diffusion rate affects body size and shape
• Mechanisms evolved to increase diffusion rate for larger
body sizes

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Evolution of Animal Structure
• Evolution modifies existing structures
– Does not always result in optimal structure
• Example: lungs evolved when aquatic
vertebrates made the move to land
– Lungs evolved from pouches in the gut
– Human throat connects both to digestive tract and
respiratory tract
• Result: food sometimes goes into airway, resulting in
choking

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31.3 Epithelial Tissue
• Sheetlike layer of cells with little extracellular
matrix between them
• Apical surface
– Outer surface that faces the outside world
• Basal surface
– Inside surface secretes a basement membrane
• Examples of epithelial tissue in humans
– Skin, hair, and nails

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Epithelial Tissue
• May be arranged as a single layer or multiple
layers
• Squamous epithelium cells
– Flattened, scalelike shape
• Cuboidal epithelium cells
– Short cylinders that look cubical in cross-section
• Columnar epithelium cells
– Taller than they are wide

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 Simple squamous epithelium
•Lines blood vessels, the heart, and
air sacs of lungs
•Allows substances to cross by
diffusion

2008 Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions, Ray

© 2016 Cengage Learning; photos: From RUSSELL/WOLFE/HERTZ/STARR. Biology, 1E. ©
Simple cuboidal epithelium
•Lines kidney tubules, ducts of
some glands, reproductive tract
•Functions in absorption and

Simmons/Science Source, Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc., © Don W. Fawcett.

secretion, movement of materials

Simple columnar epithelium mucus-secreting gland cell

•Lines some airways, parts of the
gut
•Functions in absorption and
secretion, protection

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Epithelial Tissue
• Simple squamous epithelium facilitates
exchange of materials
– Gases and nutrients diffuse easily
• Stratified squamous epithelium
– Thick, and performs a protective function
– Example: outermost layer of human skin
• Cuboidal and columnar epithelium cells
– Function in movement, absorption, and secretion of
substances
• Have cilia or microvilli
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Epithelial Tissue
• Tight junctions occur only in epithelial tissue
– Plasma membranes of adjacent cells connected securely
– Fluids cannot flow between the cells
– Example: lining of the gut, which functions as a barrier
• Adhering junctions occur where cells experience
mechanical stress
– Connect plasma membranes of adjacent cells
– Do not form a seal

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Epithelial Cell Secretions
• Gland cells
– Secrete substances used outside the cell
• Gland types
– Exocrine
• Ducts or tubes deliver the secretions
– Endocrine
• Do not have ducts
• Release hormones into a body fluid

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Carcinomas – Epithelial Cell Cancers
• Epithelial cell tissue is constantly renewed
– Examples: skin cells, intestinal lining
– Many cell divisions provide opportunity for DNA
errors
• Lead to cancer-causing mutations
• Carcinoma
– Epithelial cell cancer
– Makes up nearly all skin cancers, most breast and
lung cancers

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31.4 Connective Tissues
• Cells scattered in an extracellular matrix of their
own secretions
• Most connective tissue contains
– Fibroblasts
– Polysaccharides
– Collagen
• Most abundant protein in an animal body
• Synthesis requires Vitamin C
– Elastin

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Connective Tissues
• Loose connective tissue
– Most abundant tissue in vertebrates
– Components widely scattered in a gel-like matrix
– Surrounds organs, nerves, and blood vessels
• Dense, irregular connective tissue
– Collagen fibers randomly arranged
– Can withstand stretching in any direction

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Connective Tissues
• Dense, regular connective tissue
– Fibroblasts are arranged in orderly rows
• Between parallel, tightly packed bundles of collagen fibers
– Maximizes strength in a single direction
– Main tissue in tendons and ligaments
• Specialized connective tissues
– Adipose tissue, cartilage bone tissue, and blood

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 collagen fiber
fibroblast
elastin fiber
A Loose connective tissue
•Underlies most epithelia
•Provides elastic support and
serves as a fluid reservoir
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collagen fibers nucleus
collagen fat cell
fibers fibroblast
(adipocyte)
bulging with
stored fat
B Dense, irregular C Dense, regular connective D Adipose tissue
connective tissue tissue •Underlies skin and occurs
•In deep skin layers, around •In tendons connecting muscle around heart and kidneys
intestine, and in kidney capsule to bone and ligaments that •Stores energy, provides
•Binds parts, provides support attach bone to bone insulation, cushions and
and protection •Provides stretchable attach- protects some body parts
ment between body parts
(8A top) Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (8B–C top) Ed Reschke; (8D top) Science Source; (8A–D bottom) © 2016 Cengage Lea
31.5 Muscle Tissues
• Skeletal muscle tissue
– Pulls on bones to move body parts
– Cells are long and cylindrical
– Have a striated (striped) appearance
– Voluntary muscle
• Can deliberately make the cells contract
– Stores glycogen

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Muscle Tissues
• Cardiac muscle tissue
– Occurs only in the heart wall
– Consists of branching cells, each with a nucleus
– Cells connected by adhering junctions
– Gap junctions ensure signals to contract move
quickly through the muscle

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Muscle Tissues
• Smooth muscle tissue
– Located in the wall of some blood vessels and
internal organs
– Consist of unbranched cells with a nucleus
– Cells tapered at both ends
– Not striated
– Contracts more slowly than skeletal muscle tissue
• Contractions can be sustained longer

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31.6 Nervous Tissue
• Neurons and the cells that support them
• Neurons: signaling cells
– Send and receive electrochemical signals
– Signals travel along plasma membrane to the end of
cytoplasmic extensions
• Release chemical signaling molecules that diffuse across a
small gap to an adjacent neuron
• Types of neurons
– Sensory, interneurons, motor neurons

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Nervous Tissue
• Neuroglial cells
– Keep neurons positioned where they should be
– Provide neurons with nutrients
– Wrap around the cytoplasmic extensions
• Speed the rate of electrical signal travel

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31.7 Organ Systems
• Integumentary system
– Skin, hair, and nails
• Nervous system
– Brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and nerves
• Endocrine system
– Glands and cells that secrete hormones
• Muscular system
– Individual muscles used to move the body

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Organ Systems
• Skeletal system
– Body’s framework
• Circulatory system
– Heart and blood vessels
• Lymphatic system
– Contains vessels that move fluid from tissues to
blood
• Respiratory system
– Lungs and their airways

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Organ Systems
• Digestive system
– Includes gut, liver, and pancreas
• Urinary system
– Kidneys, bladder, and ducts
• Reproductive system
– Includes gamete-making organs and ducts through
which the gametes travel

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 1 Integumentary System 2 Nervous System 3 Endocrine System
Protects body from injury, Detects external and Secretes hormones that
dehydration, pathogens; internal stimuli; control activity of other
moderates temperature; coordinates responses organ sys - tems. (Male
excretes some wastes; to stimuli; integrates testes added.)
detects external stimuli. organ system
activities.

4 Muscular 5 Skeletal 6 Circulatory

System System System

Moves the body Supports and Distributes
and its parts; protects body materials and heat
maintains posture; parts; site of throughout the
produces heat to muscle attach - body; helps main -
maintain body ment; produces tain pH.
temperature. red blood cells;
stores minerals.

© 2016 Cengage Learning

© Cengage Learning 2016

 7 Lymphatic System
Collects and returns tissue
fluid to the blood; defends
the body against infection,
cancers.
10 Urinary System
Maintains volume and
composition of blood;
excretes excess fluid and
wastes.
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8 Respiratory System 9 Digestive System
Takes in the oxygen for Takes in food and water;
aerobic respiration; breaks food down and
expels carbon dioxide absorbs needed
released by this nutrients, then
pathway. eliminates food residues.
11 Reproductive System
Female: Produces eggs; nourishes and protects
developing offspring.
Male: Produces sperm and transfers them to a
female.
© 2016 Cengage Learning
© Cengage Learning 2016
 food, water intake oxygen inhaled

Digestive Respiratory carbon

dioxide
System System exhaled

nutrients,
carbon
water, oxygen
dioxide
solutes

Urinary
Circulatory System
System
water,
solutes

excretion transport of elimination of soluble

of food materials to wastes, excess water,
residues and from cells and salts Stepped Art
© Cengage Learning 2016 Figure 31.14 p528
31.8 Human Integumentary System
• Skin has largest surface area of all vertebrate
organs
• Skin layers
– Epidermis (upper layer)
– Dermis (lower layer)
– Hypodermis
• Consists of connective and adipose tissue
• Can be thin or thick in different body areas

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Human Integumentary System
• Skin functions
– Contains sensory receptors to keep the brain
informed of external conditions
– Serves as a barrier to keep out pathogens
– Helps retain internal temperature
– Helps conserve water in land vertebrates
– Produces Vitamin D in humans

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Structure of Human Skin
• Epidermis
– Stratified squamous epithelium
– Many adhering junctions
– No extracellular matrix
– Consists mainly of keratinocytes
• New cells replace the older ones toward the
skin’s surface
– As cells move outward, they become flat, lose their
nucleus and die

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Structure of Human Skin
• Melanocytes
– Make pigments called melanin
• Donate them to keratinocytes
– Cause the variations in skin color in humans
• Melanin functions as a sunscreen
– When exposed to sunlight, melanocytes produce
more brownish-black melanin

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 hair

duct of
e pid e r m is sweat
stratified gland
squamous
epithelium
blood
vessel

pressure-
dermis sensitive
mainly sensory
dense receptor
connective
tissue smooth
muscle

sweat
gland
hair
h y p o d e r m is follicle
mainly adipose
tissue and loose
connective tissue sebaceous
gland

left, Eye of Science/Science Source; right, © 2016 Cengage Learning

© Cengage Learning 2016
Structure of Human Skin
• Dermis
– Dense connective tissue with stretchy elastin fibers
and supportive collagen fibers
– Thicker than the epidermis
• Blood vessels, sensory receptors, and lymph
vessels are woven through the dermis
• Dermis lies at the base of each hair follicle

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Evolution and the Human Skin
• Human-primate comparison
– Humans have far more sweat glands
– Humans have shorter, finer body hairs
• Theory: evolution of shorter hair occurred
simultaneously with transition to bipedalism
– Shorter hairs would cool the body
• Dark skin in all African populations
– Considered an adaptation to living in sunlight

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31.9 Negative Feedback in
Homeostasis
• Sensory receptor
– Cell or cell component that detects a specific
stimulus
– Sends information to the brain
– Brain signals effectors (muscles and glands) to take
necessary action
• Negative feedback
– Change causes a response that reverses the change
– Example: thermostat-controlled air conditioner

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Negative Feedback in Homeostasis
• Negative feedback used to keep body’s internal
temperature stable
– Process shown in Figure 31.19 on next slide

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© Cengage Learning 2016
Negative Feedback in Homeostasis
Sensory Receptors Brain
Stimulus
Exertion on a hot Receptors monitor internal Brain receives signals from
day raises internal temperature and signal the sensory receptors and
body temperature brain when it increases. signals muscles and glands.

Response
Body temperature Muscles and Glands
declines Skeletal muscles Smooth muscle Sweat glands Endocrine glands
in the chest wall in blood vessels secrete more that affect general
contract more supplying the sweat, which activity levels slow
frequently, skin relax and cools the secretion of
increasing the widen; more body as it hormones that
rate of breathing. blood flows to evaporates. stimulate activity.
skin, and more
heat radiates to
surrounding air.

Stepped Art
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Points to Ponder
• Why are stem cells so valuable and sought after
in embryological research?
• Why do some groups label stem cell research as
unethical?
• What are the minimal tasks that a living cell and
organism must perform to remain alive?

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