STEM CELL

Origin Of Cells
• Sperm & Egg cells fuse  Cell division  Stem cell niche to originate new cells from
• STEM CELL = Undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialised somatic cell types: Self-
renew for stem cell niche; Can differentiate into multiple cell types
• Self-renew: Ability to undergo cell division and proliferate with very limited capacity – EMBRYOGENESIS
• Asymmetric Cell Division: Differentiation into other cell types & Retain stem cell population

WHERE THEY CAME FROM

• ZYGOTE – TOTIPOTENT = Can form any cell type in the body
• EMBRYO – PLURIPOTENT = Can form almost any cell type in the body
• ADULT (tissue) – MULTIPOTENT = Can form a limited number of cell types
• ENGINEERED – INDUCED PLURIPOTENT = Biologically engineered to act like embryonic
stem cells
TYPE OF STEM CELLS
Totipotent Stem Cells Multipotent Stem Cells
• Embryo genesis • Have same basic features of all stem
• Ability to become any cell type in a fully developed cells
human • Self-renew for long periods of time &
• Ability to replicate in unlimited numbers without losing Differentiate into specialized cells with
their TOTAL POTENCY specific functions
• Curative capacity for different diseases • UTILITY
Limited in ability to differentiate
UTILITY • *Haematopoiesis occurs in bone
• Foetal stem cells
• Differentiation into any cell marrow = All cell differentiating into
type in the body blood and immune system cells
• Huge therapeutic value originally derived from bone
• From very early embryos = • marrow
2 main CELL LINEAGES that give rise to al red and white blood cells
Limited availability MYELOID LINEAGE = Derived from common myeloid progenitor
• Ethical issues with deriving cells – give rise to RBCs, platelets, granulocytes, monocytic cells;
these tissues LYMPHOID LINEAGE = Derived from common lymphoid progenitor
cells – give rise to all lymphocytes (B cells, T cells, NK cells)
Pluripotent Stem Cells • MSCs have been discovered in MOST tissues in the body
• ‘True’ stem cells • Difficult to isolate/culture
• Potential to differentiate into almost • Limited differentiation capacity
any cell in the body • Isolated from patients = No rejection
• Pluripotency is lost over time & can
only become certain types of cells
UTILITY
• Embryonic stem cells
• Differentiate into ALMOST
any cell type in body
• Huge therapeutic value
• Treat wide range of diseases
INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS
Utility
• Derived from fully differentiated adult cells
• Requires treatment with a specific growth factors in culture to dedifferentiate
adult stem cells into embryonic-like stem cells
• Avoid ethical issues surrounding foetal/embryonic SCs
• Limited capacity for differentiation
• Shinya Yamanaka

Stem Cell Technology

• 3Rs: Replace; Regenerate; Research
• New stem cell treatments have to be tested for
safety and effectiveness even if OWN stem
cell – migration to other parts of body,
inappropriate making of cell types, carry
tumour risk
TISSUES OF BODY
Tissues
• TISSUE = Group of cells that carry out a specific function; A level of organization in
multicellular organisms that consist of a group of structurally and functionally similar
cells and their intercellular material (in physiology)
4 TYPES OF TISSUES
• CONNECTIVE TISSUE – Support other tissue/cells; Connect and differentiate between different
organs
• EPITHELIAL TISSUE – Covering of different organs/tissues
• MUSCLE TISSUE – Motor function of human body, movement
• NERVOUS TISSUE – Control what certain organs and tissues do
GERM LAYERS
• Germ layers in gastrula eventually form all tissue types and organs

• ENDODERM: intestines, oesophagus, stomach, lungs, liver,

pancreas
• MESODERM: inner layers of the skin, muscle, bone, kidneys, heart
Organs • ECTODERM: outer layers of the skin, hair, brain, nervous system
• ORGAN = A group of tissues in a living organism that have been adapted to perform a
specific function (in biology) – 10 organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular,
nervous, endocrine (hormonal), digestive, respiratory, circulatory, excretory, reproductive
EPITHELIAL TISSUES 1
 = A sheet of cells that cover a tissue surface, line a cavity or form glandular structures
 Depends on where epithelial tissues are located, specialised
 Function of epithelial tissues: protection, secretion, absorption, transport, ion filtration, detection of sensation, mucous production
 Epithelium has a continuous cell layer: skin (keratinocytes), lung, mouth, intestine, salivary gland, urinary tract
Generalised Epithelial Tissue
• Single layer (or multiple layers)
• Composed entirely of epithelial cells (differentiated)
• Specialised (Depending on function)
• Apical surface (luminal)
• Basal surface
• Cell junctions (tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions)
• Underlying basement membrane (reticular connective tissue)
• Underlying connective tissue (nerves, capillaries)
2 Tissues
• ENDOTHELIUM: Line capillaries, highly specialised epithelial
tissues
• MESOTHELIUM: Simple squamous epithelium cells; Separating
different organ systems
EPITHELIAL TISSUES 2
Types Of Epithelium 1
SHAPE VS
THICKNESS

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION,
• DESCRIPTION: Single layer of flattened cells, Disc shaped central nuclei, Sparse cytoplasm
LOCATION 1
• FUNCTION: Adapted for passage of small molecules through compartments by diffusion and filtration; Secrete
lubricating substances in serious membranes of the lung or heart
• EXAMPLES: kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart; blood vessels; lymphatic vessels

• DESCRIPTION: Single layer of cuboidal cells, Large spherical central nuclei

• FUNCTION: Secretion & Absorption, Can be active and pump products in and out of cavity or passive
• EXAMPLES: kidney tubules & ducts, secretory parts of small glands, ovary surface

• DESCRIPTION: Single layer of tall cells, Round to oval nuclei, Some cells have cilia, May have mucous-secreting unicellular
glands, goblet cells
• FUNCTION: Absorption & Secretion of mucus & enzymes & other substances, Ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive
cells)
• EXAMPLES: non-ciliated line digestive tract (stomach to anal canal) & gall bladder & some glands, ciliated lines small bronchi
EPITHELIAL TISSUES 3
Types Of Epithelium 2
STRUCTURE, FUNCTION,
LOCATION 2 • DESCRIPTION: Several layers – thick membrane, Basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active and
undergo mitosis & Surface cells are squamous, Keratinized – dead surface cells full of keratin
• FUNCTION: Protect underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
• EXAMPLES: non-keratinized forms moist linings of oesophagus & mouth & vagina, keratinized forms epidermis of skin
• DESCRIPTION: 2 layers of cuboidal cells
• FUNCTION: Protective tissue
• EXAMPLES: largest ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands

• DESCRIPTION:
• FUNCTION: Secretion & Protection
• EXAMPLES: male urethra, ducts of some glands

• DESCRIPTION: Single layer of cells with differing heights & nuclei at different levels, may have goblet cells and cilia
• FUNCTION: Secretion of mucus, Propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
• EXAMPLES: non-ciliated in male sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands, ciliated versions line the trachea and
upper respiratory tract

• DESCRIPTION: Resembles stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal, Basal cells cuboidal or columnar, Surface cells
dome-shaped or squamous
• FUNCTION: Permits distention of bladder or uterus as it stretches readily
• EXAMPLES: bladder, ureters, urethra, uterus
EPITHELIAL TISSUES 4
Glands
• = Formed by the in-folding of epithelium
• EXOCRINE = Secrete products through ducts
• ENDOCRINE = Secrete products into blood via specialised basal cells
STRUCTURE OF EXOCRINE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
GLANDS • Tend to secrete hormones
CONNECTIVE TISSUES 1
Functions Characteristics
• Support & Give strength to tissues • Consists of cells
& organs • Extracellular matrix/material =
• Separates & Connects different several macromolecules that provide
tissues structurally stable, mechanical
• Found throughout the entire body support to tissues which are often
• Characterised by non-living specific to a cell type or connective
extracellular matrix between cells tissue type – made of ground
• Stores energy – metabolic & substance, matrix, fibres
kinetic energy (collagen/elastin) – proteoglycans,
• Supplies hormones polysaccharides, water, proteins
• Nutritional support • Large fibre cells – collagen/elastin
• Site of immune reactions • Ground substance – glycans,
proteoglycans
Cells
• FIBROBLAST = Archetypal connective tissue; Biosynthesis of various
extracellular matrix (collagen)
• MACROPHASE = Immune cells, tissue resident, scattered
• NEUTROPHIL = Tissue that migrate into tissues
• LYMPHOCYTES = Tissue that migrate into tissues
• MAST CELL = Granular immune cells in connective tissues, innate
immunity
• NERVE CELL
• ADIPOCYTE (FAT CELL)
Types Of Connective Tissue
• Mesoderm from gastrula develops into mesenchymal cells  Invade other germ layers 
Differentiate into FIBROBLAST (into fibrocytes to derive connective tissue proper), CHONODROBLAST (into chondrocytes to derive cartilage (&
bone)), OSTEOBLAST (into osteocytes to derive bone), HAEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS, HSCs, (into all different cells in blood)
CONNECTIVE TISSUES 2
Fibroblast & Connective Tissue Proper
• Elastic dense connective tissue has a higher proportion of elastin (often found in embryonic tissue)
DENSE – regular LOOSE – areolar
• TENDONS – attach muscle to bones • BENEATH EPITHELIA; AROUND ORGANS AND
• LIGAMENTS – attach bones to bones CAPILLARIES
• Parallel collagen fibres; High tensile strength; Poor blood • Protect
Collagenorgans;
fibres House
– someimmune cells and tissue fluid
supply elastic or reticular fibres,
fibroblasts & macrophages
within gel-like matrix

LOOSE – reticular
• RETIBULAR FIBRES (collagen), RETIVULAR
CELLS, MACROPHAGES, LYMPHOCYTES,
• MAST CELLS
LYMPHOID ORGANS
(lymph nodes, spleen,
DENSE – irregular thymus, bone marrow)
• SKIN (DERMIS)
• Forms a ‘stroma’ – a soft
• SUB-MUCOSA OF DIGESTIVE TRACT
• extracellular matrix
ORGAN & JOINT CAPSULE (fibrous)
• Bundle of collagen fibres – some
elastic fibres, fibroblast so LOOSE – adipose
flexible; High tensile strength • UNDER SKIN, AROUND KIDNEYS, EYEBALLS,
ABDOMEN, BREASTS
• Adipocytes (fat cells), Fat droplets,
Macrophages, Fibroblasts in gel-
like matrix
• Insulation, Protect organs, Reserve
food store, Produce hormones
CONNECTIVE TISSUES 3
Chondroblast & Cartilage, Bone
ELASTIC
• EXTERNAL EAR, EPIGLOTTIS
• Collagen & Elastin fibres; Firm matrix;
No nerves or blood vessels
• Maintains shape and flexibility
FIBROCARTILAGE
• INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS, PUBIC
SYMPHYSIS, DISCS OF KNEES
• White fibrous tissue; Thick collagen fibres
• Absorb compression; High tensile strength
HYALINE
• EMBRYONIC SKELETON, ENDS OF LONG
BONES (SPONGY BONE), COSTAL CARTILAGE
OF RIBS, NOSE, TRACHEA, LARYNX
• Collagen fibres; Firm matrix; No nerves or blood
vessels
• Supports, Reinforces, Resists compression

Osteoblast & Bone

OSTEOCLAST
• Found in bones
Hard calcified matrix with many collagen
fibres;
Highly vascularised (living tissue);
Supports skeleton & Protects tissues BY
enclosing;
Provides levers for muscles to exert force;
Stores calcium, minerals, fat;
• Bone marrow = Site of haematopoiesis (blood
CONNECTIVE TISSUES 4
Haematopoietic Stem Cells & Blood
• HSCs = Found in bone marrow to form red blood cells,
erythrocytes, and white blood cells, leukocytes, which
enter the blood following HSC differentiation
• Blood – connective tissue – transports gases & nutrients &
waste & immune cells; extracellular fluid of blood, plasma
(matrix of blood)
BLOOD SERUM & BLOOD
• Serum is removed after whole blood is allowed to clot
•PLASMA
Cells contained within blood plasma (RBC), can interfere with some research assays (levels of proteins/lipid)
• Clotting removes all red blood cells from blood preparation = A larger amount of serum can be removed from
whole blood compared to plasma
• Blood contains several coagulation factors that help form a blood clot (fibrinogen, factor VII, thrombin)
• Anticoagulant is added to whole blood to collect plasma
MUSCLE TISSUES 1
Types Of Muscle
• Muscle is required for movement: skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle
• Muscle tissue is predominantly comprised of muscle cell which function as muscle
contraction
• Nervous system controls when a muscle contracts
Skeletal Muscle
• Found all over the body
• Approximately 650 different kinds
• Attached to bone for structural support &
lever system to contract
• Attach either directly or via tendons = Give SKELETAL MUSCLE
tensile leverage = To contract • Muscle cell contraction requires innervation from the central
INNERVATION
• Produce voluntary movement nervous system via the peripheral nervous system
• Maintains posture • Voluntary or Somatic nervous system
• Controls sphincters and swallowing • Innervates at neuro-muscular junctions
• Skeletal muscle is the only type of muscle under voluntary control
SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS • Muscle contracts when we decide to make a movement (run, jump,
• Multi-nucleated
• swim, swallow, deficate)
Each muscle cells, MYOBLAST, fuse to
form muscle fibre
• Nuclei located at periphery of fibre
• Each muscle fibre surrounded by
connective tissue, ENDOMYSIUM
• Muscle fibres contain many
MYOFIBRILS, composed of
MYOFILAMENTS  Myofilaments
and sarcomere give muscle a striated
appearance
• Actin & Myosin allow myofilaments to
MUSCLE TISSUES 2
Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle, CARDIOMYOCYTE, is striated
• Comprised of myofibrils characterised by sarcomeres
• Short, Branched cells
• Structure allow them to communicate with other cells = For
coordinated heart contraction of blood around the body
CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS
• Between each cardiac muscle cells = INTERCALLATED DISC
• Intercallated disks contain gap junctions = Allow the rapid transport of
ions between neighbouring cells
• Electrical stimulus can spread rapidly across cardiac tissue = Allow
cariomyocytes to coordinate contraction = Allow heart to pump
• Controlled by the autonomic nervous system
SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL
• Found in most organs
CONTRACTION
• Controls several bodily functions
• Regulates blood pressure (blood vessels)
• Regulates airflow (airways)
• Helps digestion and peristalsis (digestive tract)
• Control urination (bladder wall)
• Controls contraction during birth (uterus)
• LONGITUDINAL MUSCLE = Runs parallel to
organ
Contraction shortens length
• CIRCULAR MUSCLE = Run around the
circumference of organ
Contraction constricts diameter
• Controlled by autonomic nervous system
• Smooth muscle = No myofibrils = Not striated
• Myofilaments scattered throughout sarcoplasm
• Actin & Myosin contraction cause muscle
Nerve Tissue 1
Nervous System Organisation
• CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: Brain, Spinal Cord
• PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: Motor neurones, Sensory neurones – everything
outside CNS
• *sympathetic (prepare for stress) & parasympathetic (return to normality) = ENTERIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM – complementary to each other to maintain homeostasis
Nervous System Function Cells Of Central Nervous System
• SENSORY = Sense the internal & external • NEURON = Transmit nerve signal to others in close
environment proximity - most common, architectural, located through
• INTEGRATION = Interpret & Respond to CNS
sensory information • GLIAL CELLS
• CONVEY INFORMATION = PNS to CNS to Astrocyte – ion balance, exchange nutrients with blood
PNS Microglial cell – immune protection, repair damage
• MOTOR RESPONSE = Respond to Oligodendrocyte – insulate neurones, produce myelin
information • EPENDYMAL CELL = Produce cerebro-spinal fluid
Cells Of Peripheral Nervous System
• Main: SCHWANN CELL &
SATELLITE CELL
• SCHWANN CELL – Has myelin
sheath, as oligodendrocyte; Always
associated with neurone cell body;
Synaptic relay between neurons
• SATELLITE CELL – Relay
information to neurones to help PNS
maintain homeostasis to respond to
various signals (inflammatory, pain)
• Both associated with ganglia
(GANGLION = collection of neuronal
Nerve Tissue 2
Nerve Signal Transmission
• Pre-synaptic cell = Lots of dendrites = Receive information
• Cell body with nucleus = Transcription & Transcription but NOT in Signal transduction
• Axon = Conduct action potential over a long distance to produce nerve impulse; Surrounded by myelin sheath
that insulates axon and speeds up the action potential transmission
• Signal only via one direction (pre-synaptic to post-synaptic)
• 2 cells meet on neurological synapse = Form contact with neurones to relay action potential
• Vesicles at the end of post-synaptic end, synaptic terminal  Released into neurological synapse when
stimulated by action potential  Receptor on other side to recognize neurotransmitter  Relay action potential
Neuron Functional Classification
• SENSORY NEURONES = Relay information from periphery via peripheral nervous system to central
nervous system, AFFERENT TRANSMISSION – sometimes go through ganglion sitting at interface of
PNS & CNS
• INTENEURONES = Able to relay information by providing intermediary between sensory and motor
• MOTOR NEURONES = Relay information from CNS to PNS to effectors (muscles, glands)
Neuron Morphology Classification
• UNIPOLAR – single fibre – associated with sensory neurones
• BIPOLAR – dendrite at one end, axon at the other – associated with sensory neurones
• PSEUDOUNIPOLAR – single fibre but branches close to cell body into dendrite and axon –
associated with ganglia
• MULTIPOLAR – dendrites extending from cell body, axon fibre (most neurones 99% in body)
Nerve Tissue 3
Myelination
• Speeds up action potential transmission
• Oligodendrocytes in CNS & Schwann cell s in PNS Layers of myelin = Insulate
axon
• Gaps between myelin sheath = Nodes of Ranvier = Promote repeatibility & spread
of action potential down the axon by jumping = Speed up speed of depolarisation
• Multiple sclerosis = Autoimmune disease where attack myelin sheath = Difficult
walking, Vision problem, Muscle spasms, Balance & Coordination problem
• Brain separated into white (myelin insulate axons of neurones in brain –
transmitting) & grey matter (dendrites & cell body – processing)