3 MAIN DEFENCES

Passive Physical Barrier

TEAR GLANDS
• Tears act as FLUSHING AGENT
• Contain LYSOZYME enzyme that can destroy
bacteria
SWEAT GLANDS
• Sweat & Sebaceous
glands produce fatty
acids that stop bacterial
growth on skin
AIRWAY MUCOSA SKIN
• Formed of thick layers as formidable barrier
• Airways secrete mucous that trap
bacteria and viruses to prevent their BUT ONLY when unbroken
•
attachment to the underlying cells Cuts and scrapes allow invaders inside
GUT MUCOSA GUT ACIDITY NORMAL GUT FLORA
• Gastrointestinal tract secrete mucous which • Gastric juices • Gut is colonized by commensal
trap bacteria and viruses to prevent their are very acidic bacteria who can out-compete any
attachment to underlying cells which kill lots foreign invading bacteria for essential
of different nutrients and docking sites
bacteria

URINATION UROGENITAL MUCOSA

• Peeing gets rid of waste fluid which makes difficult for bacteria that • Urogenital tract secretes mucous which trap bacteria and
have invaded from the outside via urethra to attach to the bladder wall viruses to prevent their attachment to the underlying cells

Innate Immune System Adaptive Immune System

VARIOUS SPECIALISED T-CELLS
• Cells are always patrolling: Natural killer (NK) cells, Eosinophils,
CELLS • Lymphocyte produced in thymus
Basophils, Mast cells • Help in immune regulation
• Destroy infected and inappropriate cells
VARIOUS SPECIALISED
•PROTEINS
Complement, Interferons, Acute phase proteins B-CELLS
• Lymphocyte produced by bone marrow
INFLAMMATORY • Produce antibodies
• Collection of physiological changes triggered by trauma (injury,
RESPONSE
infection) – “triple-response”
INNATE / NATIVE / NATURAL IMMUNITY
 Always present even when there is no infection
Circulating Cells
NEUTROPHIL
• Most common white cell with 2 types of granules
• Granules contain a number of different agents =
Released to fight, kill and digest invaders
• All-rounders & First line of defence
MACROPHAGE
• Born in bone marrow
• Matured in various tissues
• Engulf and destroy bacteria
via phagocytosis
MAST CELL
• Contain granules, which its release is triggered by
injury or signals from other parts of the immune system
• Granules contain histamines = Increase blood flow
during inflammation
• Granules contain proteases = Destroy invaders

NATURAL KILLER (NK)

•CELL
Secrete perforin and granzyme
proteases = Kill cells that have been
infected by virus
EOSINOPHIL
• Secrete perforins and peroxidases and
other substances = Fight invaders
(helminth worms, other classes of
parasites)
BASOPHIL
• Similar to eosinophils and mast cells
• Make up the smallest numbers of
circulating cells of innate immune system
INFLAMMATION 1
Process Of Inflammation
PHAGOCYTOSIS DEGRANULATION – chemical
• Few different cells can recognize, •weapons
Most innate cells carry pre-made packages of granules that they can
engulf and digest invaders empty (degranulate) onto invaders
• Macrophages & Neutrophils • Substances – digestive enzymes, reactive oxygen intermediates, toxins,
…
Inflammation
SIGNS OF (ACUTE)PROCESS BEHIND
INFLAMMATION • Vasodilatation – blood vessels widen so many things can flow through more for help
• Redness • Oedema – swelling, liquid infiltrate tissues
• Pain • Flare – skin flushing due to lots of blood in the infected area
• Swelling • Acute cellular phase – white blood cells infiltrate the area, tissues to go to where needed
• Heat • Resolution – area healed  IF CAN’T HEAL – Innate immunity system seal it off away from the body as
GRANULOMA
INFLAMMATION 2
Triggers Of Inflammation
• Powerful response
• COMPLEMENT PROTEIN = Collection of small liver-derived proteins
patrolling blood in an inactive state  Activation (detection of plasma leaking into
the spaces between cells in tissue) triggers a chain reaction of protein cleavage 
Culmination in the release of cytokines (Factors secreted by immune cells that
activate other cells)  Massive amplification of distress signal & Activation of
MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX  Destroy bacteria
• Complement system activation unleashes lots of action against invaders:
Inflammation; Cytolysis (= formation of a lethal channel in bacteria – Membrane
Attack Complex); Opsinization (= coating that makes bacteria ‘tastier’ to
phagocytes)
1. Patrolling complement protein C3b coats bacteria in the blood
2. Chain reaction of complement cleavages and activations
3. Nearby mast cells release their granules into interstitial spaces
4. Attract circulating neutrophils in blood & Facilitate their infiltration into the
tissues = DIAPEDESIS / EXTRAVASATION
5. NEUTROPHIL = Cells which patrol the bloodstream are attracted to an area of
tissue distress by signals (interleukin-1 cytokine released by mast cells) &
ENDOTHELIAL CELL = Line the blood vessels and become dilatated and retract
in response to distress signals (basement membrane underneath)
6. ROLLING: Neutrophils can’t attach to endothelial cells normally due to fast
blood flow = Mast cells express a protein, P-SELECTIN on their surfaces which
bind neutrophils = Slow neutrophils down
7. FIRM ATTACHMENT: Neutrophil encounters a CYTOKINE RECEPTOR on
the endothelial cell surface which can activate the neutrophil
8. MIGRATION: Neutrophil squeeze between 2 cells to enter tissues to attack
bacteria
ADAPTIVE / ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
 Requires initial exposure to stimulate future responses
 Is exquisitely specific to a particular invader
Immune Cells & Proteins
T CELL B CELL ANTIBODY
• Various types exist • Produce & • Proteins produced by B-cells that
• Helper T-Cells = Help Secrete recognize 1 unique shape
activate B-cells antibodies (ANTIGEN)  Bind to that
• Cytotoxic T-cells = with help shape to immobilize the invader
Recognize infected or from bearing that shape OR to target it
cancerous cells and kill helper T- for phagocytosis by another cell
them in close proximity cells • 5 kinds of antibodies – IgA, IgG,
by releasing toxic agents IgD, IgE, IgM
Self & Non-Self Recognition
• All cells in body express integral membrane proteins – MHC (MAJOR
HISTOCOMPATABILITY COMPLEX) / HLA (HUMAN LEUKOCYTE ANTIGEN) =
Function as “self” flag and anything without these are recognized as invaders
• MHC-I = General self-flag on all cells from virus – if a cell is infected and displays foreign
markers in parallel to it, MHC-I & PEPTIDE  cytotoxic T-cells can recognize and kill it
• MHC-II = Specialised self-flag on certain immune cells (B-cells, macrophages)  helper T-
cells see this and know to offer help in activation
• MHC-III = Specialised class
• Difference in the similar structure of MHC-I and MHC-II: class-I – has only 1 membrane-
spanning protein subunit in association with a small protein, BETA-2 MICROGLOBULIN &
class-II – comprised of 2 similar proteins with 2 subunits each
ANTIBODY
 ANTIGEN = Any agents that can induce an adaptive immune response (proteins make great antigens but sugars aren’t); All B-
cells with capacity to produce antibodies against self-antigens are deleted
 EPITOPE = Shape on an antigen that is recognised by antibody
 ANTIBODY = Proteins comprised of 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains; Variations of tips of Y shape are where antibody can
recognize and bind a unique antigen
 ANTIGEN-BINDING DOMAIN = Diversity in binding pocket is generated by massive genetic recombination during B-cell
development
 LIGHT CHAIN = Smallest of the 2 subunits of an antibody
• ANTIBODY
HEAVY CHAIN BINDING – Antibodies
= Biggest can immobilise
of the 2 subunits – insertedtheir
into targets & flag them
the membrane up for&destruction
of B-cells via complement and phagocytes
act like receptor
• VACCINATION – Vaccines are a mixture of antigens derived from a pathogen (a piece of its protein coat, killed or weakened
version of entire pathogen) which stimulate antibody response
• VIRUS ATTACK = Virus or other pathogen’s native antigens elicit immune response
Antibody Binding
1. Antigen presented to B-cell by other cells, ANTIGEN –PRESENTING CELLS
2. Antigen only bind to the matching antibody receptor on 1 specific B-cell onto B-CELL
RECEPTOR (= MEMBRANE BOUND ANTIBODY) [B-cells display a receptor born of massive
genetic variation]
3. B-cell engulfs, internalises, entire receptor/antigen complex, process it, display it in the context of
MHC-II on its surface
4. This flag attracts helper T-cell which activated B-cell  B-cell proliferates and grow many clones
& Stimulate T-cell to make more helper clones
5. B-cell clones develop and differentiate into 2 types of cells: Plasma cells (= bigger and more
specialised) & Memory cells (looks like original)
6. Plasma cell secretes, releases lots of antibodies exactly same as original receptor that its progenitor
cell was expressing when encountered antigen & A small subset of memory cells produced
Memory
• Repetition of process  More T-cells  More memory cells
• Faster response & More antibodies made
T-CELL
Helper T-Cells – B-Cells Helper T-Cells – Cytotoxic / Killer T-Cells
1. B cell presents antigen in terms of MHC-II 1. Virus-infected cells loaded with viral antigens, displayed on the cell surface
2. T cell attracted to physically dock and bind with T cell receptor, in the context of MHC-I
CD4 (2 different docking protein) 2. This flag attracts cytotoxic T-cells (CTL – cytotoxic T-lymphocyte)
3. MHC-II/antigen complex can co-bind T cell receptor 3. Cell-to-cell binding occurs via T-cell receptor in the context of CD8 protein
4. Physically touching to activate – 4 proteins come together as T 4. Binding stimulates T-cell to degranulate = Release PERFORIN protein
cell act very locally (makes holes in virally infected cell)
5. Growth factor, activating cytokines (chemoattractant), secreted 5. Infected cell bursts open due to full of holes = LYSIS
in immediate environment 6. Cytotoxic T-cells contacted by helper T-cells = Clonal expansion of
6. Cytokines trigger B cell to proliferate cytotoxic killer T-cells

Helper T-Cells – Macrophages

1. SAME AS BEFORE
(MHC-II/antigen
presentation, T-cell
receptor/CD4
interaction)
2. Phagocytes ingest and
destroy invaders
• RESOLUTION = How virus infects a person via being sneezed on by
infected person through clearance of virus
• Immune cell proper: tissue resident innate immune cells – macrophage
• Dendritic cell – relate ___ to innate cells
• Cd4&8 help t cells to correctly identify mhc
• B cell chop it up then absorb then present via mhc ii so it attracts t
helper to release more antibodies
• Virus – dendrite cells – mhc ii – t helper