Chapter 4

Cell structure and function

4-1
 The Cell Theory

 All living things are made of cells.

 A cell-The basic unit of all living things.
 Robert Hooke coined the term “cell.”
– Look at cork cells under a simple microscope.

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 The Historical Context of the Cell
Theory

 Anton van Leeuwenhoek

– Made better microscopes
– Used them to look at a variety
of substances and identified
animalcules

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 The Historical Context of the Cell
Theory

 Mathias Jakob Schleiden

– Concluded that all plants were made of cells
 Theodor Schwann
– Concluded that all animals were made of cells

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 Initial Observations of Cells
 Cell wall
– Outer non-living part of
plant cells
 Protoplasm
– Interior living portion of the
cell
– Nucleus
 Contains the genetic
information of the cell
– Cytoplasm
 Fluid part of the
protoplasm
– Organelles
 “Little organs” within the
protoplasm

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 Different Kinds of Cells

 Prokaryotic
– Structurally simple cells
– Lack a nucleus
– Lack most other organelles
– Bacteria
 Eukaryotic cells
– More complex
– Have a nucleus
– Have a variety of organelles
– Plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae
– Typically much larger than prokaryotic cells

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 Major Cell Types

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 Cell Size

 Prokaryotic cells
– 1-2 micrometers in
diameter
 Eukaryotic cells
– 10-200 micrometers in
diameter

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 Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

 Cell size is limited.

– Cells must get all of their nutrients from their environment
through their cell membranes.
– Volume increases more quickly than surface area.
– Surface area-to-volume ratio must remain small.

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 The Structure of Cell Membranes

 Cell membranes
– Thin sheets composed of phospholipids and
proteins
 Fluid-mosaic model
– Two layers of phospholipids
 Fluid
– Has an oily consistency
– Things can move laterally within the bilayer.
 Mosaic
– Proteins embedded within the phospholipid bilayer
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 The Phospholipid Bilayer
 Phospholipid structure
– Hydrophobic tails
– Hydrophilic heads
 Bilayer
– Hydrophobic tails of each
layer associate with each
other.
– Hydrophilic heads on the
surface of the bilayer
 Cholesterol
– Hydrophobic
– Found within the
hydrophobic tails
– Keeps the membrane
flexible
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 Membrane Proteins

 Some are on the surface

 Some are partially embedded.
– Protrude from one side
 Some are completely
embedded.
– Protrude from both sides
 Functions
– Transport molecules across
the membrane
– Attachment points for other
cells
– Identity tags for cells
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 Organelles Composed of Membranes

 Plasma membrane (cell membrane)

 Different cellular membranous structures serve
different functions
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes
 Vacuoles and vesicles
 Nuclear membrane

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Composed of a phospholipid bilayer

 Separates the contents of the cell from the external
environment
 Important features
– Metabolic activities
– Moving molecules across the membrane
– Structurally different inside and outside
– Identification: Self vs. nonself
– Attachment sites
– Signal transduction

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 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Consists of folded membranes and tubes throughout
the cell
 Provides a large surface area for important chemical
reactions
– Because it is folded, it fits into a small space.
 Two types of ER
– Rough
 Has ribosomes on its surface
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Smooth
 Lacks ribosomes
 Metabolizes fats
 Detoxifies damaging chemicals
 produces lipids, including
steroids

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  After the rough ER synthesizes a molecule, it
packages the molecule into transport vesicles.
4-16
 The Golgi Apparatus

 Stacks of flattened
membrane sacs
 Functions
– Modifies molecules that
were made in other
places
– Manufactures some
polysaccharides and
lipids
– Packages and ships
molecules

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 Traffic Through the Golgi

 Vesicles bring molecules from the ER that

contain proteins.
 Vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
 The Golgi finishes the molecules and ships
them out in other vesicles.
– Some are transported to other membrane
structures.
– Some are transported to the plasma membrane.
– Some vesicles become lysosomes.
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 Lysosomes

 Vesicles containing enzymes that digest

macromolecules
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Lipids
– Nucleic acids
 Interior contains low pH
– These enzymes only work at pH=5.
– The cytoplasm is pH=7.
 If the lysosome breaks open, these enzymes will inactivate
and will not damage the cell.
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 Functions of Lysosomes

 Digestion
– Of food taken into
the cell
 Destruction
– Disease-causing
organisms
– Old organelles

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 Peroxisomes

 Not formed from golgi membrane, but from

ER membrane
 Contain the enzyme catalase
– Breaks down hydrogen peroxide
– Breaks down long-chain fatty acids
– Synthesizes cholesterol and bile salts
– Synthesizes some lipids

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 Vacuoles and Vesicles

 Membrane-enclosed sacs
 Vacuoles
– Larger sacs
– Contractile vacuoles found in many protozoa
 Forcefully expel excess water from the cytoplasm
 Vesicles
– Smaller vesicles

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 Vacuoles and Vesicles

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 The Nuclear Membrane

 Separates the genetic

material from the rest of
the cell
 Filled with nucleoplasm
 Composed of two
bilayers
 Contains holes called
nuclear pore complexes
– Allow large molecules
like RNA to pass through
the membrane into the
cytoplasm

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 The Endomembrane System ̶
Interconversion of Membranes
 Membranes are converted from one membranous
organelle to another.

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 Energy Converting Organelles

 Mitochondrion
– A small bag with a large
bag stuffed inside
– Larger internal bag is
folded into cristae
 Cristae contain proteins
for cellular respiration.
– Releases the energy
from food
– Requires oxygen
– Uses the energy to
make ATP

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 Energy Converting Organelles

 Chloroplasts
– Sac-like organelle
– Contain chlorophyll
– Perform photosynthesis
 Uses the energy in light to
make sugar
– Contain folded membranes
called thylakoids
 Thylakoids stacked into
grana
 Thylakoids contain
chlorophyll and other
photosynthetic proteins.
– Thylakoids surrounded by
stroma
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 Endosymbiosis

– Mitochondria and chloroplasts share another feature

unique among eukaryotic organelles.
 They contain their own DNA.
– The existence of separate “mini-genomes” is believed to
be evidence that
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from free-living
prokaryotes in the distant past.