Burton’s Microbiology

for the Health Sciences

Cell Structure and Taxonomy

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Learning Objectives

1. Explain the tenets of cell theory

2. State the contributions of Hooke, Schleiden and
Schwann, and Virchow to the study of cells
3. Cite one function for each of the following parts of a
eucaryotic cell: cell membrane, nucleus, ribosomes,
Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids,
cytoskeleton, cell wall, flagella, and cilia
4. Cite a function for each of the following parts of a
bacterial cell: cell membrane, chromosome, cell wall,
capsule, flagella, pili, and endospores
5. Compare and contrast plant, animal, and bacterial cells
6. Describe the Three-Domain Systems of classification
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Introduction

• The cell is the fundamental unit of any living

organism because it exhibits the basic
characteristics of life.
• There are two categories of cells: eukaryotic and
prokaryotic.
• Some microbes are prokaryotes (bacteria and
archaea), some are eukaryotes (algae, protozoa,
fungi), and some are not composed of cells (viruses,
prions, viroids).

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Acellular and Cellular Microbes

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Introduction (cont.)

• Eukaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus, whereas

prokaryotic cells do not. A true nucleus consists of
nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear
membrane.
• Eukaryotic cells possess a complex system of
membranes and membrane-bound organelles,
whereas prokaryotic cells do not.
• Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells possess a cell
membrane. Cell membranes have selective
permeability, allowing only certain substances to
pass through them.

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Eukaryotic Cell Structure

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The Eukaryotic Nucleus

• It is the “command center” of the cell.

• It has three components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes,
and a nuclear membrane.
• Chromosomes are embedded in the nucleoplasm.
• Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA molecules
and proteins.
• Genes are located along chromosomes. An organism’s
complete collection of genes is referred to as its genotype
or genome.
• Each gene contains the information to produce one or
more gene products (usually proteins).

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The Eukaryotic Nucleus (cont.)

• Although most genes code for proteins, some code for

two types of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
– Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
– Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
• The number and composition of chromosomes and the
number of genes on each chromosome are characteristic
of the particular species of organism.
• Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• It has been estimated that the human genome consists of
between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.

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Other Eukaryotic Cell Structures

• Cytoplasm • Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

– A semifluid, gelatinous, – A highly convoluted system

nutrient matrix of membranes arranged to
form a transport network
– Contains storage granules in the cytoplasm
and a variety of organelles
– Rough ER has ribosomes
– Each organelle has a attached to it, whereas
specific function smooth ER does not

– The cytoplasm is where • Ribosomes

most metabolic reactions – Consist of ribosomal RNA
occur and protein
– The sites of protein
synthesis

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Other Eukaryotic Cell Structures (cont.)

• Golgi complex • Lysosomes and peroxisomes

– Also called the Golgi – Originate in the Golgi
apparatus or Golgi body complex

– Connects or – Lysosomes contain

communicates with ER lysozyme and other
digestive enzymes
– Completes the – Peroxisomes are
transformation of newly membrane-bound
synthesized proteins vesicles where H2O2 is
and packages them for generated and broken
storage or export down
(“packaging plants”)

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Other Eukaryotic Cell Structures (cont.)

• Mitochondria • Plastids
– “Power plants,” – Membrane-bound
“powerhouses,” or structures containing
“energy factories” photosynthetic pigments
– ATP molecules are – They are sites of
produced within photosynthesis
mitochondria by cellular
respiration – Chloroplasts are a type
of plastid; they contain
– Number of mitochondria chlorophyll
varies depending on the
activities of the cell

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Other Eukaryotic Cell Structures (cont.)

• Cytoskeleton • Cell wall

– A system of fibers – Some eukaryotic cells
throughout the contain cell wallsan
cytoplasm external structure to
provide shape,
– Three types of fibers: protection, and rigidity
microtubules,
microfilaments, and – Simpler in structure
intermediate filaments than prokaryotic cell
walls
– Microtubules and
microfilaments are – Chitin found in cell walls
essential for a variety of of fungi; cellulose in cell
activities walls of algae and plants

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Other Eukaryotic Cell Structures (cont.)

• Flagella and cilia (contain microtubules)

– Some eukaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa and certain
protozoa) possess long, thin, whiplike organelles of
locomotion called flagella.
– Flagellated cells may possess one or more flagella.
– Some cells move by means of cilia, which are
shorter, thinner, and more numerous than flagella,
and described as being “hair-like.”
– Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa and
certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g., ciliated
epithelial cells in the respiratory tract).

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 Cilia

Cross sections of cilia showing the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules.

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure

• Prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than

eukaryotic cells.
• Prokaryotic cells are simple compared to eukaryotic cells.
• Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
• All bacteria are prokaryotes, as are archaea.
• Unlike eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells
is not filled with internal membranes.
• The cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells is surrounded by a cell
membrane, a cell wall (usually), and sometimes a
capsule or slime layer.

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Prokaryotic Cell

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Cell membrane • Chromosome

– Similar in structure and – Prokaryotic chromosome
function to the usually consists of a
eukaryotic cell single, long,
membrane supercoiled, circular
DNA molecule and
– Selectively permeable serves as the control
– Many enzymes are center of the cell
attached to the cell – Plasmids are small,
membrane where circular molecules of
metabolic reactions take DNA that are not part of
place the chromosome (extra-
chromosomal)

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Cytoplasm
– It is a semiliquid that consists of water, enzymes,
waste products, nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipidsmaterials required for metabolic
functions.
• Cytoplasmic particles
– Most are ribosomes, some of which occur in clusters.
– Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic
ribosomes, but their function is the samethey are
the sites of protein synthesis

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Bacterial cell wall

– A rigid exterior that defines the shape of bacterial
cellschemically complex
– Main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is
peptidoglycan (found only in bacteria)
– Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan; Gram-negative bacteria have a much
thinner layer.
– Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall; they are
pleomorphic.

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Structure of Peptidoglycan

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Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive Cell Walls

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Glycocalyx (slime layers and capsules)

– Some bacteria possess glycocalyx, a slimy,
gelatinous material produced by the cell membrane
and secreted outside the cell wall.
– There are two types of glycocalyxslime layer
(loosely connected to the cell wall) and capsule
(highly organized and firmly connected).
• Pseudomonas spp. produce a slime layer
• Klebsiella pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and
Streptococcus pneumoniae possess a capsule,
which serves an antiphagocytic function.

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Capsule Staining
(Example of a Negative Staining Technique)

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Flagella
– Motile bacteria possess flagellawhip-like
appendages composed of threads of protein called
flagellin.
– Number and arrangement of flagella are
characteristic of a particular species:
• Peritrichous bacteriaflagella over entire surface
• Lophotrichous bacteriatuft of flagella at one end
• Amphitrichous bacteriaone or more flagella at
both ends
• Monotrichous bacteriasingle polar flagellum

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Four Basic Types of Flagellar Arrangement
on Bacteria

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A Peritrichous Salmonella Cell

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Pili (also called fimbriae)

– They are hairlike structures, most often observed on
Gram-negative bacteria.
– They are composed of polymerized protein molecules
called pilin.
– Pili are thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure,
and are not associated with motility.
– They enable bacteria to anchor themselves to
surfaces.
– Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for conjugation.

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 Proteus vulgaris Cell,
Showing Many Pili and Several Flagella

Pili

Flagella

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (cont.)

• Spores (endospores)
– A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium) are capable
of forming thick-walled spores as a means of survival.
– The process of spore formation is called sporulationit is
not reproduction.
– Spores have been shown to survive for many years and
are resistant to heat, cold, drying, and most chemicals.
– Usually one spore is produced in a bacterial cell, which
generates into one vegetative bacterium.
– Endospores can be visualized using a spore stain.

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Terminal and Subterminal Spores

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Recap of Structural Differences between
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• Eukaryotic cells contain a true nucleus, prokaryotic cells

do not.
• Eukaryotic cells are divided into plant and animal types.
– Animal cells do not have a cell wall, plant cells have a
simple cell wall.
• Eukaryotic cells contain membranous structures and
many membrane-bound organelles; prokaryotic cells
possess no membranes other than the cell membrane
that encloses the cytoplasm.

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Reproduction of Organisms and Their
Cells

• Prokaryotic cell reproduction

– Prokaryotic cells reproduce by a process known as
binary fissionone cell splits in half to become two
daughter cells.
• Before a prokaryotic cell divides in half, the
chromosome must be duplicated.
– The time it takes for binary fission to occur is called
the generation time.
• Generation time varies from one species to
another and depends on growth conditions (under
ideal conditions, Escherichia coli has a generation
time of about 20 minutes).

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 Binary Fission

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Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is the science of classification of living

organisms.
• Taxonomy consists of classification, nomenclature, and
identification.
• Classification is the arrangement of organisms into
taxonomic groups (known as taxa).
• Tool for remembering the sequence of taxa
– “King David Came Over for Good Spaghetti”
KDCOFGSK for Kingdom, D for Division, C for
Class, O for Order, F for Family, G for Genus, and S
for species.

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Microbial Classification

• The science of taxonomy was established based on the

binomial system of nomenclature.
• In the binomial system, each organism is given two
namesgenus and the specific epithet. Taken together,
both names constitute the species.
– For example, Escherichia coli; Escherichia is the
genus and coli is the specific epithet.
– The genus is frequently abbreviated with just a single
letter (e.g., E. for Escherichia).
• The abbreviation “sp.” is used to designate a single
species and “spp.” for more than one species.

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Microbial Classification (cont.)

• Organisms are categorized into larger groups based on

their similarities and differences.
• The Five-Kingdom System of Classification
1. Bacteria and archaeaKingdom Prokaryotae
2. Algae and protozoaKingdom Protista
3. FungiKingdom Fungi
4. PlantsKingdom Plantae
5. AnimalsKingdom Animalia
• Viruses are not included because they are acellular.
• Other systems of classification do exist.

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Microbial Classification (cont.)

• The Three-Domain System of Classification

1. Archaea (prokaryotic)
2. Bacteria (prokaryotic)
3. Eucarya (all eukaryotic organisms)
• The Three-Domain System is based on differences in the
structure of certain ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules
among organisms in the three domains.

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Determining Relatedness among
Organisms

• The most widely used technique for gauging diversity or

“relatedness” of organisms is called rRNA sequencing.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits: a small
subunit and a large subunit.
• The small subunit is composed of only one rRNA
molecule, which is coded for by a gene called the 16S
rRNA gene in prokaryotes and the 18S rRNA gene in
eukaryotes.

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Determining Relatedness among
Organisms (cont.)

• To determine how closely related one prokaryotic

organism is to another, scientists compare the sequence
of nucleotide base pairs in the 16S rRNA gene from one
of the organisms with the sequence of base pairs in the
16S rRNA gene from the other organism.
• The more similar the sequence of base pairs, the more
closely related are the organisms.

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Charles Darwin

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 Charles Darwin

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