Chapter 3 Cell Structure and Taxoniomy

Introduction to
Microbes and Cellular

Biology
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Cell Structure and
Taxonomy

Introduction
• The cell is the fundamental unit of any living

organism because it exhibits the basic
characteristics of life.
• There are two categories of cells: eucaryotic and
procaryotic.
• Some microbes are procaryotes (bacteria and
archaea), some are eucaryotes (algae, protozoa,
fungi), and some are not composed of cells (viruses,
prions, viroids).

Acellular and Cellular Microbes

Introduction, cont.
• Eucaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus, whereas

procaryotic cells do not. A true nucleus consists of
nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear
membrane.
• Eucaryotic cells possess a complex system of
membranes and membrane-bound organelles,
whereas procaryotic cells do not.
• Both eucaryotic and procaryotic cells possess a cell
membrane. Cell membranes have selective
permeability, allowing only certain substances to
pass through them.
Eucaryotic Cell Structure

The Eucaryotic Nucleus
• The “command center” of the cell.
• 3 components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and nuclear
membrane.
• Chromosomes are embedded in the nucleoplasm.
• Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA molecules
and proteins.
• Genes are located along chromosomes. An organism's
complete collection of genes is referred to as its
genotype or genome.
• Each gene contains the information to produce one or
more gene products (usually proteins).
The Eucaryotic Nucleus, cont.
• Although most genes code for proteins, some code for 2
types of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
– Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
– Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
• The number and composition of chromosomes and the
number of genes on each chromosome are characteristic
of the particular species of organism.
• Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• It has been estimated that the human genome consists of
between 20,000 and 30,000 genes.

Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures
• Cytoplasm • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– A semi-fluid, gelatinous, – A highly convoluted system

nutrient matrix of membranes arranged to
form a transport network in
– Contains storage granules the cytoplasm
and a variety of organelles
– Rough ER has ribosomes
– Each organelle has a attached to it; smooth ER
specific function does not
– The cytoplasm is where • Ribosomes

most metabolic reactions – Consist of rribosomal RNA
occur and protein
– The sites of protein
synthesis
Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures, cont.
• Golgi Complex • Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
– Also called the Golgi – Originate in the Golgi
apparatus or Golgi body complex
– Connects or – Lysosomes contain

communicates with ER lysozyme and other
digestive enzymes
– Completes the – Peroxisomes are
transformation of newly membrane-bound
synthesized proteins vesicles where H2O2 is
and packages them for generated and broken
storage or export down
(“packaging plants”)

• Mitochondria • Plastids
– “Power plants,” – Membrane-bound
“powerhouses,” or structures containing
“energy factories” photosynthetic pigments
– ATP molecules are – They are sites of
produced within photosynthesis
mitochondria by cellular
respiration – Chloroplasts are a type
of plastid; they contain
– Number of mitochondria chlorophyll
varies depending on
activities of the cell

• Cytoskeleton • Cell wall
– A system of fibers – Some eucaryotic cells
throughout the contain cell walls – an
cytoplasm external structure to
provide shape,
– 3 types of fibers: protection, and rigidity
microtubules,
microfilaments and – Simpler in structure
intermediate filaments than procaryotic cell
walls
– Microtubules and
microfilaments are – Chitin found in cell walls
essential for a variety of of fungi; cellulose in cell
activities walls of algae and plants

• Flagella and Cilia (contain microtubules)
– Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa and certain
protozoa) possess long, thin, whiplike organelles of
locomotion called flagella.
– Flagellated cells may possess one or more flagella.
– Some cells move by means of cilia, which are shorter,
thinner, and more numerous than flagella; described
as being “hair-like.”
– Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa and
certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g., ciliated
epithelial cells in the respiratory tract).
Cilia
Cross sections of cilia showing the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules.

Procaryotic Cell Structure
• Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than
eucaryotic cells.
• Procaryotic cells are simple compared to eucaryotic cells.
• Procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
• All bacteria are procaryotes, as are archaea.
• Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells
is not filled with internal membranes.
• The cytoplasm of procaryotic cells is surrounded by a cell
membrane, a cell wall (usually), and sometimes a capsule
or slime layer.

Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Figure 3.2a
Procaryotic Cell

Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.
• Cell membrane • Chromosome
– Similar in structure and – Procaryotic chromosome
function to the usually consists of a
eucaryotic cell single, long, supercoiled,
membrane circular DNA molecule –
serves as the control
– Selectively permeable center of the cell
– Many enzymes are – Plasmids are small
attached to the cell circular molecules of
membrane and DNA that are not part of
metabolic reactions take the chromosome (extra-
place there chromosomal)

• Cytoplasm
– Semi-liquid that consists of water, enzymes, waste
products, nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids – materials required for metabolic functions
• Cytoplasmic particles
– Most are ribosomes, some of which occur in clusters
– Eucaryotic ribosomes are smaller than procaryotic
ribosomes, but their function is the same – they are
the sites of protein synthesis

• Bacterial Cell Wall
– A rigid exterior that defines the shape of bacterial
cells – chemically complex
– Main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is
peptidoglycan (only found in bacteria)
– Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan; Gram-negative bacteria have a much
thinner layer
– Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall; they are
pleomorphic

Gram-negative and Gram-positive Cell Walls

Bacterial Cell Walls
•Thick layer peptidoglycan
Gram Positive Cell Wall
•Teichoic acid
• Lipoteichoic acid

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Figure 3.13b
Gram Negative Cell wall

A. Gram-positive bacterium B. Gram-negative bacterium

• Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and Capsules)
– Some bacteria possess glycocalyx, a slimy,
gelatinous material produced by the cell membrane
and secreted outside the cell wall
– 2 types of glycocalyx – slime layer (loosely connected
to the cell wall) and capsule (highly organized and
firmly connected)
• Pseudomonas spp. produces a slime layer
• K. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis and S. pneumoniae
possess a capsule, which serves an antiphagocytic
function

Example of Slime Layer
Example of Capsule
Capsule Stain
(Example of a negative staining technique)

• Flagella
– Motile bacteria possess flagella – whiplike
appendages composed of threads of protein called
flagellin
– Number and arrangement of flagella are
characteristic of a particular species:
• Peritrichous bacteria – flagella over entire surface
• Lophotrichous bacteria – flagella at one end
• Amphitrichous bacteria – flagella at both ends
• Monotrichous bacteria – single polar flagellum

Four Basic Types of Flagellar Arrangement on Bacteria

A Peritrichous Salmonella Cell

Arrangements of Bacterial Flagella
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Figure 3.6c
Bacterial Movement

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)
• Pili (also called fimbriae)
– Hair-like structures, most often observed on Gram-
negative bacteria
– Composed of polymerized protein molecules called
pilin
– Pili are thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure
and are not associated with motility
– Pili enable bacteria to anchor themselves to surfaces
– Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for conjugation

Fimbriae Versus Flagella
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Figure 3.9
Proteus vulgaris cell, showing pili and several flagella
Pili
Flagella

Pilus Versus Fimbriae
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Figure 3.10
• Spores (Endospores)
– A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium) are capable
of forming thick-walled spores as a means of survival
– The process of spore formation is called sporulation – it is
not reproduction
– Spores have been shown to survive for many years and
are resistant to heat, cold, drying, and most chemicals
– Usually one spore is produced in a bacterial cell and
generates into one vegetative bacterium
– Endospores can be visualized using a spore stain

Endospores
• Hardiest of all life forms
• For escape from unfavorable environmental conditions
• Germination = return to the vegetative state from the spore state
• NOT reproductive (1 cell forms 1 endospore which return to
reform 1 cell)

A Bacillus Cell With a Well-Defined Endospore
Endospore

Recap of Structural Differences Between
Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells
• Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus; procaryotic cells
do not.
• Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant and animal types
– Animal cells do not have a cell wall, plant cells have a
simple cell wall.
• Eucaryotic cells contain membranous structures and
many membrane-bound organelles; procaryotic cells
possess no membranes other than the cell membrane
that encloses the cytoplasm

Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells
• Procaryotic Cell Reproduction
– Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process known as
binary fission – one cell splits in half to become two
daughter cells.
• Before a procaryotic cell divides in half, the
chromosome must be duplicated.
– The time it takes for binary fission to occur is called
the generation time.
• Generation time varies from one species to
another and depends on growth conditions (under
ideal conditions, E. coli has a generation time of
about 20 minutes).
Binary Fission of a Bacterial Cell

Taxonomy
• Taxonomy is the science of classification of living
organisms.
• Taxonomy consists of classification, nomenclature, and
identification.
• Classification is the arrangement of organisms into
taxonomic groups (known as taxa).
• Tool for remembering the sequence of Taxa
– “King David Came Over for Good Spaghetti”
KDCOFGS, K for Kingdom, D for Division, C for Class,
O for Order, F for Family, G for Genus and S for
species.

Microbial Classification
• The science of taxonomy was established based on the
binomial system of nomenclature.
• In the binomial system, each organism is given 2 names –
genus and the specific epithet. Taken together, both
names constitute the species.
– For example, Escherichia coli; Escherichia is the
genus and coli is the specific epithet.
– The genus is frequently abbreviated with just a single
letter, (e.g., E for Escherichia).
• The abbreviation “sp.” is used to designate a single
species and “spp.” for more than one species.

Microbial Classification
• Organisms are categorized into larger groups based on
their similarities and differences.
• The Five-Kingdom System of Classification
1. Bacteria and archaea – Kingdom Procaryotae
2. Algae and protozoa – Kingdom Protista
3. Fungi – Kingdom Fungi
4. Plants – Kingdom Plantae
5. Animals – Kingdom Animalia
• Viruses are not included because they are acellular.
• Other systems of classification do exist.

Microbial Classification (continued)
• The Three-Domain System of Classification
1. Archaea (procaryotic)
2. Bacteria (procaryotic)
3. Eucarya (all eucaryotic organisms)
• The Three-Domain System is based on differences in the
structure of certain ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules
among organisms in the 3 domains.

Determining Relatedness Among Organisms
• The most widely used technique for gauging diversity or

“relatedness” of organisms is called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequencing.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits; a small subunit
and a large subunit.
• The small subunit is composed of only one rRNA
molecule, which is coded for by a gene called the 16S
rRNA gene in procaryotes and the 18S rRNA gene in
eucaryotes.

Determining Relatedness Among Organisms,
cont.
• To determine how closely related one procaryotic
organism is to another, scientists compare the sequence
of nucleotide base pairs in the 16S rRNA gene from one of
the organisms to the sequence of base pairs in the 16S
rRNA gene from the other organisms.
• The more similar the sequence of base pairs, the more
closely related are the organisms.


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Chapter 3 Cell Structure and Taxoniomy

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Introduction to

Microbes and Cellular

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• The cell is the fundamental unit of any living

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• Eucaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus, whereas

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

– A semi-fluid, gelatinous, – A highly convoluted system

– The cytoplasm is where • Ribosomes

– Connects or – Lysosomes contain

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• The most widely used technique for gauging diversity or

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

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