Burton's Microbiology
for the Health Sciences
The Eucaryotic Nucleus
Section II.
Introduction to Microbes and Cellular Biology
Chapter 3. Cell Structure and Taxonomy
Introduction
• The cell is the fundamental unit of any living
organism because it exhibits the basic
characteristics of life.
• There are two categories of cells: eucaryotic and
procaryotic.
• Some microbes are procaryotes (bacteria and
archaea), some are eucaryotes (algae, protozoa,
fungi), and some are not composed of cells
(viruses, prions, viroids).
Acellular and Cellular Microbes
• Eucaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus,
whereas procaryotic cells do not. A true nucleus
consists of nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a
nuclear membrane.
• Eucaryotic cells have membrane-bound
organelles, whereas procaryotic cells do not.
• Both eucaryotic and procaryotic cells possess a
cell membrane. Cell membranes have selective
permeability, allowing only certain substances to
pass through them.
Eucaryotic Cell Structure
• The “command center” of the cell.
• 3 components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and
nuclear membrane.
• Chromosomes are embedded in the
nucleoplasm.
• Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA
molecules and proteins.
• Genes are located along chromosomes. An
organism's complete collection of genes is
referred to as its genotype or genome.
• Each gene contains the information to produce
one or more gene products (usually proteins).
• Although most genes code for proteins, some
code for 2 types of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
– Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
– Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
• The number and composition of chromosomes
and the number of genes on each chromosome
are characteristic of the particular species of
organism.
• Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (23
pairs).
• It has been estimated that the human genome
consists of between 20,000 and 30,000 genes.

Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures
• Cytoplasm
– A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix
– Contains storage granules and a variety
of organelles
– Each organelle has a specific function
– The cytoplasm is where most metabolic
reactions occur
– Onion Cytoplasmic Streaming
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– A highly convoluted system of
membranes arranged to form a transport
network in the cytoplasm
– Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it;
smooth ER does not
• Ribosomes
– Consist of ribosomal RNA and protein
– The sites of protein synthesis
• Golgi Complex
– Also called the Golgi apparatus or Golgi
body
– Connects or communicates with ER
– Completes the transformation of newly
synthesized proteins and packages them
for storage or export (“packaging
plants”)
• Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
– Originate in the Golgi complex
– Lysosomes contain lysozyme and other
digestive enzymes
– Peroxisomes are membrane-bound
vesicles where H2O2 is generated and
broken down
• Mitochondria
– “Power plants,” “powerhouses,” or
“energy factories”
– ATP molecules are produced within
mitochondria by cellular respiration
– Number of mitochondria varies
depending on activities of the cell
• Plastids
– Membrane-bound structures containing
photosynthetic pigments
– They are sites of photosynthesis
– Chloroplasts are a type of plastid; they
contain chlorophyll
• Cytoskeleton
– A system of fibers throughout the
cytoplasm
– 3 types of fibers: microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate
filaments
 – Microtubules and microfilaments are
essential for a variety of activities
• Cell wall
– Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls
– an external structure to provide shape,
protection, and rigidity
– Simpler in structure than procaryotic cell
walls
– Chitin found in cell walls of fungi;
cellulose in cell walls of algae and plants
• Flagella and Cilia (contain microtubules)
– Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa
and certain protozoa) possess long, thin,
whiplike organelles of locomotion called
flagella.
– Flagellated cells may possess one or
more flagella.
– Some cells move by means of cilia,
which are shorter, thinner, and more
numerous than flagella; described as
being “hair-like.”
– Cilia can be found on some species of
protozoa and certain types of cells in our
bodies (e.g., ciliated epithelial cells in
the respiratory tract).
Procaryotic Cell Structure
• Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than
eucaryotic cells.
• Procaryotic cells are simple compared to
eucaryotic cells.
• Procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
• All bacteria are procaryotes, as are archaea.
• Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of
eucaryotic cells is not filled with internal
membranes.
• The cytoplasm of procaryotic cells is surrounded
by a cell membrane, a cell wall (usually), and
sometimes a capsule or slime layer.
• Chromosome
– Procaryotic chromosome usually consists
of a single, long, supercoiled, circular
DNA molecule – serves as the control
center of the cell
– Plasmids are small circular molecules of
DNA that are not part of the
chromosome (extra-chromosomal)
• Cell membrane
– Similar in structure and function to the
eucaryotic cell membrane
– Selectively permeable
– Many enzymes are attached to the cell
membrane and metabolic reactions take
place there
 Bacterial Cell Walls
A. Gram-positive bacterium
B. Gram-negative bacterium

• Cytoplasm

– Semi-liquid that consists of water,

enzymes, waste products, nutrients,
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids –
materials required for metabolic
functions

• Cytoplasmic particles Gram’s Stain

– Most are ribosomes, some of which

occur in clusters

– Eucaryotic ribosomes are smaller than

procaryotic ribosomes, but their function
is the same – they are the sites of protein
synthesis

• Bacterial Cell Wall

– A rigid exterior that defines the shape of

bacterial cells – chemically complex
 Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and Capsules)
– Main constituent of most bacterial cell
walls is peptidoglycan (only found in
bacteria)
– Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer
of peptidoglycan; Gram-negative
bacteria have a much thinner layer
– Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall;
they are pleomorphic
Gram-negative and Gram-positive Cell Walls
– Some bacteria possess glycocalyx, a
slimy, gelatinous material produced by
the cell membrane and secreted outside
the cell wall
– 2 types of glycocalyx – slime layer
(loosely connected to the cell wall) and
capsule (highly organized and firmly
connected)
• Pseudomonas spp. produces a
slime layer

• K. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis
and S. pneumoniae possess a
capsule, which serves an
antiphagocytic function
 Four Basic Types of Flagellar Arrangement on
Bacteria

A Peritrichous Salmonella Cell

Capsule Stain
(Example of a negative staining technique)

• Pili (also called fimbriae)

– Hair-like structures, most often observed

on Gram-negative bacteria
• Flagella
– Composed of polymerized protein
– Motile bacteria possess flagella – molecules called pilin
whiplike appendages composed of
threads of protein called flagellin – Pili are thinner than flagella, have a rigid
structure and are not associated with
– Number and arrangement of flagella are motility
characteristic of a particular species:
– Pili enable bacteria to anchor themselves
• Peritrichous bacteria – flagella to surfaces
over entire surface
– Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for
• Lophotrichous bacteria – flagella conjugation
at one end
Proteus vulgaris cell, showing pili and several flagella
• Amphitrichous bacteria – flagella
at both ends

• Monotrichous bacteria – single

polar flagellum
 • Spores (Endospores)
– A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and
Clostridium) are capable of forming
thick-walled spores as a means of
survival
– The process of spore formation is called
sporulation – it is not reproduction
– Spores have been shown to survive for
many years and are resistant to heat,
cold, drying, and most chemicals
– Usually one spore is produced in a
bacterial cell and generates into one
vegetative bacterium
– Endospores can be visualized using a
spore stain
A Bacillus Cell With a Well-Defined Endospore
Recap of Structural Differences Between Procaryotic
and Eucaryotic Cells
• Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus;
procaryotic cells do not.
• Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant and
animal types
– Animal cells do not have a cell wall,
plant cells have a simple cell wall.
• Eucaryotic cells contain membranous structures
and many membrane-bound organelles;
procaryotic cells possess no membranes other
than the cell membrane that encloses the
cytoplasm
Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells
• Procaryotic Cell Reproduction
– Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process
known as binary fission – one cell splits
in half to become two daughter cells.
• Before a procaryotic cell divides
in half, the chromosome must be
duplicated.
– The time it takes for binary fission to
occur is called the generation time.
• Generation time varies from one
species to another and depends
on growth conditions (under ideal
conditions, E. coli has a
generation time of about 20
minutes).
Binary Fission of a Bacterial Cell
Taxonomy
• Taxonomy is the science of classification of
living organisms.
• Taxonomy consists of classification,
nomenclature, and identification.
• Classification is the arrangement of organisms
into taxonomic groups (known as taxa).
• Tool for remembering the sequence of Taxa
– “King David Came Over for Good
Spaghetti” KDCOFGS, K for Kingdom,
D for Division, C for Class, O for Order,
F for Family, G for Genus and S for
species.
Microbial Classification
• The science of taxonomy was established based
on the binomial system of nomenclature.
• In the binomial system, each organism is given 2
names – genus and the specific epithet. Taken
together, both names constitute the species.
– For example, Escherichia coli;
Escherichia is the genus and coli is the
specific epithet.
 – The genus is frequently abbreviated with
just a single letter, (e.g., E for
Escherichia).
• The abbreviation “sp.” is used to designate a
single species and “spp.” for more than one
species.
• Organisms are categorized into larger groups
based on their similarities and differences.
• The Five-Kingdom System of Classification
– Bacteria and archaea – Kingdom
Procaryotae
– Algae and protozoa – Kingdom Protista
– Fungi – Kingdom Fungi
– Plants – Kingdom Plantae
– Animals – Kingdom Animalia
• Viruses are not included because they are
acellular.
Determining Relatedness Among Organisms
• The most widely used technique for gauging
diversity or “relatedness” of organisms is called
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits; a
small subunit and a large subunit.
• The small subunit is composed of only one
rRNA molecule, which is coded for by a gene
called the 16S rRNA gene in procaryotes and the
18S rRNA gene in eucaryotes.
• To determine how closely related one
procaryotic organism is to another, scientists
compare the sequence of nucleotide base pairs in
the 16S rRNA gene from one of the organisms to
the sequence of base pairs in the 16S rRNA gene
from the other organisms.
• The more similar the sequence of base pairs, the
more closely related are the organisms.

• Other systems of classification do exist.

• The Three-Domain System of Classification

– Archaea (procaryotic)

– Bacteria (procaryotic)

– Eucarya (all eucaryotic organisms)

• The Three-Domain System is based on

differences in the structure of certain ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) molecules among organisms in the
3 domains.