BACKGROUNG OF THE STUDY

INTRODUCTIN

Grain amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) is a potential upcoming subsidiary food

crop of the future. It belongs to the family Amaranthaceae. The word ‘amaranth’ comes

from the Greek word ‘amarantos’, which means ‘the one that does not wither’ or ‘the

never-fading flower’. Amaranth is a quick growing, bushy plant with thick stalks. Being a

C4 plant, it has more efficiency of nitrogen utilization and photosynthesis (Magomedov

et al., 1997) along with yield potential of more than 50q/ha. Several species and types

show considerable variation and potential. Three amaranth species grown for grain as

human food and from which varieties are being developed are Amaranthus caudatus, A.

cruentus, and A. hypochondriacus. Grain amaranth is an ancient crop originating from

Central and South America (Stallknecht and Schulz-Schaeffer, 1993) and has high

nutritive value. It is regarded as a rich source of minerals like iron, phosphorus and

calcium. Grain amaranth protein (17-19%) contains about 5% lysine and 4.4% sulphur-

amino acids, which are limiting in other grains, thus ensuring a balanced human diet

(Sounders and Becker, 1983). Besides having a significant value as fast food, it is also

used as a leafy vegetable and the stalks are used as a fuel for household cooking.

Amaranth aptly termed as “Poor man’s spinach” has enough potential for competing,

under and malnutrition prevalent in many parts of the world. Amaranth is a pseudo-cereal

because of its flavour and cooking similarities to grains. It contains exceptionally

complete protein for plant sources. It also provides a good source of dietary fiber and
minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and especially manganese. It is

said to be highly nutritious with higher protein and lysine content than almost any other

cereals. Besides a better source of enriched infant food, the unique features of Amaranth

viz., low water and input (25 kg N + 12.5 kg P2O5 ha-1) requirement, tolerance to

moisture stress with lesser growing period and wide adaptability have created interest

among the farmers for its cultivation in arid and semi-arid regions of Bauchi. Amaranthus

locally known as spinach (Alliyafu) is grown in Bauchi along Gombe road at Kangere

25km away from the main town as a cash in an area of about 3425 hectares with a

productivity of around 1700 kg ha-1. Being a profitable crop, the area under amaranthus

caudatus is increasing day by day where irrigation facilities exist, particularly in

Northern Nigeria and to a considerable extent inKangere in Bauchi State. Proper nutrient

management is also very much important for increasing the productivity of the crop.

It has been reported that among different sources of organic manures

vermicompost cow dung Compost which are prepared from the agricultural waste

materials seems to be more promising than conventional sources like K.P.K and non-

edible cakes. Vermicompost is a potential source of readily available plant nutrients,

growth enhancing substances and number of beneficial micro-organisms. The soil

enriched with vermicompost provides additional substances that are not found in

chemical fertilizers (Kale, 1998). In addition, the requirement of chemical fertilizer may

be reduced when vermicompost was used and it may also improve the physical, chemical

and biological properties of soil (Kale and Bano, 1986). Vermiwash is a liquid that is
collected after the passage of water through a column of worm action and is very useful

as a foliar spray. It seems to possess an inherent property of acting not only as a fertilizer,

but also as a mild biocide. It is a collection of excretory products and mucus secretion of

earthworms along with micronutrients from the soil organic molecules. It also contains

plant growth hormones like auxins and cytokines. Technologies, which can reduce the

demand of the fertilizers and those which are nontoxic and non-pollutant, are the bio-

fertilizers. These are some of the important components of integrated nutrient

management supply systems. Though the bio-fertilizers do not serve as substitutes for

chemical inputs, yet these can supplement plant nutrient supplies (Franche et al., 2009).

Bio-fertilizers are low cost and eco-friendly input supplying nutrients that can reduce the

chemical fertilizer by 25-30% (Pattanayak et al., 2007).

Integrated nutrient management:

Nitrogen forms a basic input for the growth of the plant. The increasing cost of

fertilizers and its scarce availability lead to incredible rise in the cost of production and

there by decrease in profit. In this aspect, the integrated nutrient management is gaining

importance. Integration of cost-effective and eco-friendly bio-fertilizers with chemical

fertilizers and organic manures is the alternate way for saving N fertilizers (Chaudhari et

al., 2009). Recently, interest has been aroused to produce liquid biofertilizers, which are

special liquid formulations containing not only the desired micro-organisms and their

nutrients, but also certain cell protectants and chemicals that promote formation of resting

spores or cysts for longer shelf life and tolerance to adverse conditions (Bhattacharya and
Kumar, 2002). The liquid bio-fertilizer of good quality holds great promise over the

carrier material transport, pulverization and sterilization, convenience in handling,

storage and transportation for better performance (Hedge, 2002). Integrated use of

fertilizers and organic manures not only makes higher yields possible, but also provides

greater yield stability (Narain, 1999).

Fertility needs for grain amaranth production varies significantly depending on

rainfall amounts and distribution (Mposi, 1999). Studies show that nitrogen is the most

limiting nutrient under most environments (Pospisil et al., 2006). Phosphorous and

potassium are only applied in soils that are especially deficient in these nutrients with the

rate of 50kg P/ha being considered optimum (Myers and Putnam, 1988; Ojo et al., 2007).

There is limited information on soil fertility requirements for grain amaranthus caudatus

production in Kangere as the crop is relatively not new. The current research was

accordingly undertaken to investigate the performance of Amaranthus Caudatus levels

using the cowdung and NPK fertilizer application for enhanced grain amaranth

production in Bauchi.

Keeping all the above aspects in view and in order to test the integrated effect of

the various nutrient sources at various levels of application, a field experiment was

conducted at the Agronomy Farm of School of Vocational and technical studies College

of Education Kangere, department of Agricultural education, during the season of the

year 2017-2018 with the following objectives.

1.2 Statement of Research problem

Vegetable production in Africa is as old as peasant farming though its cultivation is still

at the household level with very few farmers producing on a commercial level. This

could be due to the fact that crops such as cereals, roots, and tubers and body-building

crops like legumes are given much attention. Cereals and tubers form the bulk of food

consumed in the tropics but they are deficient in minerals and vitamins compared to the

body requirement to guarantee good healthy living. Amaranths species is a leafy

vegetable in the tropical region of world. It forms a high percentage of the daily intake of

leafy vegetables. 

Amaranthus caudatus is grown for its leaves and is among the highly prized leaf

vegetables in Nigeria, due to their high nutritional and commercial significance. Its

production over it has been increased by the application of chemical fertilizers. Recently,

Research has shown that organic based fertilizers are less leached into ground water than

the chemical fertilizer. As a result of this fact, the use of organic based fertilizer has

found favour in boosting crop production in Nigeria, because it is cheap and less likely to

pollute the ground water as much as chemical fertilizer. It improves soil fertility status as

well as increasing the income of farmers via increase in yield. This study was therefore

undertaken to determine the performance of Amarantus caudatus using the cow dung and

N.P.K fertilizer.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1. To study the effect and performance of cow dung and NPK fertilizers and

different organic manures on the growth, yield and quality of grain amaranth.
 2. . To determine the effect of inorganic, organic, and organomineral fertilizers on

the growth and yield of Amaranthus caudatus as well as its residual effect.

3. To study the economics involved for the maximum production and profit, for

grain amaranthus Caudatus in Kangere Bauchi State.

1.4. Significance of the study

This research work is intended to be very useful particularly academic institution

and research centers and the community as a whole especially those that are affected as a

result of the implication of poor soil fertility, improper awareness and seed selection in

the area of study.

Those want to booster their study may also find the work interesting as the

researcher attempt to clear consequences as well as how to guide the farmers, give the

proper awareness and ways to enhance their production Amarantus caudatus.

1.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study

This research work covers the general issues on Assessment of the performance of

Amarnthus caudatus using cow dung and NPK fertilizer farm in kangere Bauchi. It

focuses and answers the question on what are the problems associated with Amaranthus

Caudatus production in the study area. It also looks into and asked what are the level of

awareness of the farmer’s toward the performance of Amaranthus caudatus when using

cow dung and NPK fertilizer. The research work is limited to Kangere Bauchi South.

The researcher was limited by factors such as time and finance.

1.6. Operational definition of term

Amaranthus caudatus:- Amaranthus caudatus is a species of annual flowering plant. It

goes by common names such as love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower,

velvet flower,, foxtail amaranth, and quilete. Amaranthus caudatus is a fast-growing,

vigorous annual plant with an erect stem that is usually moderately branched. It grows

from 50 - 150cm tall, rarely to 250cm, the main stem terminating in a large branched

inflorescence. The plant has a long history of cultivation for its edible leaves and seeds in

the Andes. It is often also grown in gardens as an ornamental, Some varieties have red or

purple leaves and long, drooping flower stalks.

Cow dung: - Cow dung, also known as cow pats, cow pies or cow manure, is the waste

product of bovineanimal species. These species include domestic cattle ("cows"), bison ("

buffalo"), yak, and water buffalo. Cow dung is the undigested residue of plant matter

which has passed through the animal's gut. The resultant faecal matter is rich in minerals.

Color ranges from greenish to blackish, often darkening soon after exposure to air.

N.P.K. fertilizer: - NPK fertilizer is a complex fertilizer comprised primarily of the three

primary nutrients required for healthy plant growth. The agriculture industry relies

heavily on the use of NPK fertilizer to meet global food supply and ensure healthy crops.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

H0: There are no differences in the performance of Amanthus caudatus treated with cow

dung and N.P.K fertilizer

H1: There is a difference in the performance of Amaranthus caudus treaded with cow

dung and N.P.K fertilizer

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

The adequate and balanced supply of plant nutrients is of critical importance in

improving the productivity of cereals. Chemical fertilizers no doubt have boosted the

crop yield, but to a large extent, these have contributed to deterioration of soil organic

matter, soil structure and quality of certain crops. Integration of chemical and organic

sources and their effective management has shown great promise in not only sustaining

the productivity and soil health but also in meeting a part of chemical requirement of

crops.

Origin

The name amaranth originates from the Greek word for “never – flower.” The plant is an

annual herb, not a “true’ grain and it is a relative of pigweed. Grain amaranth is a non-

grass cereal classified in a very unique food group called pseudo- cereal. It originated

from India and Ethiopia and was later taken to Incas in Mexico where it was used to

cover the deserts (Poverty Eradication Commission, 2007). Grain amaranth species have

been important in different parts of the world and at different times for thousands of

years. It was the staple food in the diets of the pre- Columbian Aztecs, who believed it

had supernatural powers and incorporated it into their religious ceremonies.

Botani
Botany The grain amaranth is a bushy plant that grows 5 to 7 feet (150 to 210 cm), with

broad leaves and a showy flower head of small, red or magenta, clove like flowers. The

seed heads resemble maize tassels, but are somewhat bushier. The grains are tiny (0.9 to

1.7mm diameter or 1/32”); lenses shaped, and are golden to creamy tan in color. Each

plant is capable of producing 40,000 to 60,000 seeds (Railey, 1993). The weight of 1000

seeds varies from 0.7 to 0.9 g.

Species

There are about 60 Amaranth species, several of which are cultivated as leaf vegetables,

cereals, or ornamental plants, while others are weeds. There are three species of grain

amaranth: A. hypochondriacus, A. cruentus and A. caudatus and many varieties within

these 3 species produce either white, yellow, or pink seeds. The above three species have

been identified as having the potential to increase world food production (NAS, 1975).

Grain amaranth can further be divided into tall and short types.

2.1 EFFECT OF COW DUNG AND NPK-FERTILIZERS AND DIFFERENT

ORGANIC SOURCES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF AMARANTHUS

CAUDATUS.

Vora and Shelet (1991) conducted a field trial, to study the response of grain amaranth to

inoculation with Acetobacter ABA1, along with graded dose of nitrogen, on the sandy

loam soils at Plant Breeding Farm, Anand (Gujarat), during the Rabi season of the year

1991-92. The results showed that, inoculation of Acetobacter ABA1 enhanced the grain
yield significantly over non-inoculated control. Response to different levels of nitrogen

was also found to be significant.

Patel et al. (1993) conducted a field trial on forage sorghum during the kharif seasons of

1988, 1989 and 1990 on alluvial soils of Anand (Gujarat), to study the influence of

biofertilizers and nitrogen levels on yield of forage sorghum variety S.S.G.59-3. The

results revealed that treatment of Acetobacter along with 50 kg N ha-1 have resulted in

the maximum green forage, dry matter and crude protein production in single cut

management.

Fertility needs for grain amaranth production varies significantly depending on rainfall

amounts and distribution (Mposi, 1999). Studies show that nitrogen is the most limiting

nutrient under most environments (Pospisil et al., 2006). Phosphorous and potassium are

only applied in soils that are especially deficient in these nutrients with the rate of 50kg

P/ha being considered optimum (Myers and Putnam, 1988; Ojo et al., 2007). There is

limited information on soil fertility requirements for grain amaranth production in Nigeria

as the crop is relatively new. The current research was accordingly undertaken to

investigate the appropriate levels of nitrogen fertilizer and manure application for

enhanced grain amaranth production in Bauchi.

Fertility needs for grain amaranth production varies significantly depending on rainfall

amounts and distribution (Mposi, 1999). Studies show that nitrogen is the most limiting

nutrient under most environments (Pospisil et al., 2006). Phosphorous and potassium are

only applied in soils that are especially deficient in these nutrients with the rate of 50kg
P/ha being considered optimum (Myers and Putnam, 1988; Ojo et al., 2007). There is

limited information on soil fertility requirements for grain amaranth production in Kenya

as the crop is relatively new. The current research was accordingly undertaken to

investigate the appropriate levels of nitrogen fertilizer and manure application for

enhanced grain amaranth production in Kenya. Fertility needs for grain amaranth

production varies significantly depending on rainfall amounts and distribution (Mposi,

1999). Studies show that nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient under most environments

(Pospisil et al., 2006). Phosphorous and potassium are only applied in soils that are

especially deficient in these nutrients with the rate of 50kg P/ha being considered

optimum (Myers and Putnam, 1988; Ojo et al., 2007). There is limited information on soil

fertility requirements for grain amaranth production in Kenya as the crop is relatively new.

The current research was accordingly undertaken to investigate the appropriate levels of

nitrogen fertilizer and manure application for enhanced grain amaranth production in

Kenya.

Recently, there has been a global shift from chemical fertilizers to organic fertilizers that

are renewable, quite easily accessible and cheap and less harmful (Ehiagiator, 1998). The

use of organic manures such as poultry droppings, cow dung, compost, crop residue, had

been an age old practice among the agricultural communities in Nigeria (Omueti et al.,

2000). In cultivation of vegetables, farmers however, prefer the use of organic manure

despite its bulkiness and low nutrient content especially nitrogen. In other to circumvent

its low nutrient content, organomineral fertilizer that is a combination of organic manure
fortified with inorganic fertilizers to enhance its nutrient value had been formulated

(Omueti et al., 2000).

2.2. CULTIVATION

According to (Tindal, 2002) Amaranthus caudatus can be grown in sandy gravel or well

drained washed soil. If there is regularly rainfall with a situation containing all in

minerals necessary for plants growth in carefully adjusted proportion.

Grain amaranth is adaptable to a wide range of climatic conditions. It grows best under

humid conditions but has the ability to withstand hot climates. Grain amaranth is

extremely drought tolerant but requires wet conditions during germination and early

establishment (Putnam et al., 1989). Its water requirement is reported to be 42-47 % that

of wheat, 51-62 % that of maize and 79 % that of cotton (Mwangi, 2003).

Amaranth’s drought tolerance is as a result of its deep and extensive root system and a C4

metabolism (O’Brien and Price, 1983). However it requires adequate moisture for good

production but can be grown in areas receiving 390 mm to 550 mm annual rainfall. Grain

amaranth responds well to high sunlight and warm temperatures (Putnam et al., 1989). It

requires soil temperatures ranging from 18 0 C to 24 0 C for optimal growth (Gelinas and

Seguin, 2008).

Amaranthus caudatus is a popularly the drop season under the irrigation which which

enable it to adopt various drought hazards in an environment. Cited by (Uzo and

Youdeowei)
2.3. SOIL REQUIREMENT

Grain amaranth is adaptable to different soils- sandy, loamy, alkaline or saline types but

prefers soil pH of 6.0 to 7.5. The type of soil can affect germination. This is because of

the tiny seeds which germinate into tiny and fragile seedlings. The seedlings can easily be

blocked from emergence by a thin crust on the soil formed after a rain. Selecting soils

that are lower in clay and managing the seedbed to minimize chance of crusting can help

ensure getting good stand.

The soil requirement for planting Amaranthus caudatus is that the plant is self-fertile.

Suitable for height (sandy soil), medium (loamy soil) and heavy (clay soil, prefer drained

soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil suitable for PH: acid, neutral and basic

(alkaline) soil can grow in an acid, alkaline and saline soil. It cannot grow in a shade. It

prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.

2.4. EFFECT OF VARIOUS NUTRIENT SOURCES ON THE FERTILITY

STATUS OF THE SOIL

The application of organic matter (cow dung and N.P.K) is done before sowing the seeds

during the growing period and the greatest respond is usually obtain during the early life

of plant after a certain stage of maturity has been reached. Fertilizer has no effect, but

N.P.K fertilizer is soluble in water and therefore is easily available to plant root. But cow

dung can provide available nutrient to root over a long period of time because is slowly

soluble. N.P.K is washed out from the soil by rain, excessively rainfall may cause loose
of diseases resistance and leave may grow longer than normal size and good root

development N.P.K Content depend on actually of bacteria on the organic matter. Stated

by (Tindal, 2001).

Thenmozhi and Paulraj (2010) carried out an experiment to assess the effect of

various composts on yield of amaranthus (var. CO 2) and soil fertility at the

Departmental Farm of TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The results recorded a profound

influence on the soil available nutrients (N, P and K) status and organic carbon content

with the application of banana pseudostem/ sugarcane trash compost applied @ 750 kg

ha-1 in conjunction with 75% of RDF.

The effect of organic manure and chemical fertilizers on vegetable crops and soil

properties in the radish-stem amaranthIndian spinach cropping pattern was studied in a

homestead area of Gazipur district in Bangladesh. Among the treatments, the poultry

manure 2.5t ha-1 + reduced dose of recommended fertilizer and household waste 5t ha-1

+ reduced dose of recommended fertilizer were found suitable for achieving sustainable

vegetable crop yield as well as for sustenance of soil health at homestead area (Islam et

al., 2011).

Pradeepkumar et al. (2011) conducted a field study at the seed production plots of

College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala, during 2009-10, on the effect of

sludge based compost on bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) and amaranth (Amaranthus

dubius) and on soil fertility. Bhindi (Arka Anamika) was raised during the monsoon

season of 2009 and amaranth (CO-1) during the second crop season (NovemberMarch) of
2009-10. Soil nutrient analysis after amaranth crop, revealed a steady increase in pH of

the plots receiving full dose of sludge manure (5.58 to 6.56), and available P (70.31 to

164.33), Ca, Mn, Cu and Zn also showed considerable variation but there was no

significant difference with respect to organic C, K, B, S, Fe and Mg content of soil.

Residual nutrient status exhibited a variable pattern after bhindi and amaranth crop.

Locally a viable organic material cow dung and N.P.K which contain low amount

of macro and micro nutrients could be used low cost sources of nutrients for Amaranthus

caudatus. A soil enhancing benefit from these manures in addition to those from macro

and micro are related to the organic matter (cow dung and N.P.K) to improved soil

structure and moisture relation and increase mobility of N.P.K and micro nutrients and

stimulates microbial activities. Cited by (Khlid 2014).

Tiwari et al. (2012) carried out a field experiment during the rabi season of 2009-

10 at Instructional Farm, N. D. University Of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad on

the effect of vemicompost and herbicides on soil health and performance of late sown

wheat. They found that application of N through vermicompost @ 120 kg N ha-1

recorded significantly higher grain yield (4.01t ha-1) over the control (2.45t ha-1). Also,

nutrient uptake (N, P, K) increased significantly with increase in vermicompost doses

over control and maximum uptake was noticed for Vermicompost at 0.12t ha-1.

Cow dung was includes in a number of factorial trials in Ghana along with N.P.K.

nutrients of potash, and lime. It was discovered that cow dung nearly always give better
result than N.P.K fertilizer especially after some years of cropping. According to

(Djokota and Stephen 2003).

(Dennison 2006) stated that organic matter cow dung and N.P.K) gives higher yield the

equivalent amount of N.P.K fertilizer in long time continuously cropped. Experiment in

Nigeria cow dung is an excellent organic fertilizer as it contains high N.P.K and other

essentially nutrients. It has been reported to supply N.P.K more rapidly to (Amaranthus

caudatus) than other sources. Stated by (Gray and Balham 2008).

Cow dung as a source of plant nutrient to value sources of N.P.K responds to

application of 2.5kg on deficient soil has been of its content of calcium, magnesium,

potassium, and sodium. Suggested by (Hartley 1996).

Fertility needs for grain amaranth production varies significantly depending on

rainfall amounts and distribution (Mposi, 1999). Studies show that nitrogen is the most

limiting nutrient under most environments (Pospisil et al., 2006). Phosphorous and

potassium are only applied in soils that are especially deficient in these nutrients with the

rate of 50kg P/ha being considered optimum (Myers and Putnam, 1988; Ojo et al., 2007).

According to (Luck, 1997) long continual use of organic matter (cow dung and

N.P.K) at higher rate of application increase the organic matter content of the soil thus

improve soil structure. Cow dung manure increase soil of PH, organic matter content

available phosphorus exchangeable aluminum and iron contents and soil bulky density.

experiment by (Nass, 1989) tested the values of cow dung dropping as sources of

nitrogen for gass. The fresh manure used were very valuable but average 29% dry matter
1.4% nitrogen 1.26% p2 05 and 0.6/k20, in fresh organic matter, spring dressing cow dung

dropping were about 59% as efficient in terms of total nitrogen as fertilizer put at the

same time. Continuing experiment suggested that cow dung dropping had appreciable

residual. Cow dung dropping contain 3..6% dry matter 36% p2 05 and 15% k20.

Organic matter (cow dung and N.P.K) supply nutrient for plant and carbon

containing compounds are food for small animals and micro-organism, organic matter

(cow dung and N.P.K) improved the structure of soil, and they may do so directly

through their action in bulky diluents in compacted soil or indices when they waste useful

to crop that soil can hold. Organic matter improved soil aeration, drainage and encourage

good root by enough pine of the right size and thereby prevention the soil becoming too

rigid when dry or completely water logged and avoid of air wet. Cited by (Cook 1982).

2.4. POTASSIUM FOR TREATMENT OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS

This element assets plant in resisting diseases and influence the intake and use of

much other plant food. They are fairly solution and can easily be washed out od well-

drained soil. Plants suffer from an excessive supply of potash but deficiency may cause

scorched leaf marginal loss of yield. (Farhad 2009)

Pest Control

There is a wide range of insects that attack amaranthus in Kangere Bauchi South,

in Galambi districts area; various snout beetles, moth larvae, fleas, stinkbugs and

blowflies. Tarnished plant bug and amaranth weevil are regarded as potentially
significant insect pests of amaranth. The insect most likely to affect yields is the tarnished

plant bug, a sucking insect which often reaches high populations in the seed head during

the critical seed-fill stage. Flea beetles damage the young leaf tissue. The adult amaranth

weevil feeds on leaves, but the larval stage is more damaging because they bore into the

central tissue of roots and occasionally stems, causing rotting and potential lodging.

There are no synthetic insecticides labelled for amaranth, but various organic insecticides

can be used, including certain potassium, pyrethrum and BT products. There are no

fungicides labelled for amaranth.

Disease Control

No significant disease problems have been conclusively identified for grain

amaranth. One possible problem is a damping-off fungus, which can kill seedlings.

Therefore use disease-free seeds and avoid both overwatering and dense planting. Leaf

amaranth suffers damage from the armyworm and the curly top virus disease, which is

transmitted by the beet leafhoppers (Circulifer femellus).

2.5. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF GREEN AMARANTH

Among the green leafy vegetables, Amaranthus species are a rich store house of

vitamins, including carotene, vitamin B6, vitamin C, riboflavin, folate, as well as

essential amino acids and dietary minerals like Ca, P, Fe, Mg, K, Cu, Zn, and Mn (Musa

and others 2011 and references herein). Processing of amaranth vegetables may influence

the contents of microconstituents: for instance, steam cooking of A. hybridus resulted in

29.2% vitamin loss; however, the content of flavonoids increased by 25%, probably due

to the release of some flavonoids during cooking (Adefegha and Oboh 2011). Green leafy

vegetables are also prone to vitamin losses during preprocessing handling conditions,

exposure to light, refrigerated storage, and other factors (Faboya 1990)

Amaranth is a multipurpose crop supplying high nutritional quality grains and

leafy vegetables for food and animal feed; as possessing attractive inflorescence

coloration, it also may be cultivated as an ornamental plant (Mlakar and others 2009).

Nowadays amaranth could be classified as a new, forgotten, neglected, and alternative

crop of great nutritional value; in fact, amaranth has gained increased attention only since

the 1970s (Lehmann 1996). Crop importance, botany, and chemical composition were

recently briefly reviewed focusing mainly on rheological properties of flours containing

amaranth and their suitability for making bread (Mlakar and others 2009).

The studies of amaranth composition, processing, uses, properties, and health

effects have been rapidly expanding during the last decades and much new scientific and

technological information has been published. Amaranth, containing fiber, protein,

tocols, squalene, and the substances possessing cholesterol‐lowering function, is a

particularly important crop for developing countries (Johns and Eyzaguirre 2007).

 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The details of various materials used and the different techniques adopted during

the course of the investigation are described in this chapter.

3.1. EXPERIMENTAL SITE

In order to achieve the pre-set objectives behind the present investigation, a field

experiment was carried out at the school of Vocational and Technical Educational farm at

Adamu Tafawa Balewa College of Education Kangere Bauchi, Bauchi State.

3.2. CLIMATE AND WEATHER CONDITIONS

Geographically, Bauchi is situated or located between 9° 3' and 12° 3' North

latitudes and 8° 50' and 11° east longitudes. Bauchi state is one of the states in the

northern part of Nigeria that span two distinctive vegetation zones, namely, the Sudan

savannah and the Sahel savannah. The Sudan savannah type of vegetation covers the

southern part of the state. Here, the vegetation gets richer and richer towards the south,

especially along water sources or rivers, but generally the vegetation is less uniform and

grasses are shorter than what grows even farther south, that is, in the forest zone of the

middle belt.

The Sahel type of savannah, also known as semi-desert vegetation, becomes manifest

from the middle of the state as one moves from the state's south to its north. This type of
vegetation comprises isolated stands of thorny shrubs. On the other hand, the

southwestern part of the state is mountainous as a result of the continuation of the Jos

Plateau, while the northern part is generally sandy.

Consequently, rains start earlier in the southern part of the state, where rain is heaviest

and lasts longer. Here the rains start in April with the highest record amount of 1300 mm

per annum. In contrast, the northern part of the state receives the rains late, usually

around June or July, and records the highest amount of 700 mm per annum. In the same

vein, the weather experienced in the south and the north varies considerably. While it

is humidly hot during the early part of the rainy season in the south, the hot, dry and

dusty weather lingers up north. In addition to rainfall, Bauchi state is watered by a

number of rivers. They include the Gongola and Jama'are rivers.

3.3. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

The experimental field had an even topography with a gentle slope having good drainage.

The soil is locally known as “Kangere” soil. It is alluvial in origin and the texture of the

soil is loamy sand. The soil is very deep and fairly moisture retentive. The soil responds

well to N.P.K fertilizers and manures. It is suitable for a variety of crops of tropical and

sub-tropical regions. The physio-chemical properties of experimental plot were

determined by drawing soil sample randomly from a depth of 0-15 cm, a plot wise

composite sample was prepared and analyzed for physical and chemical properties of the

soil.
3.4. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS

Amaranthus caudatus seed were obtained from BSADP, which is Bauchi State

Agricultural Development Programme with the fertilizer, while the cow dung was

sourced from school farm. The tools used include hoe for land clearing, tape for

measurement or mapping the size of the plot or bed, ruler and scale for measurement of

growth and yield parameters.

3.5. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND LAY OUT

Randomized Complete Block Design (R.C.B.D) was adopted in the present field study,

with two treatments. Cow dung and N.P.K fertilizer, the total experiment size was

simultaneously on different beds. All the essential cultural operations like ploughing,

harrowing, planking, opening of furrows etc were done in the experimental field.

3.6. NURSERY PREPARATION OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS

Seed were raised in a nursery by sowing seeds and covered with fined sand. The

experiment researchers were done in the rainy season.

3.6.1. APPLICATION FOR COW DUNG AND N.P.K

Ten days before planting of Amaranthus caudatus seed, cow dung and N.P.K fertilizer

were incorporate into experimental plot at the rate of 8kg respectively. The cow dung

manure and N.P.K fertilizer were applied earlie in other to cure. All the treatment level in

the experiment plot was replicated tow times at different beds.

3.6.2. MANAGEMENT OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS IN THE FIELD

Hand weeding started two weeks after planting of Amaranthus Caudatus seeds because

the plant does not resist competition with weeds, weeding was carried out regularly.

Harvesting was carried out 6-8 weeks after planting of Amaranthus Caudatus seeds. Due

to the weedy nature and rather strong growth of many amaranth species, weeds, in

general, are not a major problem. Nevertheless, early weed control is important as

amaranth seeds are small in size and relatively slow to germinate. Thorough land

preparation is essential for effective initial weed control. A clean seedbed gives amaranth

seedlings a head start on weeds and the plantlets may then establish a dense canopy that

suppresses the emergence of weed seedlings. Mulching is recommended to reduce soil

compaction and erosion, to conserve soil moisture, and to suppress weed competition.

Organic mulching materials should be free of weed seeds. Herbicides should only be used

if absolutely necessary.

3.7. DATA COLLECTION

Data were collected at two weeks interval from two weeks after planting of Amaranthus

Caudatus seeds parameters assessed were plant height, measured using a meter rule, leaf

area and number of leaves physical counting.

3.8. DATA ANALYSIS

Data generated from the experiment were analyzed using descriptive statistic such

percentage and mean to determine the response of the treatments on growth and yield of

Amaranthus caudatus plant.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT ANDDISCUSSION

THE PERFDORMANCE OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS USING THE COW

DUNG AND N.P.K FERTILIZER

TABLE 1

THE PERFORMANCE OF COW DUNG AND N.P.K FERTILIZER ON THE PLANT

HEIGHT (CM) OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS

WEEKS AFTER PLANTING (WAP)

TREATMENT 2 4 6 8

CONTROL 3.00 5.00 8.00 13.00

N.P.K 6kg/PLOT 5.10 8.40 17.30 26.50

8KG/PLOT 8.90 13.10 27.00 41.00

COW DUNG6KG/PLOT 4.40 8.30 19.00 25.60

8KG/PLOT 5.00 8.30 12.00 13.40

Source field report: July 2018

4.1. Response of cows dung and N.P.K on the plant height of Amaranthus caudatus is

presented in Table 1. Result showed that at 2,4,6 and 8 weeksafter planting (WAP) N.P.K

fertilizer at 8kg produced tallest Amanthus caudatus at 13.00cm than cow dung. This is in

line with the finding of Oyewole and Mera (2015) who reported that the respondese of

Roselle culture to N.P.K fertilizer have shown that plant height responded significantly to

at 2g per plot. This is clear evidence that N.P.K fertilizer has greater Nitrogen
 composition required for sufficient plant growth and cell elongation. Result also revealed

that control treatment produced the shortest plants throughout the experimental period.

This confirms the fact the soil in the savanna is seriously lacking in the Nitrogen and

phosphorus and cannot yield sustainable without any fcorm of soil fertility enhancement.

TABLE 2

THE RESPONSE OF COW DUNG AND N.P.K FERTILIZER ON THE NUMBERE

OF LEAVES OF AMARANTHUS CCAUDATUS

WEEKS AFTER PLANTING (WAP)

TREATMENT 2 4 6 8

CONTROL 4.00 5.00 7.00 9.00

N.P.K 6KG/PLOT 6.30 7.80 11.90 14.50

8KG/PLOT 7.30 7.80 12.60 18.30

COW DUNG 6KG/PLOT 6.50 7.30 12.40 15.40

8KG/PLOT 7.10 6.60 12.00 13.40

Source field report: July 2018

4.2. Response of cow dung and N.P.K on the number of leaves of Amaranthus caudatus

is presented in Table 2. Result showed that N.P.K fertilizer applied at 38kg produced the

greatest numbers of leaves. This may not be unconnected to then fact that N.P.K fertilizer

having produced the tallest plants which could have better solar interception for
 photosynthesis and may be exposed to better photosynthesis resulting in the emergence of

several leaves. However, the leaves number was observed in the control treatment

throughout the period of the experiment.

TABLE 3

THE REPONSE OF COW DUNG AND N.P.K ON LEAF AREA (CM 2) OFC

AMAANTHUS CAUDATUS

WEEK AFTER PLANTING (WAP)

TREATMENT 2 4 6 8

CONTROL 2.10 3.00 4.00 7.00

N.PK6KG/PLOT 3.60 5.50 12.30 15.30

8KG/PLOT 6.60 6.50 14.00 25.90

COWDUNG 6KG/PLOT 3.50 5.00 23.20 23.30

8KG/PLOT 2.60 4.80 10.60 15.00

Source field report: July 2018

4.3. Response of cow dung and N.P.K on the leaf area of Amaranthus caudatus is

represented in table 3. Finding revealed that N.P.K fertilizer applied at 8kg/plot produced

the largest leaf area. this may not be unconnected to the fact that N.P.K fertilizer having

produced tallest plants also had photosynthesis surface area to assimilate production.
However, the leaf area was observed in the control treatment through the period of the

experiment. This resulted in pale and yellowisch color of leaves as well as stunted growth

of the Amaranthus caudatus.

TABLE 4

THE RESPONSE OF COW DUNG AND N.P.K FERTILIZER ON THE TOTAL

YIELD OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS (KG)

TREATMENT WEEKS AFTER PLANTING (WAP)

CONTROL 1.5KG

N.P.K 4.5KG

COW DUNG 2.5KG

Source field report: July 2018

4.4. Response of cow dung and N.P.K on the yield of Amaranthus caudatus is presented

in above table 4. In conclusion result showed that the application of N.P.K fertilizer

produced the highest yield of Amarantus caudatus. This is in accordance with the finding

of Stephen et al (2017) who reported that N.P.K and Poultry manure both perform better

in the yield of Amaranthus caudatus species. But N.P.K manure give more yield than

poultry manure when both are aply at 250kg/ha. The total yield of Amaranthus species

under N.P.K manure is 130kg, while poultry manure is 120kg/. This may be attributed to

the fact that N.P.K fertilizer is easily decomposition of both plants as well as it numerous

composition of both micro and macro desired by plants. N.P.K fertilizer also provides the

soil with better nutrient leading to increase in mineral elements in the soil.