Fundamentals of Thermodynamics & Fluid

Mechanics – Overview

15MEC312

Heat Transfer

SIVANESAN M
 Systems, Surroundings and Boundary

➢ A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for

study.
➢ The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
➢ The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is
called the boundary

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 Closed System
➢ A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary.
➢ If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that
system is called an isolated system.

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 Open System
➢ An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected
region in space.
➢ It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
➢ Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the
device as the control volume.

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 Properties of System
➢ Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
➢ Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
➢ The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
➢ Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and density.
➢ Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of
the system.
➢ Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive
properties.
➢ Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (with mass
m being a major exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive
properties (with pressure P and temperature T being the obvious exceptions)
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 Properties of System
➢ Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌= (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝑉
➢ The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume
per unit mass.
𝑉 1
𝑣= =
𝑚 𝜌
➢ Specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of
a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature.
𝜌
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝐻2𝑂

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 State

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 Equilibrium
➢ Equilibrium implies a state of balance.
➢ In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
➢ A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings
➢ Thermal Equilibrium
➢ Mechanical Equilibrium
➢ Phase Equilibrium
➢ Chemical Equilibrium

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 Process
➢ Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is
called a process, and the series of states through which a system passes during
a process is called the path of the process

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 Compression Process

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 “iso” Process
➢ An isothermal process, is a process during which the temperature T remains
constant
➢ An isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant;
➢ An isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.

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 Temperature
➢ It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
➢ Temperature can be measured with help of thermometer
Steam Point, 100oC

Ball at
40oC

Ice Point, 0oC

➢ The ball is 40oC hotter compared to the Ice Point

➢ The ball is 60oC colder compared to the Steam Point

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 Thermal Equilibrium

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 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

A, TA

TA =TB TA =TC

B, TB C, TC
TB =TC

If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other

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 Forms of Energy
➢ Thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and
nuclear
➢ Sum of these energies are called TOTAL Energy, E (kJ)
➢ The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2 𝑘𝐽
2
➢V denotes the velocity of the system relative to some fixed reference frame.
➢ The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
field is called potential energy (PE).
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧 𝑘𝐽
➢g is the gravitational acceleration
➢z is the elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily
selected reference level.

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 Heat and Work
➢ Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference

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 Work
➢ Work is defined as the quantity of energy transferred from one system to
another

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑘𝐽
2
If F is not constant, 𝑊 = ‫׬‬1 𝐹 𝑑𝑠 (𝑘𝐽)

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 Work

This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r by

𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑛
𝑇
The shaft work, 𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝐹𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 (𝑘𝐽)
𝑟

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 Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process;

it can only change forms

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 First Law of Thermodynamics

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 First Law of Thermodynamics

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 Second Law – Kelvin Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

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 Second Law – Clasius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body.

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 Introduction Fluid Mechanics
➢ Fluid flow is often confined by solid surfaces, and it is important to understand
how the presence of solid surfaces affects fluid flow.
➢ We know that water in a river cannot flow through large rocks, and must go
around them.
➢ That is, the water velocity normal to the rock surface must be zero, and water
approaching the surface normally comes to a complete stop at the surface.
➢ All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a
complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the surface.
➢ That is, a fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the surface, and there is
no slip. This is known as the no-slip condition.

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 Introduction Fluid Mechanics
➢ All velocity profiles must have zero values with respect to the surface at the
points of contact between a fluid and a solid surface

➢ Therefore, the no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the

velocity profile.
➢ The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous effects (and thus the
velocity gradients) are significant is called the boundary layer.
➢ Another consequence of the no-slip condition is the surface drag, or skin friction
drag, which is the force a fluid exerts on a surface in the flow direction

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 Introduction Fluid Mechanics
➢ When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface, such as the back side of a
cylinder, the boundary layer may no longer remain attached to the sur face and
separates from the surface—a process called flow separation

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 Viscous Fluid Flow
➢ When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops
between them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer.
➢ This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property viscosity,
which is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
➢ Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by
molecular collisions in gases.
➢ There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous
effects to some degree.
➢ Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.

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 Inviscid Fluid Flow
➢ However, in many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions
not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared
to inertial or pressure forces.
➢ Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies the
analysis without much loss in accuracy

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 Fluid Flow - Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
➢ The fluid sticks to the plate on both sides because of the no-slip condition, and
the thin boundary layer in which the viscous effects are significant near the
plate surface is the viscous flow region.
➢ The region of flow on both sides away from the plate and largely unaffected by
the presence of the plate is the inviscid flow region.

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 External Flow & Internal Flow
➢ A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the
fluid flows in a confined space or over a surface.
➢ The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe
is external flow.
➢ The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces.
➢ Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow, and airflow over a ball or over
an exposed pipe during a windy day is external flow.
➢ The flow of liquids in a duct is called open-channel flow if the duct is only
partially filled with the liquid and there is a free surface.
➢ The flows of water in rivers and irrigation ditches are examples of such flows.

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 Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Flow
➢ Incompressible flow refers to the fluid flow in which the fluid's density is
constant.
➢ For a density to remain constant, the control volume has to remain constant.
Even though the pressure changes, the density will be constant for an
incompressible flow.
➢ Incompressible flow means flow with variation of density due to pressure
changes is negligible or infinitesimal. All the liquids at constant temperature are
incompressible.

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 Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Flow
➢ Compressible flow means a flow that undergoes a notable variation in density
with trending pressure.
➢ Density is considered as a field variable for the flow dynamics.

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 Laminar Flow
➢ Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic.
➢ The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called
laminar.
➢ The word laminar comes from the movement of adjacent fluid particles
together in “laminae.”
➢ The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar.

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 Turbulent Flow
➢ The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent.
➢ The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities is typically turbulent

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 Laminar & Turbulent Flows

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 Natural and Forced Flows
➢ A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is
initiated. In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by
external means such as a pump or a fan.
➢ In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and
the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid

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 Steady and Unsteady Flow
➢ The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering, and thus it is
important to have a clear understanding of their meanings.
➢ The term steady implies no change of properties, velocity, temperature, etc., at
a point with time.
➢ The opposite of steady is unsteady.

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