Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 General

Airport pavements are constructed to provide adequate support for the loads imposed by
airplanes and to produce a firm, stable, smooth, all-year, all-weather surface free of debris or
other particles that may be blown or picked up by propeller wash or jet blast. In order to
satisfactorily fulfill these requirements, the pavement must be of such quality and thickness that
it will not fail under the load imposed. In addition, it must possess sufficient inherent stability to
withstand, without damage, the abrasive action of traffic, adverse weather conditions, and other
deteriorating influences. To produce such pavements requires a coordination of many factors of
design, construction, and inspection to assure the best possible combination of available
materials and a high standard of workmanship. The main purpose of an airport pavement is to
provide a satisfactory surface upon which the aircraft can operate. The term pavement or
pavement structure is defined as a structure consisting of one or more layers of the processed
materials.

The airport pavements are designed to achieve the following objects:

(1) To distribute the concentrated loads so that the bearing capacity of the subgrade soil is not
exceeded.
(2) To furnish adequate thickness of each of its layer so that the applied loads do not lead to its
failure or of the underlying layers.

1
(3) To give a clean surface free from dust or particles that may be blown or picked up by the
aircraft propellers.
(4) To provide adequate support for the loads imposed by the aircraft using the airport.
(5) To provide a smooth and safe all-weather riding surface.

The pavements are provided for the runways, taxiways, loading aprons, maintenance areas, etc.
In general, it may be stated that the airport pavement must have sufficient stability to resist the
imposed traffic loads and to withstand the abrasive action of traffic, adverse weather conditions
and other deteriorating influences.

1.2 Objective & Scope of Study

1.2.1 Objective

The main objective of the present research study is to develop a program for design airport flexible
pavement using C language.

1.2.2 Scope of Study

Ø This program makes the process of computation of flexible pavement layer thickness
easily.
Ø This program eliminates the manual errors that occur in using chart and interpolation
process.
Ø This program is directly giving the layer thickness without any iteration process.

1.3 History of Air Transportation

Reger Bacon was the first man who studied the flight of birds and made a prophecy in 1266 that
the source of energy for flight can be derived from fire. It can well be imagined that the human
beings must be dreaming of flights like birds from the very beginning. The experiments started

2
with flights in balloons. The first flight was made on December 17, 1903 by a bicycle repairman,
Orville Wright, in a power driven aircraft which was heavier than air. He propelled himself
through the air, a distance of 35 m (120 ft) near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, U.S.A.

During the world war 1914-18, Zeppelin aeroplanes were freely used by Germans for the
passenger transport. In U.S.A. long distance air mail service was first introduced in May, 1918
between Washington and New York.

The first international air service started in 1918 between Toulouse and Barcelona in France.
London – Paris service commenced in1919. In 1927, Lindburg made first solo flight between
New York to Paris.

First jet flight was made on August 27 1939 in Germany. The jet aircraft was manufactured by
Heinkel Aircraft Company in Germany. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was
founded by 52 nations’ conference held at Chicago in 194. The head quarters of ICAO are at
Montreal, Canada, and it serves all the nations as an agency to promote international aviation.

1.4 Traffic Summary

During the period of Apr-May-2007-08, all operational Indian airports (taken together) handled
207.07 thousand aircraft movements, 19.30 million passengers and 278.12 thousand tonnes of
freight. The total aircraft movements on all Indian airports handled in Apr-May-2007-08 has
shown an increase of 27.5 per cent as compared to the aircraft movement handled in Apr-May-
2006-07, the total passenger traffic has shown an increase of 27.2 per cent as compared to Apr-
May-2006-07 and the total freight traffic on all Indian airports handled has registered a growth of
11.1 % as compared to the freight handled during Apr-May-2006-07.

Below figure summarizes the Aircraft movement, passenger carried by air terminals and freight
movement for the year 2006-07 and 2007-08.

3
 Table 1.1 Aircraft Movements on International Airports
Sr. For the Period April-May (In Nos.)
International Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 % Change
1 Chennai 18967 14416 31.6
2 Bangalore 18367 13945 31.7
3 Kolkata 12509 10640 17.6
4 Hyderabad 13421 9655 39
5 Ahmedabad 5253 4078 28.8
6 Goa 3321 2922 13.7
7 Trivandrum 4047 2700 49.9
8 Calicut 2215 2295 -3.5
9 Guwahati 3963 2658 49.1
10 Jaipur 2615 1334 96
11 Srinagar 1384 1068 29.6
12 Nagpur 2108 1232 71.1
13 Amritsar 1141 854 33.6
14 Mumbai (MIAL) 36948 32106 15.1
15 Delhi (DIAL) 33799 28638 18
16 Cochin (CIAL) 6030 4352 38.6
Total 166088 132893 24.97
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

Table 1.2 Aircraft Movements on Custom Airports

Sr. For the Period April-May (In Nos.)
Custom Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 % Change
1 Pune 2818 2514 12.1
2 Coimbatore 2567 1900 35.1
3 Lucknow 1810 1297 39.6
4 Mangalore 1274 778 63.8
5 Varanasi 940 444 111.7
6 Patna 970 654 48.3
7 Trichurapalli 858 512 67.6
8 Gaya 46 74 -37.8
Total 11283 8173 38.05
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

4
 Table 1.3 Aircraft Movements on Domestic & Other Airports
Sr. For the Period April-May (In Nos.)
Domestic Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 % Change
1 Portblair 1102 622 77.2
2 Jammu 1320 1082 22
3 Vadodara 1228 804 52.7
4 Indore 1246 884 41
5 Bhubaneswar 2039 756 169.7
6 Agartala 1048 804 30.3
7 Visakhapatnam 1428 1096 30.3
8 Madurai 1218 810 50.4
9 Bagdogra 764 824 -7.3
10 Raipur 1070 572 87.1
11 Udaipur 780 638 22.3
12 Imphal 980 328 198.8
13 Aurangabad 540 612 -11.8
14 Bhopal 730 816 -10.5
15 Rajkot 366 368 -0.5
16 Chandigarh 522 514 1.6
17 Tirupati 638 250 155.2
18 Ranchi 776 682 13.8
19 Leh 272 260 4.6
20 Juhu 3773 3303 14.2
21 Dibrugarh 474 519 -8.7
22 Silchar 712 402 77.1
Total 23026 16946 35.87
* Other Airports 6676 4386 52.2
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

5
 Aircraft Movements

166088
200000
2007-08

132893
Total Movements
150000 2006-07

100000

23026

16946
11283
50000

8173

6676

4386
0

DOMESTIC
AIRPORTS

AIRPORTS
INTERNATIONAL

AIRPORTS
CUSTOM

OTHER
AIRPORTS

Airport Type

Figure 1.1 Aircraft Movements on Indian Airports

Table 1.4 Passenger Movements on International Airports

Sr. For the Period April-May (In Nos.)
International Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 %Change
1 Chennai 1818430 1431134 27.1
2 Bangalore 1676854 1190767 40.8
3 Kolkata 1247394 962709 29.6
4 Hyderabad 1149367 871559 31.9
5 Ahmedabad 530960 412806 28.6
6 Goa 402545 337909 19.1
7 Trivandrum 359040 283271 26.7
8 Calicut 242697 193885 25.2
9 Guwahati 239843 159943 50
10 Jaipur 195116 90181 116.4
11 Srinagar 150805 136845 10.2
12 Nagpur 148506 104831 41.7
13 Amritsar 103141 83992 22.8
14 Mumbai (MIAL) 4284589 3694163 16
15 Delhi (DIAL) 3874081 3188926 21.5
16 Cochin (CIAL) 530700 411616 28.9
Total 16954068 13554537 25.08
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

6
 Table 1.5 Passenger Movements on Custom Airports
Sr. For the Period April-May (In Nos.)
Custom Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 %Change
1 Pune 290499 246864 17.7
2 Coimbatore 185250 148287 24.9
3 Lucknow 109404 90568 20.8
4 Mangalore 124707 79749 56.4
5 Varanasi 60252 36310 65.9
6 Patna 71793 42386 69.4
7 Trichurapalli 62206 37399 66.3
8 Gaya 2245 2555 -12.1
Total 906356 684118 32.48
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

Table 1.6 Passenger Movements on Domestic & Other Airports (In Nos.)
Sr. For the Period April-May
Domestic Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 %Change
1 Portblair 108706 61281 77.4
2 Jammu 108723 66859 62.6
3 Vadodara 82712 63383 30.5
4 Indore 77605 58544 32.6
5 Bhubaneswar 111764 41414 169.9
6 Agartala 75402 51960 45.1
7 Visakhapatnam 82290 49706 65.6
8 Madurai 67309 40528 66.1
9 Bagdogra 71167 51445 38.3
10 Raipur 73900 29264 152.5
11 Udaipur 32461 29728 9.2
12 Imphal 55267 27427 101.5
13 Aurangabad 29491 25076 17.6
14 Bhopal 31541 27373 15.2
15 Rajkot 27102 28746 -5.7
16 Chandigarh 30680 26135 17.4
17 Tirupati 29650 18338 61.7
18 Ranchi 40364 20444 97.4
19 Leh 24796 23061 7.5
20 Juhu 22653 21987 3
21 Dibrugarh 20848 21614 -3.5
22 Silchar 27682 15391 79.9
Total 1232113 799704 54.07
* Other Airports 204201 134878 51.4
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

7
 16954.068
Passenger Movements (in '000)

13554.537
16000 2007-08

Total Movements
2006-07
12000

8000

1232.113
906.356

799.704
684.118

204.201

134.878
4000

DOMESTIC
AIRPORTS

AIRPORTS
INTERNATIONAL

AIRPORTS
CUSTOM

OTHER
AIRPORTS

Airport Type

Figure 1.2 Passenger Movements on Indian Airports

Table 1.7 Freight Movements on International Airports

Sr. For the Period April-May (In Tonnes)
International Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 %Change
1 Chennai 43583 35872 21.5
2 Bangalore 29857 25713 16.1
3 Kolkata 15002 12517 19.9
4 Hyderabad 7731 6541 18.2
5 Ahmedabad 3659 2919 25.4
6 Goa 858 909 -5.6
7 Trivandrum 5447 5535 -1.6
8 Calicut 1897 2138 -11.3
9 Guwahati 219 703 -68.8
10 Jaipur 448 378 18.5
11 Srinagar 336 401 -16.2
12 Nagpur 606 439 38
13 Amritsar 318 219 45.2
14 Mumbai (MIAL) 85934 77738 10.5
15 Delhi (DIAL) 70112 67143 4.4
16 Cochin (CIAL) 4093 4026 1.7
Total 270100 243191 11.06
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

8
 Table 1.8 Freight Movements on Custom Airports
Sr. For the Period April-May (In Tonnes)
Custom Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 %Change
1 Pune 2058 1869 10.1
2 Coimbatore 774 909 -14.9
3 Lucknow 261 298 -12.4
4 Mangalore 57 70 -18.6
5 Varanasi 43 80 -46.3
6 Patna 275 226 21.7
7 Trichurapalli 201 137 46.7
8 Gaya 0 0 -
Total 3669 3589 2.22
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

Table 1.9 Freight Movements on Domestic & Other Airports

Sr. For the Period April-May (In Tonnes)
Domestic Airports
No. 2007-08 2006-07 %Change
1 Portblair 288 228 26.3
2 Jammu 188 194 -3.1
3 Vadodara 562 601 -6.5
4 Indore 812 452 79.6
5 Bhubaneswar 186 116 60.3
6 Agartala 559 443 26.2
7 Visakhapatnam 61 76 -19.7
8 Madurai 95 81 17.3
9 Bagdogra 94 102 -7.8
10 Raipur 235 103 128.2
11 Udaipur 0 1 -100
12 Imphal 316 247 27.9
13 Aurangabad 170 164 3.7
14 Bhopal 71 52 36.5
15 Rajkot 123 156 -21.2
16 Chandigarh 82 46 78.3
17 Tirupati 12 1 1100
18 Ranchi 55 56 -1.8
19 Leh 119 153 -22.2
20 Juhu 59 52 13.5
21 Dibrugarh 52 79 -34.2
22 Silchar 51 47 8.5
Total 4190 3450 21.44
* Other Airports 159 134 18.7
(Source: Web Site http://www.airportsindia.org.in/traffic_news/annual_review.jsp)

9
 Freight Movements (in '000 Tonnes)

270.1

243.191
240 2007-08

Total Movements
200 2006-07
160
120
80

3.669

3.589

0.159

AIRPORTS 0.134
4.19

3.45
40
0

DOMESTIC
AIRPORTS
INTERNATIONAL

AIRPORTS
CUSTOM

OTHER
AIRPORTS

Airport Type

Figure 1.3 Freight Movements on Indian Airports

The overall growth of above parameters is summarized in form of a bar chart in Fig. 1.4.

Aircraft Movements
% Growth
Passenger Movements
Freight Movements
Freight
Movements,
11.08%

Passenger Aircraft
Movements, Movements,
27.17% 27.50%

Figure 1.4 Percentage Growths of Aircraft, Passenger & Freight Movements on Indian
Airports

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Airports are being planned at Ahmedabad, Amritsar, and Guwahati for B-747 (350-450 Seaters)
type of aircraft. Aurangabad, Varanasi, Bhubaneswar, Calicut, Coimbatore, Jaipur and Lucknow
airports are being planned for AB-300 (250-275 seaters) type of aircraft. Besides these, airports
are being developed at many other places.

1.5 Classification of Airports

The airports are classified by various agencies, the most popular one being by ICAO
(International Civil Aviation Organization). The airport classification aims at achieving the
uniformity in the design standards. The classification by ICAO is based in the following two
ways:

Ø The code letters A to E are used, as shown in Table 1.2, to indicate basic runway length,
width of runway pavement and maximum longitudinal grade.
Ø The numbers 1 to 7 are mentioned, as shown in Table 1.3, to indicate single isolated wheel
load and tyre pressure.

Thus, an airport classified as B-2 would have basic runway width between 1500 m to 2099 m
and would be capable of handling single isolated wheel load of 34000 kg with a tyre pressure of
7 kg/cm2.
Table 1.10 ICAO Airport Classifications
Airport Basic Runway Length (m) Width of Runway Maximum Longitudinal
Type Maximum Minimum Pavement (m) Grade (%)
A Over 2100 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0
(Source: Rangwala, S.C. (1997) Airport Engineering, Page No. 46)

11
 Table 1.11 ICAO Airport Classifications

Code No. Single Isolated Wheel Load (kg) Tyre Pressure (kg/cm2)

1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5
(Source: Rangwala, S.C. (1997) Airport Engineering, Page No. 46)

1.6 Airport Site Selection

The selection of site for a new airport has to be based on certain criteria which will serve as a
guide for the determination of its proper location and size. The same considerations will also be
applicable in the case of expansion of the existing airports. Necessary data and details are studied
from various airport surveys before the matter of site selection is considered.

Following are the factors which influence the location of an airport:

Ø Atmospheric and meteorological conditions

Ø Availability of land for expansion
Ø Availability of utilities
Ø Development of the surrounding area
Ø Economy of construction
Ø Ground accessibility
Ø Presence of other airports
Ø Regional plan
Ø Soil characteristics
Ø Surrounding obstructions
Ø Topography
Ø Use of airport.

12
1.7 Airport Capacity

The landing and take off are considered as two movements of each aircraft. The landing is given
priority over the take off. The term airport capacity is used to indicate the aircraft movements
which an airport can permit within a specified period of time by allowing acceptable time of
delay to the departing aircraft.

The airport capacity is influenced by a number of factors some of which are more significant
than others. The most important factor affecting the airport capacity is the spacing between
successive aircrafts. The ideal airport capacity is reduced to some extent by the practical
considerations. Hence, the practical operating capacity is much less than the theoretical or ideal
capacity.

Following are the factors which affect the airport operating capacity:
(1) Arrangement, size and number of gates in the apron area;
(2) Availability and structure of the air-space for establishing the arrival and departure
routes;
(3) Characteristics of the aircrafts using the airport;
(4) Configuration, number and location of the taxiways and runway exits;
(5) Configuration, number, spacing and orientation of the runway system;
(6) Existence and nature of the navigational aids;
(7) Frequency and existence of occurrence of wake vortices which require great separations
when a light aircraft follows a heavy aircraft than when a heavy aircraft follows a light
one;
(8) Nature and extent of the air-traffic control facilities;
(9) Noise abatement procedures having effect on the type and timing of operations on the
available runways;
(10) Number and frequency of touch-and-go operations by general aviation aircraft;
(11) Number of arrivals relative to the number of departures;
(12) Runway occupancy time for arriving and departing aircraft;
(13) Techniques adopted by the controller to operate the runway system;

13
 (14) Weather conditions especially visibility aspect as the air traffic rules are different for
good weather and bed weather.

1.8 Comparison of Highway and Airport Pavements

There are some difference between the highway pavement and airport pavement which are
described below:
Ø The performance of highway pavements and the performance of airport pavements are for
the most part different. Rigid highway pavements which carry high volumes of heavy traffic
nearly always result in pumping distress if built directly on clay subgrades. On the other
hand, many airfield pavements built directly over plastic soils have shown little or no
pumping.
Ø Flexible highway pavements show serious distress at pavement edges, whereas airfield
pavements do not.
Ø The chief factors which must be considered in the design of highway and airfield pavements
are the same; however, differences exist re-garding the quantitative values assigned to each
factor. The total weight of an airplane is usually greater than that of a truck, but the number
of repetition of loads is much greater on highways than on airports.
Ø The design load for a major highway is ordinarily in the vicinity of 9000 pounds on dual
tires, and the expected repetition may be as much as 1000 to 2000 trucks per day. In contrast,
a heavy bomber may have wheel loads in excess of 100,000 pounds, but only 20,000 to
40,000 coverage may be considered for the life of the pavement.
Ø Tire pressures on jet aircraft may be as high as 200 psi (Pounds per Square Inch), whereas,
for conventional truck tires, pressures are in the vicinity of 60 to 90 psi.
Ø Lateral placement of traffic on high ways is such that nearly all truck traffic travels within 3
to 4 feet of the pavement edge. In contrast, traffic on an airfield is such that the distribution
of traffic is concentrated primarily in the center. As a general rule, the traffic on a runway is
distributed over about 30 feet of the pavement.
Ø Bicycle-type landing gears and in particular steerable-type gears have resulted in channelized
conditions on airfield taxiways. Results of recent studies have shown that 75 per cent of this
type of traffic will occur on about 7.5 feet of pavement.

14
From the above discussion, it is seen that the major differences between highway and airfield
pavements are repetition of load, distribution of traffic, and geometry of the pavement. In turn,
each of these is affected by pavement width and type of aircraft.

1.9 Types of Pavements

For the purpose of design, the pavements are divided into the following two main categories with
respect to their structural behaviour:

Ø Flexible pavements
Ø Rigid pavements

1.9.1 Flexible Pavements

The flexible pavements cannot take up the tensile stresses caused by load and their load-carrying
capacity develops from the load distributing characteristics of the layered system. Such
pavements consist of a series of layers with the strongest at or near the surface.
A typical flexible pavement consists of soil subgrade, sub-base course, base course and surface
course. The sub-base course, base course and surface course may consist of one or more number
of layers of the same or slightly different materials and specifications. Thus, the strength of
flexible pavements depends on the construction of layers which distribute the load over the
subgrade and the thickness of such pavements is influenced appreciably by the strength of the
subgrade.

1.9.2 Rigid Pavements

The rigid pavements can take up tensile stresses and they consist of a concrete slab which may
serve as surfacing layer. It is the usual practice to provide a good base or sub-base course below
the cement concrete slab because it increases the life of pavement considerably and thus, proves

15
more economical in the long run. The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete which may
either be plain, reinforced or prestressed.

The rigid pavement, because of its high modulus of elasticity for all ranges of temperature, tends
to distribute the load over a relatively wide area and a major portion of the structural capacity is
supplied by the concrete slab itself. As a result, a major factor to consider in the design of rigid
pavements is the structural strength of the concrete. The uniformity of support is also a major
factor, but minor variations in the subgrade strength have little influence upon the structural
capacity of the pavement.

1.10 Choice of the Type of Pavement

The choice of the type of airport pavement i.e. flexible or rigid depends on the following factors:

Ø Amount allotted in the budget;

Ø Availability of construction materials, labour and equipment;
Ø Characteristics of the soil on which the landing facility is to be built;
Ø Climatic conditions of the area such as humidity, temperature, rainfall, etc.;
Ø Degree of permanency required;
Ø Magnitude of wheel loads;
Ø Maintenance costs;
Ø Nature and density of the anticipated air traffic;
Ø Safety of aircraft operations; etc.

1.11 Aircraft Properties

1.11.1 Aircraft Weight

Usually maximum take-off weight plays an important role in airport pavement design. Maximum
take-off weights are different for different aircraft. Table 1.4 shows different type of aircraft and
maximum take-off weight.

16
 Table 1.12 Maximum Take-off Weight of Different Aircraft
Type of Aircraft Maximum Take-off Weight (Pound)
Single Wheel Gear 75,000
Dual Wheel Gear 200,000
Dual Tandem Gear 400,000
B747-100 710,000
B747-100-SR 600,000
B747-200B 833,000
B747-200F 833,000
B747-200C 833,000
B747-SP 696,000
DC10-10 430,000
DC10-10CF 440,000
DC10-30 555,000
DC10-30CF 555,000
DC10-40 555,000
DC10-40CF 555,000
L-1011 430,000
L-1011-100, 200 490,000
(Source: Web site http://www.airliners.net/aircraft-data/)

1.11.2 Aircraft’s Gear Configuration

There are different types of gear configuration for different aircrafts. Among some of them
single wheel, dual wheel, dual tandem are shown in the Table 1.5.

17
 Table 1.13 Gear Configurations Different Aircraft’s
Gear Aircraft
Gear Configuration
Designation Example

Single Wheel-
S
45
Single

D B-737-100
Dual

2S C-130

2-Single in Tandem

2D B-767-200

2-Dual in Tandem

3D B-777-200

3-Dual in Tandem

2T C-17A

2-Triple Wheel in Tandem

S F-14, F-15

Single Wheel Main Gear With Single Wheel Nose

Gear
(Source:Websitehttp://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/resources/publications/orders/me
dia/ construction_5300_7.doc)

18
 Table 1.13 Gear Configurations Different Aircraft’s (Continued)
Gear Aircraft
Gear Configuration
Designation Example

S F-14, F-15

Single Wheel Main Gear with Dual Wheel Nose Gear

Lockheed C-
2S
130
Two Single Wheels in Tandem Main Gear with Dual
Wheel Nose Gear

2T Boeing C-17

Two Triple wheels in Tandem Main Gear with Dual

Wheel Nose Gear

Airbus A340-
2D/2D1
600
Two Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gear/Two Dual
Wheels in Tandem Body Gear with Dual Wheel Nose
Gear

(Source:Websitehttp://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/resources/publications/orders/me
dia/ construction_5300_7.doc)

19
 Table 1.13 Gear Configurations Different Aircraft’s (Continued)
Gear Aircraft
Gear Configuration
Designation Example

McDonnell
Douglas DC-10,
2D/D1 DC-10-30/40,
Lockheed L-
Two Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gear/Dual Wheel 1011
Body Gear with Dual Wheel Nose Gear

3D Boeing B-777

Three Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gear with Dual

Wheel Nose Gear

2D/2D2 B747

Two Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gear/Two Dual

Wheels in Tandem Body Gear with Dual Wheel Nose
Gear
(Source:Websitehttp://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/resources/publications/orders/me
dia/ construction_5300_7.doc)

20
 Table 1.13 Gear Configurations Different Aircraft’s (Continued)
Gear Aircraft
Gear Configuration
Designation Example

2D/3D2 A380-800

2 Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gears/ 3 Dual

Wheels in Tandem Body Gear

5D An-124

5 Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gear

Lockheed C5
C5
Galaxy

Complex Gear Comprised of Dual Wheel and

Quadruple Wheel Combination with Quadruple
Wheel Nose Gear

Hawker
Q Siddeley HS-
121 Trident
Quadruple Wheel Main Gear with Dual Wheel Nose
Gear
(Source:Websitehttp://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/resources/publications/orders/me
dia/ construction_5300_7.doc)

21
 Table 1.13 Gear Configurations Different Aircraft’s (Continued)
Gear Designation Gear Configuration Aircraft Example

Q2 Ilyushin IL-76

Quadruple Wheels Two Struts per Side with

Quadruple Nose Gear

7D Antonov AN-225

Seven Dual Wheels in Tandem Main Gear with

Quadruple Nose Gear
(Source:Websitehttp://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/resources/publications/orders/me
dia/ construction_5300_7.doc)

1.12 Aircraft Considerations

1.12.1 Load

The pavement design method is based on the gross weight of the aircraft. For design purposes
the pavement should be designed for the maximum take-off weight of the aircraft. The design
procedure assumes 95 per cent of the gross weight is carried by the main landing gears and 5 per
cent is carried by the nose gear. The maximum take-off weight should be used in calculating the
pavement thickness required. Use of the maximum take-off weight is recommended to provide

22
some degree of conservatism in the design and is justified by the fact that changes in operational
use can often occur and recognition of the fact that forecast traffic is approximate at best. By
ignoring arriving traffic some of the conservatism is offset.

1.12.2 Landing Gear Type and Geometry

The gear type and configuration dictate how the aircraft weight is distributed to the pavement
and determine pavement response to aircraft loadings. It would have been impractical to develop
design curves for each type of aircraft. However, since the thickness of both rigid and flexible
pavements is dependent upon the gear dimensions and the type of gear, separate design curves
would be necessary unless some valid assumptions could be made to reduce the number of
variables, Examination of gear configuration, tire contact areas and tire pressure in common use
indicated that these follow a definite trend related to aircraft gross weight. Reasonable
assumptions could therefore be made and design constructed from the assumed data. These
assumed data are as follows:

Ø Single Gear Aircraft: No special assumptions needed.

Ø Dual Gear Aircraft: A study of the spacing between dual wheels for these aircraft indicated
that a dimension 20 inch between the centreline of the tyres appeared reasonable for the
lighter aircraft and a dimension of 34 inch between the centreline of the tyres appeared
reasonable for the heavier aircraft.

Ø Dual Tandem Gear Aircraft: The study indicated a dual wheel spacing of 20 inch and a
tandem spacing of 45 inch for lighter aircraft, and a dual wheel spacing of 30 inch and a
tandem spacing of 55 inch for the heavier aircraft are appropriate design values.

Ø Wide Body Aircraft: Wide body aircraft, i.e., B-747, DC-10 and L-1011 represent a radical
departure from the geometry assumed for dual tandem aircraft described in 3 above. Owing
to the large differences in gross weights and gear geometries, separate design curves have
been prepared for the wide body aircraft.

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Tire pressure varies between 75 and 200 psi (Pounds per Square Inch) (0.52 to 1.38 MPa)
depending on gear configuration and gross weight. It should be noted that tire pressure asserts
less influence on pavement stresses as gross weight increases, and the assumed maximum of 200
psi (1.38 MPa) may be safely exceeded if other parameters are not exceeded.

1.12.3 Traffic Volume

Forecasts of annual departures by aircraft type are needed for pavement design. Information on
aircraft operations is available from Airport Master Plans, Terminal Area Forecasts, the National
Airport System Plan, Airport Activity Statistics and FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) Air
Traffic Activity. These publications should be consulted in the development of forecasts of
annual departures by aircraft type.

1.13 Elements of Pavement Evaluation

The behaviour of any pavement depends upon the native materials of the site, which after
levelling and preparation is called the subgrade, its structure including all layers up through the
surfacing, and the mass and frequency of using aircraft. Each of these three elements must be
considered when evaluating a pavement.

1.13.1 Sub Grade

The sub grade is the layer of material immediately below the pavement structure which is
prepared during construction to support the loads transmitted by the pavement. It is prepared by
stripping vegetation, levelling or bringing to planned grade by cut and fills operating and
compacting to the needed density. Strength of the subgrade is a significant element and this must
be characterized for evaluation or design of a pavement facility or for each section of a facility
evaluated or designed separately. Soil strength and therefore subgrade strength is very dependent
on soil moisture and must be evaluated for the condition it is expected to attain in situ beneath
the pavement structure. Except in cases with high water tables, unusual drainage, or extremely

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porous or cracked pavement conditions soil moisture will tend to stabilize under wide pavements
to something above 90 per cent of full saturation. Seasonal variation (excepting frost penetration
of susceptible materials) is normally small to none and higher soil moisture conditions are
possible even in quite arid areas.

1.13.2 Pavement Structure

The terms “Rigid” and “Flexible” have come into use for identification of the two principal types
of pavements. The terms attempt to characterize the response of each type to loading. The
primary element of a rigid pavement is a layer or slab of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC), plain
or reinforced in any of several ways. It is often underlain by a granular layer which contributes to
the structure both directly and by facilitating the drainage of water. A rigid pavement responds
“stiffly” to surface loads and distributes the loads by bending or beam action to wide areas of the
subgrade. The strength of the pavement depends on the thickness and strength of the PCC and
any underlying layers above the subgrade. The pavement must be adequate to distribute surface
loads so that the pressure on the subgrade does not exceed its evaluated strength. A flexible
pavement consists of a series of layers increasing in strength from the subgrade to the surface
layer. A series such as select material, lower sub-base, sub-base, base and wearing course is
commonly used. However, the lower layers may not be present in a particular pavement. The
pavements meant for heavy aircraft usually have a bituminous bound wearing course. A flexible
pavement yields more under surface loading merely accomplishing a widening of the loaded area
and consequent reduction of pressure layer by layer. At each level from the surface to subgrade,
the layers must have strength sufficient to tolerate the pressures at their level. The pavement thus
depends on its thickness over the subgrade for reduction of the surface pressure to a value which
the subgrade can accept. A flexible pavement must also have thickness of structure above each
layer to reduce the pressure to a level acceptable by the layer. In addition, the wearing course
must be sufficient in strength to accept without distress tire pressures of using aircraft.

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1.13.3 Aircraft Loading

The aircraft mass is transmitted to the pavement through the undercarriage of the aircraft. The
number of wheels, their spacing, tyre pressure and size determine the distribution of aircraft load
to the pavement. In general, the pavement must be strong enough to support the loads applied by
the individual wheels, not only at the surface and the subgrade but also at intermediate levels.
For the closely spaced wheels of dual and dual-tandem legs and even for adjacent legs of aircraft
with complex undercarriages the effects of distributed loads from adjacent wheels overlap at the
subgrade (and intermediate) level. In such cases, the effective pressures are those combined from
two or more wheels and must be attenuated sufficiently by the pavement structure. Since the
distribution of load by a pavement structure is over a much narrower area on a high strength
subgrade than on a low strength subgrade, the combining effects of adjacent wheels is much less
for pavements on high strength than on low strength subgrades. This is the reason why the
relative effects of two aircraft types are not the same for pavements of equivalent design strength
and this is the basis for reporting pavement bearing strength by subgrade strength category.
Within subgrade strength category the relative effects of two aircraft types on pavements can be
uniquely stated with good accuracy.

1.13.4 Load Repetitions and Composition of Traffic

It is not sufficient to consider the magnitude of loading alone. There is a fatigue or repetitions of
load factor which should also be considered. Thus magnitude and repetitions must be treated
together, and a pavement which is designed to support one magnitude of load at a defined
number of repetitions can support a larger load at fewer repetitions and a smaller load for a
greater number of repetitions. It is thus possible to establish the effect of one aircraft mass in
terms of equivalent repetitions of another aircraft mass (and type). Application of this concept
permits the determination of a single (selected) magnitude of load and repetitions level to
represent the effect of the mixture of aircraft using a pavement.

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1.13.5 Pavement Condition Survey

A particularly important adjunct to or part of evaluation is a careful condition survey. The

pavement should be closely examined for evidences of deterioration, movement, or change of
any kind. Any observable pavement change provides information on effects of traffic or the
environment on the pavement. Observable effects of traffic along with an assessment of the
magnitude and composition of that traffic can provide an excellent basis for defining the bearing
capacity of a pavement structure.

1.14 Summary

This chapter gives brief overview about the parameters related to airport, objective and scope of
study, classification of airports, different type of airport pavement, different aircraft gear
configuration, aircraft consideration, elements of pavement evaluation. Next chapter deals with
the review of literature.

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