MODULE 7

TQM and Planning Tools

OBJECTIVES:
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:
 Identify the tools for planning
 Illustrate application of each quality planning tools
 Apply planning tools in quality problems.

There are several basic tools of quality can be used singularly or in tandem to investigate
a process and identify areas for improvement, although they do not all necessarily need to be
used. If a process is simple enough or the solution obvious enough any one may be all that is
needed improvement. They provide a means for doing so based on facts, not just personal
knowledge, which of course can be tainted or inaccurate. Ishikawa advocated teaching these
basic tools to every member of a company as a means to making quality endemic throughout the
organization. Different tools are used for different problem-solving opportunities and many of
the tools can be used in different ways.

CAUSE AND EFFECT/ FISHBONE DIAGRAM

First used by Ishikawa in the 1940’s, a cause and effect diagram, also known as a fish-
bone diagram is employed to identify the underlying symptoms of a problem or “effect” as a
means of the root cause of finding the root cause. The structured nature of the method forces the
user to consider all the likely causes of a problem, not just the obvious ones. Through the
combination of brainstorming techniques with graphical analysis it is also useful for sorting out
of the complicated relationship that may, in combination, drive the problem.
It is called cause and effect diagram after this function and fishbone diagram after its
appearance. Its function is to identify the factors that are causing and undesired effect (defects)
for improvement action, or to identify the factors needed to bring about a desired result (a
winning proposal). The factors are identified by people familiar with the process involved. As a
starting point, major factors could be designated using the “four M “s: Method, Manpower,
Material, and Machinery; or the “four P’s”: Policies, Procedures, People and Plant. Factors can
be subdivided, if useful, and the identification of significant factors is often an introduction to the
statistical design of experiment.
In order to use cause and effect diagram as a tool, there is a need to first identify the
problem one is trying to solve and simply write in the box (head of the fish) to the right. Next, he
will list the major causes of the problem on the spine of the fish. Causes are then identified
during brainstorming with a group familiar with the problem.
Once all of the possible causes are identified, they can be used to develop an
improvement plan to help resolve the identified problem. The fishbone below identifies the
number of body MRIs per day
 Ishikawa Diagram
On a fishbone diagram, the central problem, or effect is on the far right. Affinities, which
are categories of causes, branch from the spine of the central effect. The brainstormed causes
branch from the affinities.

PARETO CHART
CHECKLIST ”Pareto’s Law” has also been applied to many other areas, including
defects, where a few causes are responsible for most of the problems.
The Pareto Principle is based upon the principle which states that 80% of a problem is
attributable to 20% of its causes, or inputs. A Pareto chart organizes and displays information in
order to demonstrate the relative to a measurable effect such as frequency, cost and time.
 Example Pareto

CHECKSHEETS
Check sheets are also known as data collection sheets and tally charts. Check sheets are
no-statistical and comparatively easy. They are used to capture data in a manual, reliable,
formalized way so that decisions can be made based of the facts. As the data is collected, it
becomes a graphical representation of itself. Areas for improvement can be identified, either
directly from the check sheet, or by feeding the data into one of the other basic tools.
A check sheets is an organized way of collecting and structuring data its purpose is to
collect the facts in the most efficient way. It ensures that the information that is collected is what
was asked for and that everyone is doing it the same way. Data is collected and ordered by
adding tally or check marks against predetermined categories of items or measurements. It
simplifies the task of analysis.
Check sheets are a simple way of gathering data so that decisions can be based on facts,
rather than anecdotal evidence.
HISTOGRAM
Histograms are a form of bar chart. They are used to measure the frequency distribution
of data that is normally grouped together in ranges or ‘bins”. Most frequently they are used to tell
the different regularity of occurrence in long lists of data. For instance, in the list
2,2,3,3,3,3,4,4,5,6, the number 3 occurs the most frequently. However, if that list comprises
several hundred data points, or move, it would be difficult to ascertain the frequency. Histograms
provide an effective visual means of doing so.
Histograms show patterns that fall within typical process conditions. Changes in a
process should trigger new collection of data.
A minimum of 50-75 data points should be collected to guarantee a sufficient number of
data points have been gathered. The patterns that are detected reveal an analysis that helps
understand variation.
CONTROL CHARTS
Dating back to the work of Shewhart and Deming, there are several types of control
chart. They are practically complex statistical tools that measure how process changes overtime.
Through plotting this against pre-defined upper and lower control limits, it can be determined
whether the process is steady and under control, or if it is erratic and therefore out of control.
Simply these charts demonstrate when the data is consistent or when there are high or low
outliers in the occurrences of data.
Control charts focuses on monitoring performance over time by looking at the variation
in data points and, distinguishes between common cause and special cause variations. The Dow
Jones Industrial Average is a good example of a control chart.
Control charts is used to monitor processes that are in control, using means and ranges. It
represents data, like sales, volumes, customer complaints, in chronological order, showing how
the values change with time. In a control charts each point is given individual significance and is
joined to its neighbors. Above and below the mean, Upper and Lower Warning and Action Lines
(UWL, LWL, UAL, LAL) are drawn. These act as signals or decisions rules, and give operators
information about the process and its state of control. The charts are useful as a historical record
of the process as it happens, and as an aid to detecting and predicting change.
Control charts are the most complicated of the basic tools of TQM, but are based on
simple principles. The charts are made by plotting in the sequence the measured values of
samples taken from a process. For example, the mean length of a sample rods from a production
line, the number of defects in a sample of a product, the miles per gallon of automobiles tested
sequentially in a model year and so on. These measurements are expected to vary randomly
about some mean with a known variance. From the mean and variance, control limits can be
established.
QUALITY A sampe measurement outside the control limits therefore indicates that the
process is no longer stable and is usually reason for corrective action.
 Other causes for corrective action are non- random behavior of the measurement within
the control limits. Control limits are established by the statistical methods depending on whether
the measurement are of a parameter, attribute or rate.
Control charts are used to monitor the stability of processes, and can turn time ordered
data for a particular characteristic such as product weigh or hold time at a call center into a
picture that is easy to understand. These charts indicate when there are points out of control or
unusual shifts in a process.

SCATTER DIAGRAMS
A scatter diagrams is used to identify whether there is relationship between two
variables. It does not prove that one variable directly affects the other, but is highly effective in
confirming that a relationship exists between the two. Variables often represent possible causes
and effect.
A scatter diagram is a graphical representation of how one variable changes with respect
to another. The variables are plotted on axes at right angles to each other and the scatter in the
points gives a measure of confidence in any correlation show.
They show whether two variables are related, or prove that they are not, the type of
relationship, if any, between the variables and how one variable might be controlled, by suitably
controlling the other. They also make predictions of values lying outside the measured range.
FLOW CHART
A flow chart is a visual representation of a process. It is not statistical, but is used to piece
together the actual process as it is carried out, which quite often varies from how the process
owner imagine it is. Seeing it visually makes identifying both inefficiencies and potential
improvements easier.
This tool is used when trying to determine where the bottlenecks or breakdowns are in
work processes. Flow-charting the steps of a process provides a picture of what the process looks
like and can shed light on issues within the process. Flowcharts are also used to show changes in
a process when improvements are made or to show a new work flow process.
A flow chart, sometimes called a process map, can be used to help the company model its
process and understand and communicate all activities in the process, the relationships between
inputs and outputs in the process, key decision points.
A danger in flow charting is the use of assumed or desired steps rather than actual process
steps in making the chart. The utility of the chart will correlate directly to its accuracy. Another
danger is that the steps plotted may be under the control of the user. If the analyst does not “own
the process” the chart may not be too helpful. It may, however, be quite useful to a process
improvement team including all the functions involved.
Flow Chart Symbols