m~PxcÎ

welqe¯‘ c„ôv

†fŠZ ivwk Ges cwigvc 4

MwZ 15

ej 28

KvR, ¶gZv I kw³ 41

c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v I Pvc 55

e¯‘i Dci Zv‡ci cÖfve 70

Zi½ I kã 77

Av‡jvi cÖwZdjb 92

Av‡jvi cÖwZmib 102

w¯’i we`¨yr 110

Pj we`¨yr 123

we`¨y‡Zi †PŠ¤^K wµqv 129

†fŠZ ivwk Ges cwigvc

3
K‡qKwU cÖvK…wZK ivwk, m¤úK©, gvÎv I Gm.AvB.GKK|||
µwgK cÖvK…wZK ivwk m¤úK© gvÎv Gm.AvB.GKK
b¤^i
1. ‰`N©¨, cÖ¯’, D”PZv, e¨vmva©,
miY, `~iZ¡ BZ¨vw`(Length,
width, height, radius, [L] wgUvi (m)
displacement, distance
etc.)
2. fi (mass) [M] wK‡jvMÖvg (kg)
3. mgq (time) [T] ‡m‡KÛ (s)
4. ‡ÿÎdj (area) (‰`N©¨) 2 [L2] m2
5. AvqZb (volume) (‰`N©¨)3 [L3] m3
6. fi [ML-3] kgm-3
NbZ¡ (density)
AvqZb
7. MwZ‡eM (velocity) `~iZ¡ [LT-1] ms-1
mgq
8. Z¡iY (acceleration) ‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b [LT-2] ms-2
mgq
9. ej (force) fi × Z¡iY [MLT-2] wbDUb (N)
10. Pvc (pressure) ej [ML-1T-2] cvmK¨vj Pa =
‡ÿÎdj Nm-2
11. Kvh© ev kw³ (work or ej × miY [ML2T-2] Ryj (J)
energy)
12. ÿgZv (power) KvR [ML2T-3] IqvU (W)
mgq
13. fi‡eM (momentum) fi × MwZ‡eM [MLT-1] kgms-1
14. e‡ji NvZ (impulse of ej × mgq [MLT-1] kgms-1
force)
15. e‡ji åvgK (moment of ej × `~iZ¡ [ML2T-2] kgm2s-2
force)
16. RoZvi åvgK (moment of fi × (`~iZ¡)2 [ML2] kgm2
inertia)
17. PµMwZi e¨vmva© (radius of [L] m
gyration)
18. ‡KvY (angle) Pvc gvÎvnxb ivwk ‡iwWqvb (rad)
e¨vmva©
19. Nb‡KvY (solid angle) ‡ÿÎdj gvÎvnxb ivwk ‡÷‡iwWqvb
(`~iZ¡)2 (steradian)

4
20. gnvKl©xq cÖvej¨ ej [L2T-2] Nkg-1
(gravitational intensity) fi
21. gnvKl©xq wefe KvR [L2T-2] Jkg-1
(gravitational potential) fi
22. ‡KŠwYK fi‡eM ‰iwLK fi‡eM × `~iZ¡ [ML2T-1] kg2ms-1
(angular momentum)
23. ‡e‡Mi bwZgvÎv ‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b [T-1] s-1
(velocity gradient) `~iZ¡
24. cxob (stress) ej [ML-1T-2] kgm-1s-2 ev
‡ÿÎdj Nm-2
25. weK…wZ (stain) ‰`‡N©¨i cwieZ©b gvÎvnxb -
cÖv_wgK ‰`N©¨
26. w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ cxob [ML-1T-2] Nm2
(modulus of elasticity) weK…wZ
27. cqmb AbycvZ cvk¦©xq weK…wZ gvÎvnxb -
(Poison's ratio) Aby‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
28. AwfKl©R Z¡iY [LT-2] ms-2
(acceleration due to gnvKl©xq aªæeK × c„w_exi fi
gravity) [c„w_exi e¨vmva©]2
29. c„ôUvb (surface tension) ej [MT-2] Nm-1
‰`N©¨ ev kgs-2
30. mv›`ªZv¼ ej/‡ÿÎdj [ML-1T-1] Nsm-2 ev Pas-
(co-efficient of visocity) ‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b/`~iZ¡ 1

31. Av‡cwÿK ¸iæZ¡ e¯‘i fi gvÎvnxb ivwk -

(specific gravity) mgAvqZb cvwbi fi
32. K¤úv¼ (frequency) NUbv msL¨v [T-1] Hertz (Hz) =
mgq s-1
33. ch©vqKvj (time period) mgq [T] s
34. Zvc (heat) - - J
35. ZvcgvÎv (temperature) - [] ‡Kjwfb (K)
36. Av‡cwÿK Zvc (specific Zvckw³ [L2T2-1] Jkg-1K-1
heat) fi×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
37. jxb Zvc (latent heat) Zvckw³ [L2T-2] Jkg-1
fi
38. Zvc aviKZ¡ ‡kvwlZ Zvckw³ [MKL2T-2 JK-1
ZvcgvÎv e„w×
(thermal capacity) -1]
39. Zvc cwievwnZv¼ Zvckw³ × †ea [MLT-3-1] Wm-1K-1
(thermal conductivity) †ÿÎdj × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ × mgq

5
40. ZvcgvÎvi bwZgvÎv ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b [L-1] m-1K
(temperature gradient) `~iZ¡
41. GbUªwc (entropy) Zvc [ML2T-2- JK-1
DòZv 1
]
42. ‡gvjvi M¨vm aªæeK KvR ev kw³ [ML2T2] Jmole-1K-1
(major gas constant) ‡gvj msL¨v × DòZv
43. UK© (torque) ej × evûi ˆ`N©¨ [ML2T-2] Nm
44. ‡evjRg¨vb aªæeK kw³ [ML2T-2- JK-1
(Bolzmann's constnat) DòZv 1
]
45. Zwor Avavb Zwor cÖevngvÎv × mgq [IT] Kzj¤^ (C)
(electric charge)
46. Zwor cÖevngvÎv - [I] A¨vw¤úqvi (A)
(electric current)
47. Zwor wefe KvR [ML2T-3
(electric potential) Avavb I-1]
48. Zwor †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ ej [MLT-3I-1] NC-1 ev
(electric field intensity Avavb Vm-1
49. cÖevn NbZ¡ cÖevngvÎv [IL-2] Am-2
(current density) cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj
50. Zwor ‡iva ÿgZv [ML2T-3I- ohm()
(electric resistance) (cÖevngvÎv)2 2
]
51. Zwor †ivav¼ Zwor †iva × cÖ¯’‡”Q` [ML3T-3I- ohm-m
(electrical resistivity) ‰`N©¨ 2
]
52. Zwor †ivav¼ Avavb × `~iZ¡ [ITL] Cm
(electric dipole moment)
53. aviKZ¡ (capacitance) Avavb [M-1L- Farad (F)
wefe cv_©K¨ 2 4 2
TI]
54. w÷dvb aªæeK weKxY© Zvc MLT-3-4 Wm-2K-4
(Stefan's constant) ‡ÿÎdj × mgq×(DòZv)4
55. ‡PŠ¤^K †giækw³ ‡PŠ¤^K åvgK [IL-1] A-m
(magnetic pole strenght) ‰`N©¨
56. ¯^v‡ekv¼ wefe cv_©K¨ [ML2T-2I- henry (H)
(self inductance) cÖevngvÎv cwieZ©‡bi nvi 2
]
57. ‡PŠ¤^K w؇giæ åvgK cÖevngvÎv × †ÿÎdj [IL2] A-m2
(magnetic dipole
moment)
58. ‡PŠ¤^K cÖevn NbZ¡ ej [MT2I-1] Wbm-2
(magnetic flux density) cÖevngvÎv׉`N©¨ (Tesla)

6
59. ‡PŠ¤^K d¬v· (magnetic ‡PŠ¤^K cÖevn NbZ¡ × †ÿÎdj [ML2T-2I- Wb
1
flux) ]
60. ‡KŠwYK †eM  [T-1] rad s-1
(angular velocity)
61. ‡KŠwYK Z¡iY  [T-2] rads-2
(angular acceleration)
62. c„ô kw³ (surface energy) E [MT-2] Jm-2 ev Nm-1
63. Zi‡½i ZxeªZv kw³ NbZ¡ × Zi½ †eM [MLT-3] Jm-2s-1 ev
(intensity of wave) Wm-2

MvwYwZK D`vniY 1.4

p
1. wbDU‡bi m~Î Abymv‡i M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM,  = , GLv‡b P = M¨vmxq Pvc, Ges D = NbZ¡| gvÎv we‡ePbvq
D
mgxKiYwU mwVK wK - bv hvPvB Ki|
evgcÿ,  = [LT-1]
1
P  ML1T 1  2
Wvbcÿ, =  3 
D  ML 
= [LT-1]
myZivs, gvÎv we‡ePbvq mgxKiYwU mwVK|

2. gvÎv we‡ePbvq †`LvI †h, wb‡Pi mgxKiYwU mwVK:

1 1
Fs = m2  mu2
2 2
evgcÿ, Fs = [MLT-2] × [L] = [ML2T-2]
1
Wvbcÿ, m2 = [M] [LT-1]2 = [ML2T-2]
2
1
m2 = [M] [LT-1]2 = [ML2T-2]
2
myZivs, gvÎv we‡ePbvq mgxKiYwU mwVK|

cwigv‡c fzj ev ÎæwU

‡Kv‡bv †fŠZ ivwki wbf©yj cwigvc †c‡Z ivwki mv‡_ m¤úK©hy³ †h m~Î _v‡K Zvi AšÍM©Z mKj ivwki gvc wbf©yj nIqv
cÖ‡qvRb| Gi e¨Z¨q NU‡j cwigvc mwVK n‡e bv| G‡K fzj ev ÎæwU e‡j|

‡h‡Kv‡bv †fŠZ ivwk cwigv‡c cÖK…Z ky× gvb cvIqv hvq bv| wKQz bv wKQz ÎæwU cwijwÿZ nq| GB ÎæwUi Drm cixÿY
Kv‡R e¨eüZ hš¿cvwZi m~²fv‡e ivwk cwigv‡ci mxgve×Zv Ges whwb cwigvc Ki‡Qb cvV MÖn‡Y Zvi ÎæwUi KviY| Gi
A_© n‡jv †h‡Kv‡bv cwigvc¨ ivwki cwigv‡c GKwU AwbðqZv we`¨gvb _v‡K|

cwigv‡ci ÎæwU¸‡jv‡K Drc‡bœi aiY Abyhvqx K‡qKwU fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq; h_v-

7
 1. hvwš¿K ÎæwU
2. ch©‡eÿYg~jK ev e¨w³MZ ÎæwU
3. G‡jv‡g‡jv ev AwbqwgZ ÎæwU
4. cybive„wËK ev wbqwgZ ÎæwU
5. jwNô MYb ÎæwU

1. hvwš¿K ÎæwU (Instrumental error):

‡fŠZ ivwk cwigv‡c †h mg¯Í hš¿ e¨envi Kiv nq, †m¸‡jv mwVK Ges my‡e`x bv n‡j cwigv‡c ÎæwU †`Lv †`q| G‡K hvwš¿K
ÎæwU e‡j| wewfbœ ai‡Yi hvwš¿K ÎæwU¸‡jvi g‡a¨ D‡jøL‡hvM¨ n‡jv-
(i) k~b¨ ÎæwU (zero error) (ii) wcQU ÎæwU (backlash error) I (iii) ‡j‡fj ÎæwU (level error)

(i) k~b¨ ÎæwU (zero error):

mvaviYZ fvwb©qvi †¯‹j, ¯ŒzMR, ¯øvBW K¨vwjcvm©, †ù‡ivwgUvi BZ¨vw`i cÖavb †¯‹‡ji '0' `vM fvwb©qvi ev e„ËvKvi
†¯‹‡ji '0' `v‡Mi mv‡_ bv wg‡j hw` Av‡M ev wcQ‡b _v‡K, Z‡e G‡K k~b¨ ÎæwU e‡j|

(ii) wcQU ÎæwU (backlash error):

bvU-¯Œz bxwZi Dci wfwË K‡i †h mKj hš¿ ˆZwi †mme h‡š¿ GB ÎæwU cwijwÿZ nq| bZzb h‡š¿i Zzjbvq cyivZb h‡š¿
GB ÎæwU †ewk †`Lv hvq| KviY A‡bKw`b e¨env‡ii d‡j bv‡Ui MZ© eo n‡q †h‡Z cv‡i ev ¯Œz ÿq n‡q AvjMv n‡q
hvq| d‡j ¯Œz‡K Dfq w`‡K Nyiv‡j mgvb miY nq bv| G ai‡Yi ÎæwU‡K wcQU ÎæwU e‡j| cvV †bIqvi mgq š¿‡K
GKB w`‡K Nyiv‡j G ÎæwU `~i nq|

(iii) ‡j‡fj ÎæwU (level error):

KZK¸‡jv cixÿ‡Yi †ÿ‡Î hš¿‡K fv‡jvfv‡e †j‡fwjs K‡i bv wb‡j mwVK cvV cvIqv hvq bv| †hgb wbw³, we‡ÿc
†PŠ¤^Kgvb hš¿, U¨vb‡R›U M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi BZ¨vw`| †j‡fwjs ¯Œz Ges w¯úwiU †j‡f‡ji mvnv‡h¨ †j‡fwjs K‡i wb‡Z
nq|

2. ch©‡eÿY ev e¨w³MZ ÎæwU (Observational or personal error):

ch©‡eÿ‡Ki ch©‡eÿ‡Y fzj Ges mwVK g~j¨vq‡bi Afv‡e G ÎæwU cwijwÿZ nq| G‡K ch©‡eÿYg~jK ÎæwU ev e¨w³MZ
ÎæwU e‡j| ch©‡eÿY ÎæwU wewfbœfv‡e n‡Z cv‡i| †hgb (i) e¨w³MZ ÎæwU, (ii) cÖvšÍ `vM ÎæwU (iii) j¤^b ÎæwU (iv)
m~PK ÎæwU e‡j| ch©‡eÿY ÎæwU wewfbœfv‡e nv‡Z cv‡i| †hgb (i) e¨w³MZ ÎæwU, (ii) cÖvšÍ `vM ÎæwU (iii) j¤^b ÎæwU
(iv) m~PK ÎæwU (v) cwi‡ekMZ ÎæwU| `„wóåg (Parallax error) G ai‡Yi GKwU ÎæwU|
cÖwZKvi (Remedy): ch©‡eÿY mZK©Zvi mv‡_ K‡i Ges GKvwaKevi cvV wb‡q G ÎæwU `~i Kiv hvq|
3. G‡jv‡g‡jv ev AwbqwgZ ÎæwU (Random error):
ÎæwUi wewfbœ wel‡q Dchy³ mveavbZv Aej¤^b Kiv m‡Ë¡I †Kv‡bv GKwU ivwki cvV evi evi wfbœ n‡Z †`Lv hvq|
cwigv‡c G ai‡Yi wfbœZv ev cv_©K¨ `yB fv‡e n‡Z cv‡i| h_v-
(1) ch©‡eÿ‡Ki ch©‡eÿ‡Yi ÎwyUi Rb¨ n‡Z cv‡i wKsev
(2) cixÿvKv‡j h‡š¿i Ae¯’vi cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ n‡Z cv‡i|
D`vniY¯^iƒc, gva¨vKl©YRwbZ Z¡iY cwigv‡ci ‡ÿ‡Î T cwigvc Kivi Rb¨ ÷c IqvP (stop watch) Ges l gvcvi
Rb¨ †¯‹j m~PK e¨envi Kiv nq| T cwigv‡ci Rb¨ hw` NwowU wVKg‡Zv Pvjv‡bv Ges _vgv‡bv bv nq Z‡e T-Gi

8
 cwigv‡c fzj n‡e| l cwigv‡ci mgq m~PK hw` †¯‹‡ji GKwU wbw`©ó `v‡Mi mv‡_ bv wg‡j `ywU mwbœwnZ `v‡Mi g‡a¨
_v‡K, Z‡e ch©‡eÿ‡Ki c‡ÿ m~P‡Ki Ae¯’v‡bi wbf©yj gvb †¯‹j †_‡K †bqv m¤¢e nq bv| G ai‡Yi fzj¸‡jv‡K
AwbqwgZ ev G‡jv‡g‡jv ÎæwU e‡j| G‡jv‡g‡jv ÎæwUi d‡j P‚ovšÍ djvdj nqZ AZ¨šÍ †ewk A_ev Lye Kg n‡Z
cv‡i|
cÖwZKvi (Remedy):
AwbqwgZ ÎæwU cwieZ©bkxj| cÖvß cvV cÖK…Z cvV A‡cÿv †ewk n‡j abvZ¥K Ges Kg n‡j FYvZ¥K n‡e| GB ÎæwU Gov‡Z
n‡j mZK©Zvi mv‡_ cvV wb‡Z nq, GB ÎæwU Kgv‡Z n‡j cwigvcwU evi evi Ki‡Z nq| A_©vr GB ÎæwU `~i Ki‡Z n‡j
AwaK msL¨K cvV MÖnY K‡i Zv‡`i Mo cvV †ei Ki‡Z n‡e|

4. cybive„wËK ev wbqwgZ ÎæwU (Systematic error):

cixÿvKv‡j †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv ÎæwUi d‡j cixÿvaxb ivwki cixÿvjä gvb me©`vB Ges wbqwgZfv‡e ivwkwUi cÖK…Z gvb
A‡cÿv Kg ev †ewk n‡Z cv‡i| G ai‡Yi ÎæwU‡K wbqwgZ ev cybive„wËK ÎæwU e‡j| wgUvi weª‡Ri cÖvwšÍK ÎæwU,
†cv‡UbwkIwgUv‡ii cÖvwšÍK ÎwyU, ¯ŒzM‡Ri k~b¨ ÎæwU GB ÎæwUi AšÍM©Z| Aek¨ cybive„wËK ÎæwU wbY©q Kivi †Kv‡bv
hyw³hy³ ev cÖvgvY¨ Dcvq ‡bB|

cÖwZKvi (Remedy): GB ÎwyU ms‡kva‡bi Rb¨ wewfbœ †ÿ‡Î wewfbœ Ae¯’vq cixÿvKvh©wU cybive„wË Kiv nq|
cig ÎæwU (Absolute error): ‡Kv‡bv GKwU ivwki cÖK…Z gvb I cwigvcK…Z gv‡bi cv_©K¨‡K cig ÎæwU e‡j| cig
ÎæwUi cwie‡Z© Avgiv KLbI KLbI Av‡cwÿK ÎæwU ev kZKiv ÎæwU e¨envi K‡i _vwK|
AZGe, cig ÎæwU = cÖK…Z gvb - cwigvc¨ gvb
cÖK…Z gvb  cixÿvjä gvb
kZKiv ÎæwU : cÖK…Z gvb × 100%

mvgwMÖK ev †gvUv ÎæwU (Gross error): ch©‡eÿ‡Ki AmZK©Zv ev Ag‡bv‡hvwMZvi Kvi‡Y G ÎæwU cwijwÿZ nq|
mZK©Zvi m‡½ cixÿY Kg© m¤úv`K K‡i G ÎæwU `~i Kiv hvq|
5. jwNô MYb ÎæwU (Least count error):
b~¨bZg †h cwigvc †Kv‡bv h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ cwigvc Kiv m¤¢e Zv‡K IB h‡š¿i jwNô ¸Yb e‡j| †hgb GKwU wgUvi
†¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ 1 mm ev ev 0.1 cm m~²fv‡e cwigvc Kiv hvq| myZivs wgUvi †¯‹‡ji jwNô ¸Yb 1 mm ev 0.1
cm| Abyiƒcfv‡e ¯øvBW K¨vwjcv‡m©i ‡ÿ‡Î jwNô ¸Yb 0.01 cm, 0.001 cm| m~² ev DbœZ gv‡bi hš¿ e¨envi K‡i
jwNô ¸Yb ÎæwU Kgv‡bv hvq| Z‡e GKB cwigvc¨ ivwki AwaK msL¨K cvV wb‡q Ges IB cvVmg~‡ni Mo gvb wbY©q
K‡i cwi‡gq ivwki mwVK gv‡bi KvQvKvwQ gvb cvIqv hvq| G‡jv‡g‡jv ev AwbqwgZ Ges cybive„wË ev wbqwgZ ÎæwUi
†ÿ‡Î jwNô ¸Yb ÎæwU jÿ Kiv hvq|
mwVKZv I m~²Zv (Accuracy and Precision):
wewfbœ †fŠZ ivwk cwigv‡ci Rb¨ Avgiv wewfbœ ai‡Yi hš¿cvwZ e¨envi Kwi| hš¿¸wj e¨env‡ii c~‡e© Zv‡`i mwVKZv I
m~²Zv m¤^‡Ü ¯úó aviYv _vKv DwPZ| GLb Avgiv mwVKZv I m~²Zv ej‡Z Kx eywS Zv Av‡jvPbv Kie|
mwVKZv (Accuracy):
‡Kv‡bv h‡š¿i mwVKZv ej‡Z †evSvq †h IB hš¿ mswkøó ivwkwUi cÖK…Z gv‡bi KZ KvQvKvwQ cwigvc Ki‡Z mÿg| ivwkwUi
cÖK…Z gvb I hš¿wU Øviv cwigvc¨ gvb hZ KvQvKvwQ nq h‡š¿i mwVKZv ZZ †ewk nq|
aiv hvK, GKwU Zzjvhš¿ (balance) Øviv 50 g f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ cwigvc K‡i 45 g cvIqv ‡Mj| AZGe, wØZxq hš¿wUi
mwVKZv A‡bK DbœZ gv‡bi|
m~²Zv (Precision):

9
 ‡Kv‡bv h‡š¿i m~²Zv ej‡Z †evSvq †h IB hš¿ Øviv mswkøó ivwkwU cwigvc Ki‡Z cici (repeatedly) cwigv‡c cÖvß
cvV¸wj ci¯ú‡ii KZ KvQvKvwQ nq| cici cvV¸wji cv_©K¨ hZ Kg n‡e hš¿wUi m~²Zv ZZ †ewk n‡e| D`vniY - aiv
hvK GKwU e¯‘i fi 50g| GwU Zzjv h‡š¿ Qqevi cvV wb‡q fi cvIqv †Mj 48g, 49.2 g, 49 g, 49.2 g, 49.6 g,
49.5g| G‡ÿ‡Î cici cvV¸‡jvi cv_©K¨ Kg| ZvB hš¿wUi m~²Zv fv‡jv|

ÎæwU MYbv
Calculation of errors
‡Kv‡bv cwigvcB m¤ú~Y© ÎæwUnxb Kiv m¤¢e bq| GKwU †fŠZ ivwk‡K GKB c×wZ‡Z K‡qKevi cwigvc Ki‡jI cÖ‡Z¨Kevi
GKB gvb cvIqv hvq bv|
mwVK gvb (Actual or true value): aiv hvK, GKwU †fŠZ ivwk GKB c×wZ‡Z n msL¨Kevi cwigvc K‡i gvb¸‡jv
cvIqv †Mj x1, x2, x3 ..... xn GB gvb¸‡jvi Mo gvb n‡jv IB †fŠZ ivwki mwVK gvb| myZivs
x1  x 2  x 3  .....x n
mwVK gvb x  ..... ..... (i)
n
ÎæwU (Error): ‡Kv‡bv †fŠZ ivwki mwVK gvb‡K P‚ovšÍ gvb wn‡m‡e †jLv h‡_ó bq| mwVK gv‡b KZUzKz ÎæwU Av‡Q Zv
D‡jøL Kiv GKvšÍ cÖ‡qvRb|
myZivs, †Kv‡bv †fŠZ ivwki P‚ovšÍ gvb,
x= x+e
GLv‡b e ÎæwUi cwigvY cÖKvk K‡i| wb‡¤œv³ Dcv‡q ÎæwUi cwigvY wbY©q Kiv hvq|
| x1  x |  | x 2  x | ..... | x n  x |
e= ....... .... (ii)
n
GLv‡b |x1 - x |, |x2 - x | ..... |xn - x | n‡jv h_vµ‡g cÖ_g cwigv‡ci, wØZxq cwigv‡ci .... n Zg cwigv‡ci ÎæwUi
gvb| G¸‡jv‡K h_vµ‡g cÖ_g, wØZxq, ..... n Zg Pig ÎæwU (absolute error) ejv nq| e -‡K Mo Pig ÎæwU (mean
absolute error) I ejv nq|

fMœvsk ÎæwU ev Av‡cwÿK ÎæwU (Fractional error or relative error):

e
Mo Pig ÎæwU I mwVK gv‡bi AbycvZ‡K fMœvsk ev Av‡cwÿK ÎæwU ejv nq| A_©vr fMœvsk ÎæwU ev Av‡cwÿK ÎæwU = |
x
kZKiv ÎæwU (Percentage of error): fMœvsk ÎæwU ev Av‡cwÿK ÎæwU‡K 100 Øviv ¸Y K‡i kZKiv ÎæwU wbY©q Kiv nq|
e cÖK…Z gvb  cÖvß gvb
A_©vr kZKiv ÎæwU = × 100% cÖK…Z gvb × 100%|
x

1. GKwU †`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨ (0.8 + 0.01) m Ges ch©vqKvj (2.2 + 0.10) sec n‡j AwfKl©R Z¡iY cwigv‡c kZKiv ÎæwU
KZ?
1
Avgiv Rvwb, mij †`vj‡Ki ch©vqKvj, T = 2
8
1
 g = 4 2
T2
AwfKl©R Z¡iY cwigv‡c Av‡cwÿK ÎæwU,
g l T 0.01 0.10
 2 = +
g l T 0 .6 2 .2

10
 g 0.01 0.10
 kZKiv ÎæwU =  100 = ×100 + × 100
g 0 .6 2 .2
= 1.667 + 4.545 = 6.21%
2. GKwU avi‡Ki aviKZ¡ C = (2.5 + 0.1) F| IB aviK‡K V = (25 + 0.2) volt wef‡e AvwnZ Kiv n‡j
aviKwU‡Z mwÂZ Avavb KZ? mwÂZ Avav‡bi kZKiv ÎæwU I cig ÎæwU KZ?
avi‡K mwÂZ Avavb, Q = C × V = 2.5 × 10-6 × 25 coulomb
= 62.5 × 10-6 C = 6.25 × 10-5C
Q C V
GLb kZKiv ÎæwU wbY©‡qi †ÿ‡µ,  
Q C V
Q C V
 × 100% = × 100% + × 100%
Q C V
0 .1 0 .2
= × 100 + × 100
2 .5 25
= 4% + 0.8% = 4.8%
cig ÎæwU = 6.25×10 C Gi 4.8% = 0.3 × 10-8 C
-5

 wb‡Y©q mwÂZ Avavb, Q = 6.25 × 10-5 + 4.8% C

= (625 + 0.3) × 10-5C
cwigvc¨ ivwki ï× gvb wba©viY
‡Kv‡bv cwigvc¨ ivwki AvbycvwZK fzj wba©viY:
aiv hvK, x GKwU cwigvc¨ †fŠZ ivwk Ges GwU y I z ivwk `yBwUi mv‡_ wb‡¤œv³ mgxKi‡Yi Øviv m¤úK©hy³, x = ymzn
GLb, y, z ivwk `yBwU‡K cwigvc Ki‡Z fzj n‡j x-Gi cwigv‡c Zv cÖwZdwjZ n‡e|
mgxKiY (1,4) -‡K jMvwi`wgK AeKjb (Logarithmic differentiation) K‡i cvB,
x = m + nz
y, z ivwk¸‡jv‡K cwigvc Kivi mgq m‡e©v”P m¤¢ve¨ fzj h_vµ‡g + y Ges + z; d‡j x- Gi m‡e©v”P m¤¢ve¨ fzj n‡e +
x|
myZivs m‡e©v”P m¤¢ve¨ AvbycvwZK fzj,
 x   y   z 
   m   n  ...... ...... ...... (1.5) cwigvc¨ †fŠZ ivwk x-Gi mv‡_ †h mKj ivwk RwoZ _v‡K
 x  max  y  z 
(G‡ÿ‡Î y I z) Zv‡`i cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki AvbycvwZK fzj c„_Kfv‡e wbY©q K‡i IB wbwY©Z fzj¸‡jvi cwigvY‡K Zv‡`i mswkøó
ivwk¸‡jvi kw³ msL¨v (power number) Øviv ¸Y K‡i, ¸Ydj¸‡jv †hvM Ki‡j IB †hvMdjB n‡e cwigvc¨ †fŠZ
ivwki (G‡ÿ‡Î x) AvbycvwZK fz‡ji m‡e©v”P gvb| AZGe, ‡h ivwki kw³ msL¨v †ewk †mwU Lye mZK©Zvi m‡½ cwigvc
4 2 l
Ki‡j cwigvc¨ ivwki AvbycvwZK fzj Kg n‡e| †hgb,  =
T2
Ic‡i Av‡jvwPZ welq Abymv‡i  Gi m‡e©v”P AvbycvwZK fzj
g l T
 2 ---- --- ---- (1.6) [kw³i wPý we‡ePbv bv K‡i]
g l T
mgxKiY (1.6) n‡Z †`Lv hv‡”Q †h T cwigv‡c mvgvb¨ fzj n‡jI Zv wظY e„w× †c‡q mgxKi‡Y AšÍf©~³ nq|
l
nv‡Z Kj‡g KvR: GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj T = 2 gvÎv m½wZc~Y© wKbv?
g

11
mgvavb: evgcÿ : T = [T]
l  L 
 = [ T ]  [T ]
2
Wvbcÿ, = 
g  LT 2 
myZivs evgc‡ÿi gvÎv = Wvbc‡ÿi gvÎv

cixÿvjä d‡j Zvrch©c~Y© msL¨vi wnmve

Calculation of significant figure in experimental result
cwigvc¨ ivwki m~²Zv IB ivwki m‡½ mswkøó Ab¨vb¨ ivwk¸‡jvi cwigv‡ci m~²Zvi Dci wbf©i K‡i| wKQy Avgiv hLb
K¨vjKz‡jU‡ii mvnv‡h¨ wnmve Kwi, ZLb A‡bK wWwRU cvIqv hvq| `kwg‡Ki c‡ii me wWwRU djvd‡ji wjwce× Kiv
A_©nxb| `kwg‡Ki c‡i KZK¸‡jv msL¨v ivL‡Z n‡e Zv ch©‡eÿY m~²Zvi Dci wbf©i K‡i| Kv‡RB cixÿvjä d‡j
AcÖ‡hvRbxq msL¨v ev` w`‡q †h me msL¨vi cwigvc wek¦vm‡hvM¨ ZvB ivL‡Z n‡e| †hgb wgUvi †¯‹j w`‡q †Kv‡bv ˆ`N©¨
gvc‡j GK wgwjwgUv‡ii Kg ˆ`N©¨ m~²fv‡e gvcv hvq bv| myZivs ˆ`N©¨ cwigv‡ci m~²Zvi cwigvc n‡e + 1 mm|
Mo fzj (Mean error) : wewfbœ mZ©KZv Aej¤^b K‡i cwigvc¨ †Kv‡bv ivwki cÖK…Z gv‡bi KvQvKvwQ gvb Avgiv †c‡Z
cvwi, Z‡e cÖK…Z gvb cwigvc Ki‡Z cvwi bv| †Kv‡bv ivwk A‡bKevi cwigv‡ci cvV¸‡jvi Mo gvb‡K IB †fŠZ ivwki
mwVK gvb ejv m½Z bq| IB cwigv‡c ÎæwU D‡jøL Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| cwigv‡c †h gvb cvIqv hvq Zv Dfq cv‡k wbw`©ó mxgvi
g‡a¨ mvgvb¨ cwigvY fzj _vKvi m¤¢vebv Av‡Q, †h + kZKiv gvb Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nh|
(i) Mo fzj ev Mo wePy¨wZ wbY©q (Determination of mean error or mean deviation): aiv hvK, cwigvc¨
GKwU ivwki †Kej AwbqwgZ fzj AšÍf©~³ n‡”Q| ivwkwU hw` n msL¨K evi gvc †bIqv n‡q _v‡K Ges Gi gvb h_vµ‡g
x1, x2, x3 ....... xn cvIqv hvq, Z‡e ivwk¸‡jvi Mo n‡e,
x1  x 2  x 3  ......... x n
A=
n
GB cwigv‡c †Kej AwbqwgZ fzjB AšÍf©~³ _vKvq cwigv‡c cÖvß Mo gvb A cÖK…Z gv‡bi KvQvKvwQ n‡e| ivwkwUi
cÖ‡Z¨KwU gvc GB Mo msL¨v A n‡Z mvgvb¨ wePz¨Z _v‡K e‡j H gv‡ci fzj aiv hvq| myZivs ivwkwUi wewfbœ cwigv‡c †h
wePz¨wZ _vK‡e Zv h_vµ‡g,
d1 = x1 - A, d2 = x2 - A, d3 = x3 - A, .... .... dn = xn - A
GLb wePz¨wZi wPý ev` w`‡q G¸‡jvi Mo wb‡jB Mo wePz¨wZ ev Mo fzj cvIqv hvq|
d1  d 2  d 3  ...... d n
AZGe, Mo wePz¨wZ ev Mo fzj, d = | myZivs cwigvc¨ ivwkwUi cÖK…Z gvc, x = A + d)
n
(ii) cÖgvY wePz¨wZ (Standard deviation): A‡bK mgq GB wePz¨wZ¸‡ji Mo wbY©‡qi cwie‡Z© e‡M©i Mo ‡ei K‡i Zvi
eM©g~j wbY©q Kiv nq| GB eM©g~‡ji cwigvY‡K cÖgvY wePz¨wZ e‡j|

myZivs, cÖgvY wePz¨wZ, D =

d1  d 2  d 3 .......... d n
2 2 2 2
= d 2

n n
AZGe, ivwkwUi cÖK…Z gvc n‡e, x = (A + D)
Gevi cwigvc¨ ivwkwUi AvšÍRv© wZK ¯^xK…Z gvb cÖvK…wZK aªæeK ZvwjKv (Physical constant table) ‡_‡K msMÖn K‡i
ivwkwUi ï×Zvi kZKiv wnmve wb‡¤œv³fv‡e wbY©q Ki‡Z cvwi|
ivwkwUi mwVK gvb  cÖvß gvb
cwigvc¨ ivwki ï× gvb = mwVK gvb × 100%; BnvB fz‡ji kZKiv nvi|

wb‡R Ki: c`v_©weÁv‡bi j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z Zzwg mij †`vj‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ g-Gi gvb wbY©q K‡i †c‡qQ 9.89ms-2|
g-Gi cÖK…Z gvb 9.81 ms-2 a‡i †Zvgvi cÖvß gv‡bi kZKiv ÎæwU wbY©q Ki|

12
 9.89  9.81
GLv‡b cwigvc¨ ivwki ï× gvb = × 100%
9.81
0.08
= 100% = 0.815%
9.81
AZGe, wb‡Y©q cixÿvq cÖvß gv‡bi kZKiv ÎæwU n‡jv 0.815%

MvwYwZK D`vniY 1.6

1. GKwU †Mvj‡Ki cwigvc¨ e¨vmva©, R = 5.3 + 0.1 n‡j AvqZ‡b kZKiv ÎæwU wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b, R = 53
 cig ÎæwU, R = 0.1
4
GLb, †Mvj‡Ki AvqZb, V = R3
3
V 3R
 AvqZ‡b Av‡cwÿK ev AvbycvwZK ÎæwU, 
V R
V 0.1 0.3
 =3× 
V 5.3 5.3
V 0.3 100%
AZGe, AvqZ‡b ÎæwU, × 100% = = 5.7%
V 5.3
2. GKRb QvÎ cixÿvMv‡i AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb 9.81 ms-2 wbY©q Ki| Aciw`‡K hLb †m 0.01 kg f‡ii †Kv‡bv
evULviv‡K w¯úªs wbw³‡Z Szwj‡Z w`j ZLb †`Lj 0.0980 N ej †`Lv‡”Q| Zvi cixÿvjä AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi kZKiv
ÎæwU wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, F = mg GLv‡b,
F 0.0980 cwigvc¨ gvb, y = 9.81 ms-2
g= = = 9.80 ms-2
m 0.01 wbw³‡Z Pvcv‡bv fi, m = 0.01 kg
 cÖK…Z gvb, x = 9.80 ms -2
cÖvß ej, F = 0.0980 N
xy
Avgiv Rvwb, ÎæwUi kZKiv nvi   100%
x
9.80  9.81
=  100%
9.80
= -0.102%

3. ‡Kv‡bv GKwU cixÿvq eZ©bx‡Z Zwor cÖev‡ni Rb¨ 7wU ¯^Zš¿ cvV †bqv hvK| cvV¸‡jv wb¤œiƒc:
I1 = 5.6 mA, I2 = 5.8 mA, I3 = 5.2 mA, I4 = 5.3 mA, I5 = 5.5 mA, I6 = 5.1 mA, I7 = 5.7 mA
(ii) Zwor cÖev‡ni MvwYwZK Mo (ii) Mo gvb n‡Z wePz¨wZ (iii) Mo wePz¨wZ Ges (iv) cÖgvY wePz¨wZ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
x1  x 2  x 3  ....  x 7
(i) MvwYwZK Mo gvb, x =
7
5.6  5.8  5.2  5.3  5.5  5.1  5.7
ev, x = mA
7
38.2
  5.46mA
7

13
 (ii) Mo gvb n‡Z wePz¨wZ,
1 = x1 = x = 5.6 - 5.46 = + 0.14 mA
2 = x2 = x = 5.8 - 5.46 = + 0.34 mA
3 = x3 - x = 5.2 - 5.46 = -0.26 mA
4 = x4 - x = 5.3 - 5.46 = -0.16 mA
5 = x5 - x = 5.5 - 5.46 = + 0.04 mA
6 = x6 - x = 5.1 - 5.46 = - 0.36 mA
7 = x7 - x = 57 - 5.46 = + 0.24 mA
(iii) Mo wePz¨wZ,
| 1 | 2 | 3 |  | 4 |  | 5 | 6 |  | 7 |
=
7
0.14  0.34  0.26  0.16  0.04  0.36  0.24 1.54
= = = 0.22 mA
7 7

1  2  3  4  5  7
2 2 2 2 2 2
(iv) cÖgvY wePz¨wZ, S.D. =
7

(0.14) 2  (0.34) 2  (0.26) 2  (0.16) 2  (0.04) 2  (0.36) 2  (0.24) 2

=
7
(0.0196 0.1156 0.0676 0.0256 0.0016 0.1296 0.0576)
=
7
0.4172
= = 0.0596 mA = 0.244 mA
7
wnmve : GKwU e¯‘i fi 100 + 2 kg Ges AvqZb = 100 + 3 m3 n‡j, H e¯‘i NbZ¡ (i) kZKiv ÎæwU (ii) cig ÎæwU
wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b, M = 100 + 2 kg, V = 100 + 3 m3
 M V   2 3 
GLb, Nb‡Z¡ (i) kZKiv ÎæwU =    × 100% =   × 100%
 M M   100 100 
 5 
=  100%  5%
 100 
M 100
(iii) NbZ¡,  = = = 1kgm3
V 100
 M V   2 3 
cig ÎæwU =     = 1×   
 M V   100 100 
= 1× (0.02+0.03) = 1×0.05 = 0.05 kgm-3

MwZ
1
†eM-mgq †jLwP‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ st = 0 + (2t - 1) mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b
2
‡eM - mgq †jLwPÎ 3.38 G AP mij‡iLvwU KYvi MwZ wb‡`©k K‡i| A_©vr AP mij‡iLvi mgxKiY n‡jv  = 0
+ t| g‡b Kwi IB mij‡iLvq AB I AP AskØq h_vµ‡g (t-1) ‡m‡KÛ I t ‡m‡KÛ mgq ch©šÍ MwZ wb‡`©k K‡i|
myZivs BP ‡iLvsk t -Zg †m‡K‡Ûi MwZ wb‡`©k K‡i| ZvB t -Zg ‡m‡K‡Ûi miY

14
 s1 = BP ‡iLvsk I mgq A‡ÿi ga¨eZ©x †ÿÎdj
= CBPD ‡ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎdj
1
= (CB + DP) × CD
2
wPÎ 3.38 -G CD = OD - OC = -(t-1) = 1s
CB = (t-1) mg‡q †eM = 0 + (t-1)
DP = t mg‡q †eM = 0 + t
1
 s1 = [0 + )t-1) + 0 + t]×1
2
1
= [20+(2t-1)]
2
1
=0 +  (2t - 1)
2
KvR: GKwU MwZkxj KYv KZ…©K, AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ mg‡qi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK n‡j e¯‘wU mg‡e‡M Pj‡Q, bv mgZ¡i‡Y Pj‡Q?
e¨vL¨v Ki|
cÖkvœ bymv‡i,
x  t2 [GLv‡b x AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ Ges t = mgq]
 x = ct2
dx
GLb †eM,  = = 2ct [c = aªæeK]
dt
du
Ges Z¡iY, a = = 2c
dt
myZivs ,KYvwU mgZ¡i‡Y Pj‡Q|

cÖvm (Projectile)
f‚c„ô †_‡K ev f‚c„‡ôi KvQvKvwQ †Kv‡bv we›`y †_‡K †h †Kv‡bv w`‡K cÖwÿß e¯‘‡K cÖvm e‡j|
Rvbv `iKvi:
 cÖv‡mi Ici GKgvÎ wµqvkxj ej AwfKl© ej;
 cÖv‡mi me©vwaK D”PZv c„w_exi e¨vmv‡a©i Zzjbvq bMY¨| ZvB cÖv‡mi MwZi Av‡jvPbvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb w¯’i
a‡i †bIqv nq, Ges
 cÖv‡mi MwZ Av‡jvPbvq evqyi evaA D‡cÿYxq|
cÖv‡mi MwZ msµvšÍ K‡qKwU msÁv
cÖ‡ÿcY we›`y (Point of projection): ‡h we›`y w`‡q cÖvm cÖwÿß nq †mB we›`y‡KB cÖ‡ÿcY we›`y ejv nq|
cÖ‡ÿcY c_ (Trajectory): ‡h eµc‡_ cÖv‡mi MwZ nq Zv‡KB cÖv‡mi cÖ‡ÿcY c_ ejv nq|
cÖ‡ÿcY †eM (Velocity of projection): ‡h cÖv‡mi cÖ‡ÿcY nq †mB †eM‡K cÖ‡ÿcY †eM e‡j|
cÖ‡ÿcY †KvY (Angle of projection): Abyf‚wgK Z‡ji m‡½ †h ‡Kv‡Y cÖvm cÖwÿß nq Zv‡KB ejv nq cÖ‡ÿcY
‡KvY|

15
 cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv ev cvjøv (Horizontal range or range) : cÖ‡ÿcY we›`yMvgx Abyf‚wgK Z‡ji Ici cÖwÿß e¯‘wU ‡h
we›`y‡Z cwZZ nq cÖ‡ÿcY we›`y †_‡K IB we›`yi `~iZ¡‡K cÖv‡mi cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv ejv nq |
DÇqbKvj (Time of flight): cÖ‡ÿcY we›`y †_‡K cÖ‡ÿcY we›`yMvgx Abyf‚wgK Z‡ji Ici G‡m co‡Z cÖvmwUi †h
mgq jv‡M Zv‡K DÇqbKvj e‡j| G‡K PjbKvjI ejv nq|

cÖ‡ÿcY MwZ
Projectile Motion
Zzwg hw` †÷wWqv‡g KLbI wµ‡KU †Ljv †`L‡Z hvI Zvn‡j evDÛvwi †_‡K †Quvov wµ‡KU e‡ji MwZ jÿ Ki‡j †`L‡e
ejwU cÖ_‡g f‚wg †_‡K Ic‡i D‡V cybivq euvKv c‡_ f‚wg‡Z wd‡i Av‡m| Avevi e›`yK †_‡K Dc‡ii w`‡K †Quvov ey‡j‡Ui
MwZ, wbwÿß Zxi ev KY©vi MwZ, wegvb †_‡K wbwÿß †evgvi MwZ mKj
†ÿ‡Î GKB cÖKvi MwZc_ jÿ Kiv hvq| GB ai‡Yi eµMwK‡K cÖv‡mi
MwZ e‡j Ges MwZc_‡K cÖ‡ÿcY (trajectory) e‡j| Bnv GKwU
Awae„Ë| G ai‡Yi MwZ wØgvwÎK MwZ| evZv‡mi evav D‡cÿv Ki‡j
cÖv‡mi MwZ †KejgvÎ AwfK‡l©i wµqvq nq| cÖv‡mi MwZc_ me©`v
c¨viv‡evjv ev Awae„Ë nq| cÖvm m‡e©v”P D”PZvq †cuŠQv‡j Gi †eM
me©wb¤œ (k~b¨) nq| Avevi me©vwaK D”PZvq cÖv‡mi MwZ GKgvwÎK nq|
cÖvm cÖ‡ÿcY we›`y n‡Z Abyf‚wgK w`‡K me©vwaK †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i
Zv‡K cÖv‡mi cvjøv (Range) e‡j| wb‡ÿcY †KvY 45° n‡j cÖv‡mi
cvjøv me©vwaK nq| Abyf‚wgK eivei cÖv‡mi Z¡iY, ax = 0, Djø¤^ eivei cÖv‡mi Z¡iY, ay = - g nq| cÖv‡mi me©vwaK
D”PZvi †eM I Z¡i‡Yi ga¨eZ©x †KvY 90° nq| cÖ‡ÿcY we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi g~jwe›`yi ¯’vbv¼ x = 0, y = 0 nq| g‡b Ki O
we›`y n‡Z 0 ‡Kv‡Y GKwU cÖvm‡K v0 Avw`‡e‡M Ic‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv [wPÎ 3.39[| cÖv‡mi cÖv_wgK †eM v0 ‡K
`ywU Dcvs‡k wef³ Kiv hvq| GKwU Dcvsk OX eivei, Aci Dcvsk OY eivei| Dcvsk `ywU n‡jv vx0 = v0 cos 
Ges vy0 = v0 sin| D‡jøL¨ Abyf‚wgK w`‡K Z¡iY bv _vKvq Abyf‚wgK w`‡K †e‡Mi Dcvsk aªæe _v‡K| me©vwaK D”PZvq
cÖv‡mi MwZ GKgvwÎK nq Ges †e‡Mi Djø¤^ Dcvsk k~b¨ nq| Djø¤^ eivei Z¡iY _v‡K ZvB †e‡Mi Dcvsk cwiewZ©Z nq|
Avgiv cÖ‡ÿcY gyn~Z© †_‡K mgq MYbv Ki‡Z cvwi| A_©vr t = 0 mg‡q AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ x n‡Z MwZi mgxKiY Abyhvqx x =
1 2
vx0 t + axt
2
x = v0cost + 0 [Abyf‚wgK MwZ vx0 = v=cos]
x
t= ---- ---- --- --- (3.32)
v 0 cos 
Avevi, ax = -g nIqvq t mgq ci Djø¤^ w`‡K cÖv‡mi †eM ev Djø¤^ MwZ
vy = vy0 - gt = v0sin  - gt --- --- ---- (3.33)
1 2 1
y = vy0t - gt = v0 sint - gt2 ---- --- --- --- (3.34)
2 2

vx  vy
2 2
t mg‡q jwä †eM, v =
vy
jwä †eM Abyf‚wgK w`‡Ki mv‡_  ‡KvY Ki‡j, tan
vx
t Gi gvb (3.34) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB

16
 x 1 x2
y = v0 sin ×  g×
v 0 cos  2 v 0 cos2 
2

g
y = (tan )x x = 
2v 0  cos2 
2

y = ax - bx2 ..... ..... (3.35) Bnv GKwU c¨viv‡evjv ev Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY|

g
GLv‡b a = tan , b =
2v 0 cos2 
2

GB ivwk `ywU cÖ‡ÿc c‡_ aªæe _v‡K| myZivs cÖv‡mi MwZc_ GKwU c¨viv‡evjv|
Abyavebg~jK KvR: Lvov Ic‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i Abyf‚wgK `~iZ¡ k~b¨ nq †Kb?

MvwYwZK D`vniY
1. Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ 30° †KvY K‡i f‚c„ô n‡Z 40 ms-1 ‡e‡M kÎæc‡ÿi GKwU wegv‡bi w`‡K GKwU Kvgv‡bi †Mvjv
wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| †MvjvwU 30m `~‡i Aew¯’Z GKwU †`qvj‡K KZ D”PZvq KZ mgq ci AvNvZ Ki‡e?
g‡b Kwi †MvjvwU y D”PZvq †`Iqvj‡K AvNvZ K‡i
Avw`‡e‡Mi Abyf‚wgK Dcvsk, GLv‡b,
n10 = n0cos30° wb‡ÿc †KvY,  = 30°
= 40 cos 30° Avw`‡eM, v0 = 40 ms-1
= 34.641 ms-1 D”PZv, y = ?
Abyf‚wgK w`‡K Z¡iY bv _vKvi Kvi‡Y †e‡Mi Dcvsk AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡e| awi t mgq ci †MvjvwU 30 m `~‡ii †`Iqvj‡K
AvNvZ K‡i|
30
ev, t = = 0.866sec
34.641
Avw`‡e‡Mi Djø¤^ Dcvsk,
n0 = 40 sin30° = 20 ms-1
t mgq ci Djø¤^ miY,
1 1
y = v0t  gt2 × 0.866  ×9.8×(0.866)2 = 13.645 m
2 2
9x 2
we.`ª. X I Y A‡ÿi `~iZ¡ GKmv‡_ e¨envi n‡j, y = (tan)x - m~Î cÖ‡qv‡Mi A¼ Kiv hv‡e|
2n 0 cos2 
2

me©vwaK D”PZv (H): m‡e©v”P we›`y A -‡Z †e‡Mi Djø¤^ Dcvs‡ki gvb k~b¨ nq A_©vr vy =0 nq; †m‡ÿ‡Î (3.33) mgxKiY
n 0 sin 
†_‡K v0 sin - gt = 0.t = .... .... ... (3.36)
g
(3.34) bs mgxKi‡Y y = H Ges t Gi gvb ewm‡q cvIqv hvq
 v 0 sin   1 gv 0 2 sin 2 
H = v0 sin×   -
 g  2 g2

v0 sin 2  v0 sin 2 
2 2
= 
g 2g
v0 sin 2   1  v0 sin 2 
2 2
= 1   
g  2 2g

17
 v 0 sin 2 
2
H= .... .... .... (3.37)
2g
2
v0
‡R‡b ivL: Lvovfv‡e Ic‡i wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î me©vwaK D”PZv, H =
2g
me©vwaK D”PZvq †cuŠQvevi mgq: me©vwaK D”PZvq vy = 0 Ges t = tm n‡j, vy = v0 sin - gt mgxKi‡Y gvb ewm‡q
v 0 sin 
cvIqv hvq,  = v0 sin  - gt, ev, tm =
g
wePiY Kvj (T) : G‡ÿ‡Î DVv Ges bvgvi Rb¨ y = 0 nq
1
d‡j (3.34) bs mgxKiY †_‡K v0 sin t  gt2 = 0
2
 1  2v 0 sin 
 t  v0 sin   gt  = 0 A_ev t = 0  t =
 2  g
t = 0 n‡j cÖv‡mi cÖv_wgK Ae¯’v 0-‡K wb‡`©k K‡i| AZGe wePiY Kvj t = T ewm‡q cvB
2v 0 sin 
T= .... ... ... (3.38)
g
2v0
‡R‡b ivL: Lvovfv‡e Ic‡i wbwÿß e¯‘i DÌvb-cZb ev wePiYKvj, T =
g
cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv ev cvjøv (R) : Abyf~wgK w`‡K OB = cvjøv = R
2v 0 sin 
AZGe cvjøv, R = v x 0 T = v0cos = v0cos ×
g

2v 02 sin  cos 
= [2sin cos = sin2]
g
v 02
R= sin2
g
me ©vwaK cvjøv (Rmax):
v0 Gi †h‡Kv‡bv cÖ`Ë gv‡b R me©vwaK nq hLb sin2 = 1 ev 2 = 90° nq ev  = 45° nq|
v 02 sin 900 v02
 Rmax = 
g g
A_©vr 45° wb‡ÿcY †Kv‡Y wbwÿß e¯‘i cvjøv me©vwaK|
m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi MwZkw³ I w¯’wZkw³
Kinetic energy and potential energy of a projectile at the highest point
(i) m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi MwZkw³: cÖv‡mi MwZc‡_i m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z Gi MwZkw³ me©wb¤œ nq| GB we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi
ïaygvÎ Abyf‚wgK †eM v0x = v0 cos  _v‡K Ges Djø¤^ †eM k~b¨ nq| myZivs
1 1
Ek = mv0x2 = mv02cos2 ... ... ... (i)
2 2
(ii) m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi w¯’wZkw³: m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi w¯’wZkw³ me©vwaK nq| GB w¯’wZkw³,
v 02 sin 2  1
Ep = mgh = mg × = mv02sin2 ... (ii)
2g 2

18
 1
AZGe, †gvU kw³, Ek + Ep = mv02(cos2 + sin2)
2
1
= mv02 ; GB kw³ cÖv‡mi cÖv_wgK †gvU kw³i mgvb|
2
MvwYwZK D`vniY 3.7
1| hw` f~wg †_‡K O we›`yi D”PZv H Ges t mgq c‡i e¯‘wU f‚wgi Q we›`y‡Z AvNvZ K‡i, Z‡e †`LvI †h cÖ‡ÿcY
2H
mxgv, R = v0
g
Avgiv Rvwb,
1 2 1 2
H=0×t+ gt [ y = vy0t + gt ]
2 2
2H 2H
ev, t2 = ev, t =
g g

2H
 R = v0t = v0
g
2| 1.25 m D”PZvwewkó GwKU Abyf‚wgK †Uwe‡ji GK cÖvšÍ w`‡q GKwU ej Mwo‡q coj| †Uwej †_‡K covi gyn~‡Z©
ejwUi †eM 3 ms-1 n‡j ejwU †Uwe‡ji wb¤œ cÖvšÍ †_‡K KZ `~‡i wM‡q co‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv,
2H GLv‡b,
R = v0
g v0 = 3 ms-1
2 1.25 H = 1.25 m
R =3×
9.8 g = 9.8 ms-2
= 2 × 0.5 = 1.5 m

MvwYwZK D`vniY 3.8

1| 49 ms-1 †e‡M f~wgi mv‡_ 60° †Kv‡Y GKwU e¯‘‡Z k~‡b¨ wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| GUv m‡e©v”P KZ Ic‡i DV‡e? G‡Z
KZ mgq jvM‡e? KZ mgq ci GUv f~wg‡Z cwZZ n‡e? Gi Abyf~wgK cvjøv KZ n‡e?
me©vwaK D”PZv GLv‡b,
v 02 sin 2  wb‡ÿcY †eM, v0 = 49 ms-1
H=
2g wb‡ÿcY †KvY,  = 60°r

=
49 2

 sin 60 0
 91.87m
 AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2
2  9.8
m‡e©v”P D”PZvq DV‡Z tm mgq jvM‡j
v 0 sin  49  sin 600
tm =   4.33sec
g 9.8
f‚wg‡Z Avmvi mgq T n‡j
2v 0 sin  2  49  sin 600
T=   8.66s
g 9.8
cvjøv, R =

19
 v 02 sin 2 492  sin 2  60
  212.18m
g 9.8

DËi: m‡e©v”P D”PZv 91.87 m; m‡e©v”P D ”PZvq DV‡Z mgq jvM‡e 4.33 sec; f‚wg‡Z cwZZ n‡Z mgq jvM‡e 8.66 s;
Abyf~wgK cvjøv 212.18 m.
2| GKwU cÖv‡mi Abyf‚wgK cvjøv 79.53 m Ges wePiYKvj 5.3 sec| wb‡ÿcY †eM I wb‡ÿcY †KvY wbM©Z Ki|

Avgiv Rvwb,
2v 02 sin 0
T= ... ... (i)
g
v 02 sin 20 v 02 2 sin 0 cos0
R=  ... (ii)
g g
2v 0 sin 0
T g
mgxKiY (i) I (ii) †_‡K cvB,  2
R v 0 2 sin 0 cos  0
g
5.3 1
ev, 
79.53 v 0 cos0
ev, v0cos 0 = 15.006 ... ... (iii)
mgxKiY (i) n‡Z cvB,
2v 0 sin 0
T=
9.8
9 .8 9 .8
 v0sin0 = ×T= × 5.3 = 25.97 ... (iv)
2 2
mgxKiY (iii) I (iv) †_‡K cvB,
25.97
tan0 =  1.7306  = 60°
15.006
mgxKiY (iii)-G 0 -Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
v0 cos 60° = 15.006
v0 × 0.5 = 15.006
15.006
 v0 = = 30 ms-1
0.5
DËi: wb‡ÿcY †eM 30 ms-1; wb‡ÿcY †KvY 60°|
3| 30m D”PZvi †Kv‡bv ¯Í¤¢ n‡Z GKwU cÖwÿß e¯‘‡K 20 ms-1 †e‡M Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ 20° †Kv‡Y Ic‡ii w`‡K
wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| e¯‘wUi wePiYKvj wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb
1 2
y - y0 = v0sin t - gt
2
1
ev, -30 = (20 × sin30)t - × 9.8 × t2
2

20
 ev, 4.9t2 - 10t - 30 = 0
  10  1002  4  4.9   30
ev, t =
2  4.9
t = 3.1 sec ev, t = -1.7 sec
t Gi - ve gvb MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq
 t = 3.1 sec
4| Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ 30° †KvY K‡i f‚c„ô ‡_‡K 40 ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ey‡jU †Qvuov n‡jv| ey‡jUwU 30 m `~‡i Aew¯’Z
GKwU ‡`Iqvj‡K KZ D”PZvq AvNvZ Ki‡e?
gx 2 GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, x tan  -
2v 02 cos2  x = 30 m
9.8  30 v0 = 40 ms-1
2
= 30 × tan 30° -
2  40  cos2 30  = 30°
2

= 17.32 - 3.68 = 13.64 m

5| v0 cÖ‡ÿcY †e‡M †Qvuov GKwU cÖv‡mi AwR©Z me©vwaK D”PZv H I cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv R n‡j †`LvI †h, R2 = 16 H
 u2 
 
 2g  H 
 
Avgiv Rvwb,
u 2 sin 2 
cÖv‡mi me©vwaK D”PZv, H = [GLv‡b  n‡j cÖ‡ÿcY †KvY]
2g
u 2 sin 2
Ges cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv, R =
g

u
sin 2 2
2

GLb,
R 2

g2
=
u 2
2
sin 2  2g
=
u 2  8 cos2 
=
16u 2 cos2 
=

16u 2 1  sin 2  
H u 2 sin 2  u 2 sin 2   g g 2g 2g
2g
 u2 u 2 sin 2  
= 16   
 2g 2g 

 u2 
R2 = 16H   H  (cÖgvwYZ)
 2g 
6| `ywU e¯‘‡K GKB †e‡M f~wg †_‡K cÖ‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| Gi GKwU cÖ‡ÿcY †KvY 60° Ges AciwUi 30°| †`LvI †h
G‡`i m‡e©v”P D”PZvi AbycvZ 3:1|
60° †Kv‡Y cÖwÿß e¯‘i m‡e©v”P D”PZv H1 n‡j,
u 02 sin 2 60
H1 =
2g
GLv‡b v0 cÖwÿß e¯‘i cÖ‡ÿcY †eM Ges 30° ‡Kv‡Y cÖwÿß e¯‘i m‡e©v”P D”PZv H2 n‡j,

21
 v 02 sin 2 60
H 2g sin 2 60 3/ 4 3  4
GLb, 1 = 2 2  =  3
H2 v 0 sin 30 sin 30 2
1/ 4 1  4
2g
 H1 : H2 = 3 : 1
7| GKwU wµ‡KU e‡ji IRb 0.65 kg| GKRb wdìvi ejwU‡K ¯^íZg mg‡q 100 m `~i‡Z¡ _vKv DB‡KU iÿ‡Ki
Kv‡Q †cŠQv‡Z PvB‡j b~¨bZg KZ km/h MwZ‡Z ejwU Q‚o‡Z n‡e? GB MwZ‡Z Qzo‡j KZÿY ci Zv DB‡KU iÿ‡Ki
Kv‡Q wM‡q †cŠQv‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, Abyf‚wgK `~iZ¡,
v 2 sin 2
R=
g
Rg
v2 =
sin 2
Rg
v=  100  9.8 [ v Gi gvb me©wb¤œ n‡e hw` sin2 = 1 nq]
sin 2
= 31.Z30 ms-1 = 112.7 kmh-1
2v sin  2  31.30  sin 45
Ges T = = = 4.52 sec
g 9.8
8| †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘‡K f~c„ô n‡Z KZ †Kv‡Y 45 ms-1 †e‡M Qzo‡j GwU 200 m `~‡i wM‡q co‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v 2 sin 2
R=
g
ev 200 × 9.8 = (45)2 × sin2
 2 = 75.44°
 = 37.72°
KvR: †`LvI †h, cÖv‡mi cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv me©vwaK n‡j m‡e©v”P D”PZvi gvb me©vwaK cÖ‡ÿcY mxgvi GK-PZz_©vsk n‡e|
v 02
cÖv‡mi me©vwaK cÖ‡ÿcY mxgv, Rmax =
g
v 02 sin 2 
Ges m‡e©v”P D”PZv, H = [GLv‡b,  = 45°]
2g
v 2 sin 45 v 2  0.5 v 02
2
R
 H= 0  0  = max (cÖgvwYZ)
2g 2g 4g 4
KvR: †`LvI †h me©vwaK cÖ‡ÿcY mxgvi †ÿ‡Î m‡e©v”P Ae¯’v‡b MwZkw³ cÖv_wgK MwZkw³i A‡a©K nq|
aiv hvK, m f‡ii GKwU e¯‘‡K O we›`y †_‡K Abyf‚wgK Z‡ji mv‡_  ‡Kv‡Y u cÖviw¤¢K †e‡M cÖ‡ÿcY Kiv n‡jv [wPÎ
1
`ªóe¨]| myZivs cÖv‡mi cÖviw¤¢K MwZkw³ E0 = mu02|
2

22
 GLb m‡e©v”P Ae¯’v‡b cÖv‡mi MwZkw³,
1
E= m(u cos)2, GLv‡b u cos n‡”Q m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z cÖv‡mi Abyf‚wgK MwZ‡eM|
2
E
 =cos2
E0
ev, E = E0 cos2 ... ... .... (i)
GLv‡b, cÖ‡ÿcY †KvY 45° n‡j,
E = E0cos2 45°
E0
E= ... ... ... (ii)
2
myZivs me©vwaK cÖ‡ÿcY mxgvi †ÿ‡Î, m‡e©v”P Ae¯’v‡b MwZkw³ cÖv_wgK MwZkw³i A‡a©K nq|

Abyf‚wgK cÖvm
Horizontal projectile
h D”PZv †_‡K GKwU e¯‘‡K u ‡e‡M Abyf‚wgK w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| e¯‘wU gvwU‡K B we›`y‡Z ¯úk© K‡i| G‡ÿ‡Î
Abyf‚wgK cvjøv R n‡j †jLv hvq,
R = ut, GLv‡b t n‡jv A we›`y n‡Z hvÎv ïiæ K‡i gvwU ¯úk© Kivi mgq Kvj| G‡K
cÖv‡mi DÇqbKvj ejv ‡h‡Z cv‡i|
e¯‘wUi Djø¤^ wb¤œMwZ we‡ePbv K‡i †jLv hvq,
1 2 2h
h= gt ev, t = [ GB e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î e¯‘wUi cÖv_wgK †eM k~b¨]
2 g
t Gi gvb ewm‡q cvIqv hvq,
2h 2hu2
R=u× =
g g

2hu2
R=
g
MvwYwZK D`vniY:
1. f~c„ô †_‡K 2000 m DuPz‡Z GKwU †evgviæ wegvb N›Uvq 800 km Abyf‚wgK †e‡M MwZkxj| f‚c„‡ô A we›`yi Ici G‡m
wegvbwU GKwU †evgv †d‡j w`j| †evgvwU f‚c„‡ô Aew¯’Z B jÿ¨e¯‘‡Z AvNvZ Kij| AB `~iZ¡ wbY©q Ki|
aiv hvK, P we›`y‡Z †evgvwU wegvb †_‡K †d‡j †`Iqv n‡jv|
GLv‡b, PA = 2000m

23
‡evgvwU Abyf‚wgK †eM,
800 1000 -1
u = 800 kmhr-1 = ms = 222.2 ms-1
60  60
‡evgvwU f‚c„‡ô G‡m co‡Z t mgq jvM‡j †evgvwUi Djø¤^ MwZi Rb¨ †jLv hvq,
1 2
200 = gt
2
2  2000
t  = 20.2 s
9.8
GLb Abyf‚wgK w`‡K AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi Dcvs‡ki gvb k~b¨|
 AB = ut = 222.2×20.2 = 4489 m
= 4.489 km
AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: K‡qKwU e¯‘‡K †Kv‡bv we›`y †_‡K GKB cÖ‡ÿcY †eM u wb‡q GKB Djø¤^Z‡j wewfbœ w`‡K cÖ‡ÿc Kiv
n‡jv| †`LvI †h, t mgq ci e¯‘¸wj GKwU e„‡Ëi cwiwai Ici _vK‡e|
aiv hvK, †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘‡K  cÖ‡ÿcY †Kv‡Y cÖ‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| t mgq c‡i e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb (x,y)|
myZivs, x = (u cos ) t .... ... ... (i)
1
Ges y = (u sin ) t  gt2
2
1 2
ev, y + gt = (usin)t .... .... ... (iii)
2
mgxKiY (i) I (ii) ‡K eM© I †hvM K‡i cvIqv hvq,
1 22
x2 + (y + gt ) = (u2sin2  + u2 cos2 ) t2 = u2t2
2
1
 x2 + (y+ gt2)2 = u2t2 ... .... ... (iii)
2
mgxKiY (iii) GKwU e„‡Ëi mgxKiY| GwU cÖ‡ÿcY †KvY  Gi Ici wbf©ikxj bq|
myZivs t mgq c‡i e¯‘¸wj GKwU e„‡Ëi cwiwai Ici _vK‡e|

Abyf‚wgKfv‡e wbwÿß e¯‘i ev cÖv‡mi MwZi mgxKiY

Equation of motion of a horizontal projectile
awi GKwU e¯‘‡K O we›`y n‡Z v0 ‡e‡M Abyf‚wgK w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv|
evqyi evav I D”PZvi mv‡_ g Gi cwieZ©b AMÖvn¨ Ki‡j wbwÿß e¯‘i
MwZc‡_i †h †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Abyf‚wgK †eM Awfbœ Ges u0 n‡e| wKš‘ wbwÿß
e¯‘i †e‡Mi Lvov Dcvsk bv _vKvq AwfKl©xq Z¡i‡Yi `iæb Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K
e¯‘i †eM mg‡qi mgvbycv‡Z e„w× cv‡e| awi t ‡m‡KÛ c‡i e¯‘wU Abyf‚wgK
w`‡K x `~iZ¡ I Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K y `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i P we›`y‡Z Gj Ges P
we›`y‡Z e¯‘wUi †eM v I v Gi Abyf‚wgK I Djø¤^ Ask‡Ki gvb h_vµ‡g vx I
vy| Zv n‡j,
vx = v0 = vcos I
vy = 0 + gt = gt = v sin

24
 v= vx  vy
2 2

GLv‡b Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ v-Gi †KŠwYK e¨eavb 

vy
 tan 
vx
Avevi, x = v0 × t .... .... ... (3.40) [Abyf‚wgK w`‡K Z¡iY = 0]
1 2
Iy= gt .... ... ... (3.41) [Djø¤^ w`‡K Avw` †eM = 0]
2
mgxKiY (3.40) n‡Z t Gi gvb mgxKiY (3.41) G ewm‡q cvIqv hvq-
2
1  x 
y= g   ... ... .... (3.42)
2  v0 
2
2v 0
 x2 = y
g
2
2v 0
Dc‡i mgxKiY = 4A ewm‡q cvIqv hvq,
g
x2 = 4Ay ... .... ... (3.43)
GwU GKwU Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY| Kv‡RB evavnxb c‡_ Abyf‚wgKfv‡e wbwÿß e¯‘i ev cÖv‡mi MwZc_ c¨viv‡evjv
(Parabola) ev Awae„Ë iPbv K‡i|

MvwYwZK D`vniY
1. f‚c„ô †_‡K 490 m DuPz‡Z GKwU wegvb 147ms-1 Abyf‚wgK †e‡M Do‡Q|
f‚c„‡ô Aew¯’Z †Kv‡bv we›`y A Gi Dci Djø¤^ Ae¯’v‡b G‡m †mwU GKwU e¯‘
†d‡j w`j| e¯‘wU f‚c„‡ô Aew¯’Z B we›`y‡Z AvNvZ Kij|
AB Gi `~iZ¡ KZ?
g‡b Kwi O Ae¯’v‡b wegvbwU †_‡K e¯‘wU‡K ‡djv n‡jv; AZGe OA =
490 m, t mgq ci e¯‘wU B we›`y‡Z AvNvZ Kij| Djø¤^ w`‡K e¯‘wUi cÖv_wgK †eM k~b¨|

1 2
h = vy0 t + gt
2
1
ev, 490 = 0 + × 9.8t2
2
ev, 490 = 4.9 t2 ev, t2 = 100 GLv‡b
 t = 10 sec h = 490 m
 AB Gi `~iZ¡, x = vx0 × t = 147 × 10 = 1470 m
2. GKwU dzUej‡K f‚wgi mv‡_ 30° ‡Kv‡Y 40ms-1 ‡e‡M wKK Kiv n‡jv| 2 sec c‡i dzUe‡ji †e‡Mi gvb KZ n‡e wbY©q
Ki|
g‡b Kwi, dzUejwU †h we›`y n‡Z wKK Kiv n‡jv ‡mwU g~jwe›`y GLv‡b,
Ges Lvov Dc‡ii w`K Y Aÿ abvZ¥K| wb‡ÿc †KvY,  = 30°

25
 ‡kl †e‡Mi Abyf‚wgK I Djø¤^ Dcvsk h_vµ‡g vx I vy n‡j, Avw` †eM, v0 = 40ms-1

vx  vy
2 2
v= mgq, t = 2 sec
‡kl †eM, v = ?
Avw` †e‡Mi Abyf‚wgK I Djø¤^ Dcvsk h_vµ‡g vx0 I vy0 n‡j,
Avgiv cvB, vx = vx0 + axt = v0 cos + axt [ Abyf‚wgK Z¡iY, ax = 0]
v0 cos = 40 cos 30° = 34.64 ms-1
Ges vy = vy0 + ayt = v0 sin + ayt
ev, vy = 40 sin 30° + (-9.8) × 2 [Djø¤^ Dcvsk wb¤œgywL nIqvq ay = - g = - 9.8 ms-1]
= 20 - 19.6 = 0.4 ms-1
v= vx  vy =
2 2
(34.64) 2  (0.4) 2

= 1199.9  0.16 = 1200 = 34.64 ms-1

3. 170 m DuPz `vjv‡bi Qv` †_‡K Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ 30° ‡KvY K‡i wb‡Pi w`‡K GKwU e¯‘ wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡jv| Gi Avw`‡eM
40 ms-1|
(K) f‚wg‡Z AvNvZ Ki‡Z KZ mgq jvM‡e?
(L) `vjv‡bi cv`we›`y n‡Z KZ `~‡i GwU f‚wg‡Z AvNvZ Ki‡e?
(M) f‚wg‡Z GwU KZ †Kv‡Y AvNvZ Ki‡e?
g‡b Kwi wb‡ÿcY we›`y g~jwe›`y Ges Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K Y-Aÿ abvZ¥K|
GLv‡b x0 = y0 = 0
Djø¤^ miY (y - y0) = -170 m (wb¤œgywL)
wb‡ÿcY †KvY, 0 = - 30° [Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_ wb‡Pi w`‡Ki †KvY)
(K) t = ? (L) (x - x0) = ? (M)  = ?
GLv‡b Abyf‚wgK Z¡iY, ax = 0, Djø¤^ Z¡iY, ay = -g = - 9.8 ms-2
(K) Avgiv Rvwb,
1 2 1
y - y0 = vy0 + ayt = v0 sin0t + ayt2
2 2
1
ev, -170 = 40 sin (-30°) × t  × 9.8×t2
2
ev, -170 = - 20t - 4.9t2
ev, 4.9t2 + 20t - 4.9t2
 20  (20) 2  4  4.9 170
ev, t 
2  4.9
ev, t = 4.9 sec ev, t = -8.27 sec
myZivs, t = 4.9 sec
1 2
(L) x = x0 + vx0 t + axt
2
1 2
ev, x - x0 = vx0t + axt
2

26
 1 2
= v0 cos0t + axt
2
1 2
= 40×cos(-30°) t + axt
2
1 2
= 40×cos (-30°)t + axt
2
= 40×cos 30° × 4.9 + 0 [ cos(-30°) = cos30°]
1
= 40× ×4.9 = 145.15 m
2
(M) vx = vx0 + axt
= v0 cos0 + axt = 40 × cos (-30°) + 0 = 34.64 ms-1
Avevi vy = vy0 + ayt = v0 sin0 + ayt
= 40×sin (-30°) + (-9.8) × 4.19
= - 61.06 ms-1
vy
tan  =
vx
 61.06
ev, tan = = -1.76   = -60°
34.64
DËi: (K) 4.9 sec; (L) 145.15 m; (M) -60°

27
 ej
e‡ji NvZ
Impulse of force

‡Kv‡bv ej I e‡ji wµqvKv‡ji ¸Ydj‡K IB e‡ji NvZ (impulse of force e‡j) F ej †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Dci t mgq a‡i
wµqv Ki‡j
 
e‡ji NvZ J  F t ... .... .. (4.6)
 
m v m v0  
= × t = m v  m v 0 = fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b
t
 e‡ji NvZ fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mgvb|

K¨vjKzjvm c×wZ: g‡b Kwi, F aªæe ej †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i Ic‡i dt mgq wµqv K‡i| Zvn‡j NvZ ej,

  P2
 t2  t2 dP P2 
    
J 
t1
F dt =  t1 dt
× dt =  
P1
d P =  P   = P 2  P1 =  P
  P1
e‡ji NvZ fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mgvb|

e‡ji NvZ I NvZ e‡ji g‡a¨ cv_©K¨

Difference between impulse of a force and impulsive force
1. e‡ji NvZ n‡jv ej I e‡ji wµqvKv‡ji ¸Ydj| wKš‘ NvZ ej n‡jv GKwU e„nr gv‡bi AZ¨šÍ ÿY¯’vqx ej|
2. NvZ ej e‡ji NvZ m„wó K‡i| GB ej †ewk n‡j e‡ji NvZI e„w× cv‡e| ZvB ejv nq †h NvZ ej n‡”Q KviY Ges e‡ji
NvZ Gi dj|
3. NvZ e‡ji GKK Ges e‡ji GKK GKB; A_©vr wbDUb| wKš‘ e‡ji NvZ GKK fi‡e‡Mi GK‡Ki Abyiƒc, A_©vr kgms-1
4. e‡ji Nv‡Zi Rb¨ evqy‡Z fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b N‡U; wKš‘ NvZ e‡ji d‡j e¯‘‡Z LyeB Aí mg‡q e„nr Z¡iY m„wó nq|
5. NvZ e‡ji gvÎv [MLT-2] Ges e‡ji Nv‡Zi gvÎv [MLT-1]

KvR: K¤^j †_‡K ay‡jv ‡ei Kivi Rb¨ jvwV w`‡q K¤^j‡K AvNvZ Kiv nq †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
K¤^j‡K jvwV w`‡q AvNvZ Ki‡j ay‡jvKYv¸‡jv w¯’i RoZvi Rb¨ w¯’i _vK‡jI NvZ e‡ji Rb¨ K¤^‡ji myZv nVvr MwZkxj
nq, d‡j ay‡jvKYv K¤^j †_‡K Avjv`v nq|

MvwYwZK D`vniY
1. 16 N Gi GKwU ej 4kg f‡ii Ici 4s wµqv K‡i| e¯‘wUi (K) †e‡Mi cwieZ©b I (L) e‡ji NvZ wbY©q Ki|
  GLv‡b,
(K) g‡b Kwi †e‡Mi cwieZ©b = v  v 0

Avgiv Rvwb, ej, F = 16 N
e‡ji NvZ = fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b m = 4 kg
 F × t = mv - mv0 t = 4s
ev, F × t = m(v-v0)
 ‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b, (v - v0)

28
 F  t 16N  4s
= = = 16 ms-1
m 4kg
(L) Avevi Avgiv Rvwb,
e‡ji NvZ, J = F × t
 J = 16N×4s
= 64 Ns
2. 0.05 kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ 0.2 ms-1 Abyf‚wgK †e‡M GKwU Luvov ‡`qv‡j av°v w`‡j 0.1 ms-1 ‡e‡M wecixZ w`‡K wd‡i
†Mj| e‡ji NvZ †ei Ki|
awi e‡ji NvZ = J GLv‡b,
m( v  v 0 m = 0.05 kg
Avgiv cvB, J = F × t I F =
t v0 = 0.2 ms-1
 J = m(v-v0) v = - 0.1 ms-1 (Avw` †e‡Mi mv‡c‡ÿ †kl ‡eM
= 0.05 × (-0.1-0.2) wecixZgyLx ‡m†nZz FYwPý e¨eüZ n‡q‡Q)|
-1
= - 0.015 kg-ms (FYwPý cÖgvY K‡i †h, J I v -Gi AwfgyL Awfbœ)|
 |J| = 0.015 kg - ms-1

3. GKRb mvB‡Kj PvjK 8 ms-1 ‡e‡M PjvKv‡j mvB‡Kj Pvjv‡bv eÜ K‡i jÿ K‡ib †h 49 m `~iZ¡ AwZµ‡gi ci
mvB‡KjwU †_‡g hvq| mvB‡K‡ji Uvqvi I iv¯Ívq ga¨Kvi Nl©Y ej I 2 sec mg‡q e‡ji NvZ wbY©q Ki| [Av‡ivnxmn
mvB‡K‡ji fi = 147 kg]
awi Nl©Y ej = F I F-Gi Rb¨ m„ó g›`b = a GLv‡b, v = 0
Avgiv cvB, v2 = v02 - 2as ... .... (i) v0 = 8ms-1
 mgxKiY (i) n‡Z cvB, m = 147 kg
s = 49 m
m( v 0  v 2 )
2
F = ma =
2s
m( v 0  v 2 )
2
F = ma =
2s
{(8ms1 ) 2  0}
= 147 kg = 96 N
2  49m
 Nl©Y ej, F = 96 N Ges 2 sec mg‡q e‡ji NvZ = F × t = 96×2= 192 N-s
4. 10 ms-1 ‡e‡M AvMZ 150 g f‡ii GKwU wµ‡KU ej‡K GKwU e¨vU w`‡q AvNvZ Kiv n‡jv| ejwU 18ms-1 ‡e‡M wd‡i
†Mj| e¨v‡U-e‡j msNv‡Zi ¯’vwqZ¡Kvj 0.01 s n‡j e¨vU Øviv wµ‡KU e‡ji Ici cÖhy³ Mo e‡ji gvb †ei Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, & GLv‡b,
F×t = mv - mu Avw`‡eM, v0 = 10 ms-1
m( v  u ) wµ‡KU e‡ji fi, m = 150 g
F=
t = 0.150 kg
0.15  (18  10) ‡kl †eM, v = 18 ms-1
= = -420 N
.01
Mo †eM, F = ?
 |F| = 420 N

29
AwfKl©xq Z¡i‡Yi cwieZ©b
Variation of acceleration due to gravity
gnvKl© m~Î †_‡K †R‡bwQ †h, AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb (g) fi (m) Gi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| g-Gi gvb f‚‡K›`ª n‡Z IB
¯’v‡bi `~i‡Z¡i Ici wbf©i K‡i| GwU n‡Z GB wm×v‡šÍ DcbxZ n‡Z cvwi †h, f‚c„‡ô †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b g Gi gvb wbw`©ó, wKš‘
¯’vb‡f‡` Gi cwieZ©b N‡U, c„w_exi fi M = 5.983×1024 kg Ges e¨vmva© R = 6.36×106m a‡i f‚c„‡ô g-Gi gvb
nq,
GM
g=
R2
6.67  1011 Nm2 kg2  5.983 1024 kg
ev, g =
(6.36  106 m) 2
 g = 9.8465 ms-2
c„w_exi c„‡ô g-Gi gvb †ewk nq| Avevi †giæ AÂj A‡cÿv welye A‡j Kg nq| c„w_exi †K‡›`ª k~b¨ nq| Avevi
c„w_exi c„‡ô I Puv‡`i c„‡ô AwfKl©xq Z¡i‡Yi gv‡bi AbycvZ 81 : 16 Ges Gi IR‡bi AbycvZI 81 : 16.
AwfKl©R Z¡iY g aªæeK bq| wZbwU Kvi‡Y AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi cwieZ©b N‡U|
(1) D”PZvi wµqv (Altitude effect)
(2) Aÿvsk wµqv ev AvK…wZ wµqv (Latitude effect or effect of shape)
(3) c„w_exi N~Y©b wµqv ev c„w_exi AvwýK MwZ wµqv (Rotational effect of the earth or effect or diurnal
rotation of the earth)
(1) D”PZvi wµqv (Altitude effect): c„w_exi †K›`ª n‡Z †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡bi `~i‡Z¡i ZviZg¨ †f‡` AwfKl©R Z¡iY 'g' Gi
gv‡bi cwieZ©b N‡U| GwU Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z n‡j wZbwU welq Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z nq; h_v-
K. †Kv‡bv e¯‘ c„w_ex c„‡ô Aew¯’Z: hw` 'M' fi Ges 'R' e¨vmva©wewkó †Kv‡bv e¯‘ c„w_ex c„‡ô Ae¯’vb K‡i| Z‡e IB
e¯‘i Ici Z_v f‚c„‡ô,
G 4 4
g= 2
 R3 = GR
R 3 3
4 4
 g= GR ... ... ... (6.13) (M = V = R3)
3 3
4
GLv‡b,  = c„w_exi Dcv`v‡bi Mo NbZ¡ I R3 = c„w_exi AvqZb|
3
nv‡Z-Kj‡g KvR: `vwR©wjs G †Kv‡bv wRwbm w¯úªs Zzjvq †g‡c †Kbv jvfRbK bvwK mvaviY Zzjvq †g‡c †Kbv jvfRbK?
`vwR©wjs mgy`ª c„‡ô †_‡K A‡bK Ic‡i Aew¯’Z e‡j g -Gi gvb wKQzUv Kg| GB Ávb Kv‡R jvMvI|
L. ‡Kv‡bv e¯‘ c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z Ic‡i Aew¯’Z: g‡b Kwi M c„w_exi fi Ges R Zvi
e¨vmva©| hw` e¯‘ c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq Ae¯’vb K‡i| Z‡e IB e¯‘i Ici Z_v f‚c„ô n‡Z
h D”PZvq AwfKl©xq Z¡iY,
M
gh = G .... ... ... ... (6.14)
(R  h )2
M
Avgiv Rvwb, f‚c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY g = G | AZGe †`Lv hvq †h, GB
R2
mgxKiY A‡cÿv mgxKiY (6.14) Gi n‡ii gvb †ewk| Kv‡RB fvMdj A_©vr AwfKl©xq Z¡iY
Gi gvb Kg n‡e| AZGe c„w_ex c„ô A‡cÿv Ic‡i AwfKl©xq Z¡iY-Gi gvb Kg n‡e Ges

30
`~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨¯Ívbycv‡Z cwiewZ©Z n‡e| myZivs `~iZ¡ evo‡j AwfKl©xq Z¡iY Gi gvb Kg‡e Ges `~iZ¡ Kg‡j AwfKl©xq
Z¡iY-Gi gvb evo‡e| GB Kvi‡Y cvnv‡oi Dci AwfKl©xq Z¡iY Gi gvb c„w_ex c„‡ô AwfKl©xq Z¡iY Gi gvb A‡cÿv Kg
nq|

mgxKiY (6.14) ‡K mgxKiY (6.12) Øviv fvM K‡i cvIqv hvq,

gh GM R2
= ×
g (R  h ) 2 GM

gh R2 1
ev, = =
g (R  h ) 2
 h
2

1  
 R
2
 h g 2h
= 1   h < < n‡j, h = 1 
 R g R
A_©vr, gh < g| myZivs ejv hvq h D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb f‚c„‡ôi Z¡i‡Yi gvb A‡cÿv Kg|
M. ‡Kv‡bv e¯‘ c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z wb‡P Aew¯’Z: g‡b Kwi c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z h `~iZ¡ wb‡P B we›`y‡Z †Kv‡bv e¯‘ Av‡Q Ges IB
¯’v‡b AwfKl©xq Z¡iY g'h| B we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z †h †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici f‚-‡K›`ª O Gi w`‡K c„w_exi AvKl©Y (R-h)
e¨vmva©wewkó AB ‡Mvj‡Ki AvKl©‡Yi mgvb| IB †Mvj‡Ki evB‡i Ask e¯‘i Ici Kvh©Ki †Kv‡bv AvKl©Y cÖ‡qvM
K‡i bv|
4
GLb OB ‡Mvj‡Ki AvqZb =  (R - H)3
3
OB ‡Mvj‡Ki fi M' ai‡j,
4
M' = AvqZb × NbZ¡ = (R - h)3 × 
3
GM
g'h =
(R  h ) 2

4 (R  h ) 3 
=G× 
3 (R  h ) 2
4
ev, g'h = G(R - h) ... ... .... (6.16)
3
ev, gh = k (R-h) ...... ... ... (6.17)
mgxKiY (6.16) ‡K mgxKiY (6.13) Øviv fvM K‡i cvIqv hvq
4
G (R  h )
g h 3
=
g 4
GR 
3
gh R  h  h
ev,  = 1  
g R  R
 h
 g'h = g 1   ... ... ... (6.18)
 R
A_©vr g'h < g| myZivs h Mfx‡i AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb f‚c„‡ôi Z¡i‡Yi gvb A‡cÿv Kg|

31
 Ic‡ii mgxKiY Abymv‡i h-Gi gvb hZ evo‡e, (R-h) Gi gvb ZZ Kg‡e| AZGe, c„w_exi hZ †fZ‡ii w`K hvIqv
hv‡e, AwfKl©xq Z¡iY-Gi gvb ZZB Kg‡e|
Avevi f‚‡K›`ª n‡Z f‚c„‡ôi w`‡K AwfKl©xq Z¡iY `~i‡Z¡i mgvbycv‡Z e„w× cvq| A_©vr †K›`ª n‡Z c„‡ôi w`‡K hZB hvIqv
hvq ZZB AwfKl©R Z¡iY e„w× cvq| Gfv‡e †h‡Z †h‡Z hw` f‚-‡K‡›`ª †cuŠQv hvq Z‡e h-Gi gvb R-Gi mgvb n‡e| A_©vr
h = R nq|
AZGe, f‚‡K‡›`ª, S'h = k (R-R) ev, S'h = 0 ... ... .. ... (6.19)
myZivs c„w_exi Af¨šÍ‡i, †hgb †Kv‡bv Lwbi †fZ‡i g -Gi gvb f‚-c„‡ô g-Gi gvb A‡cÿv Kg nq|
wm×všÍ: f‚c„‡ôi Ic‡i †M‡j 'g'-Gi gvb K‡g, Avevi c„w_exi Af¨šÍ‡i †M‡j 'g' Gi gvb K‡g| c„w_exi †K‡›`ª †Kv‡bv
AvKl©Y †bB| myZivs c„w_exi †K‡›`ª 'g' Gi gvb k~b¨ Ges f‚-c„‡ôB 'g' Gi gvb me©v‡cÿv †ewk|
hvPvB Ki: GKwU `vjv‡bi Qv‡` I‡V GKwU ej‡K Ic‡ii w`‡K Ges Ab¨ GKwU ej‡K wb‡Pi w`‡K GKB †e‡M †Quvov
n‡jv| †Kvb ejwU AwaK MwZ‡e‡M gvwU‡Z co‡e? e¨vL¨v Ki|
wnmve Ki: f‚c„ô †_‡K KZ DuPz‡Z †M‡j †mLvbKvi AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb f‚c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gv‡bi kZKiv GKvwk
fvM n‡e? c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6.4×106m.
GM GM
f‚-c„‡ô g = Ges f‚-c„ô †_‡K h D”PZvq, g' =
R 2
(R  h ) 2

g  R 
2
  
g Rh
2
g1  R  9  R 
ev, =  ev, =  
100  R  h  10  R  h 
9  R 
ev, 9R + 9h = 10R ev, = 
10  R  h 
ev, 9R + 9h + 10R ev, 9h = 10R - 9R = R
R 6.4  106
h=  = 0.71×106m
9 9
MvwYwZK D`vniY:
1. c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq Ges c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z d MfxiZvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb mgvb| d Gi mv‡c‡ÿ h - Gi gvb
wbY©q Ki|
 2h 
Avgiv Rvwb, f‚c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq, gh = g 1  
 R
 d
Ges f‚c„ô n‡Z d MfxiZvq, gd = g 1  
 R
cÖkvœ bymv‡i, gh = gd
 2h   d
 g 1   = g 1  
 R  R

32
 2h d
ev, 1 - =1 
R R
2h d d
ev,  ev, 2h = d h=
R R 2
2. c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6.4×106m Ges c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY 9.8 ms-2| f‚-c„ô †_‡K 6.4×105m D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi
gvb †ei Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, R = 6.4×106m
GM h = 6.4×105m
c„w_ex c„‡ô, g = .... ... .... (i)
R2 g = 9.8 ms-2
Ges c„w_ex c„ô †_‡K h D”PZvq,
GM
g'  ... ... ... (ii)
(R  h ) 2
mgxKiY (i) I (ii) ‡_‡K cvB,
GM
g  (R  h ) 2 R2
= =
g GM (R  h ) 2
2
R
R2
ev, g' = g
(R  h 2 )

(6.4  106 ) 2
 g' = ×9.8 = 8.099 ms-2
(6.4  10  6.4  10 )
6 5 2

 2h   2  6.4  105 
weKí: g' = g 1   = 9.8 1   = 8.099 ms-2
 R  6 
6.4  10 

3. f‚c„‡ôi 2 km E‡aŸ© AwfKl©R Z¡iY KZ n‡e? (c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6400 km, f‚c„‡ô g -Gi gvb 9.8 ms-2|

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b

R - Gi Zzjbvq h AZ¨šÍ ÿz`ª| e¨vmva©, R = 6400 km = 64×105m
 Avgiv cvB, D”PZv, h = 2km = 0.02 × 105m
 2h   2  0.02  105  g = 9.8 ms-2
g' = g 1   = 9.8 1  
 R  64  105  g' = ?

 0.04   64  0.04 
= 9.8 1   = 9.8  
 64   64 
63.96
= 9.8 × = 9.7938 ms-2
64

4. c„w_ex‡K 6400 km e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU †MvjK ai‡j f‚c„‡ô n‡Z KZ D”PZvq AwfKl©xq Z¡i‡Yi gvb f‚c„‡ôi AwfKl©xq
1
Z¡i‡Yi gv‡bi Ask n‡e?
64
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
c„w_exi e¨vmva©, R = 6400 km

33
 GM = 6400 × 103m
g= ... .... ... (i)
R2 = 6.4×106m
GM f‚c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY = g
h D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g'  ... .. .(ii)
(R  h ) 2
g
h D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g' =
mgxKiY (i) I (ii) n‡Z cvB, 64
g GM R2  R 
2 c„w_exi fi = M
 × = 
g (R  h ) 2 GM  R  h  D”PZv, h = ?
2
g / 64  R 
ev, = 
g Rh
2
1  R 
ev, = 
64  R  h 
2
Rh
ev,   = 64 = g2
 R 
Rh
ev, =g
R
h
1+ =g
R
h
=g-1=7
R
 h = 7R = 7 × 6.4 × 106 = 44.8×106m
= 4.48×104 km

2. Aÿvsk wµqv ev AvK…wZ wµqv (Latitude effect or effect of shape):

c„w_ex m¤ú~Y© †MvjvKvi bq; DËi-`wÿY wKQzUv Pvcv Ges wbiÿxq A‡j wKQzUv ùxZ, A_©vr c„w_ex AvK…wZ‡Z n«¯^vÿ
Dc‡MvjK (oblate spheriod)| c„w_exi †giæ-e¨vmv‡a©i (polar radius) †P‡q wbiÿxq-e¨vmva© (equational radius)
cÖvq 22km †ewk| f~-c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb c„w_exi †K›`ª †_‡K `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK e‡j †giæ A‡j g-Gi
gvb m‡e©v”P Ges wbiÿxq A‡j me©wb¤œ nq| KviY Ab¨ †h‡Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b g-Gi gvb GB `ywU cÖvwšÍK gv‡bi g‡a¨ _v‡K|
3. c„w_exi N~Y©b wµqv ev c„w_exi AvwýK MwZ wµqv (Rotational effect of the earth or effect of diurnal
rotation of the earth):
c„w_ex wbR A‡ÿi Pviw`‡K Nyi‡Q e‡j GKgvÎ `ywU ‡giæ‡Z Aew¯’Z e¯‘ Qvov f‚-c„‡ôi Ab¨ me e¯‘B e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Q|
e„ËvKvi c_¸wji †K›`ª c„w_exi A‡ÿi Ici _v‡K| G Kvi‡Y e¯‘¸wji Dci Ac‡K›`ª ej wµqv K‡i| GB e‡ji gvb
wbiÿ‡iLvq Aew¯’Z e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î m‡e©v”P m‡e©v”P Ges `ywU †giæi †ÿ‡Î k~b¨ nq| GB ej AwfK‡l©i wecixZ Awfgy‡L wµqv
Kivq e¯‘i IR‡bi AvcvZ n«vm nq|
g‡b Kwi m f‡ii †Kv‡bv e¯‘ f‚-c„‡ô  Aÿvs‡k A we›`y‡Z Av‡Q| c„w_ex †KŠwYK †e‡M wbR Aÿ NS-Gi Pviw`‡K Nyi‡Q
e‡j| H e¯‘  †KŠwYK †e‡M AB = r e¨vmv‡a©i e„Ëc‡_ †Nv‡i| c„w_exi e¨vmva© R n‡j r = R cos | GB N~Y©‡bi Rb¨
e¯‘i Dci AC Awfgy‡L Ac‡K›`ª ej m2r wµqv K‡i| AwfK‡l©i Rb¨ e¯‘i Ici F = mg ej c„w_exi †K›`ª A_©vr
AO Awfgy‡L wµqv K‡i| e¯‘i Ici wµqvkxj Ac‡K›`ª ej D Awfgy‡L A_©vr AwfK‡l©i wecixZ w`‡K wµqv K‡i| Gi
Dcvsk n‡jv m2r cos| AZGe, A we›`y‡Z AwfKl©R Z¡iY g' n‡j A we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z e¯‘i AvcvZ IRb,
mg' = mg - m2rcos

34
 = mg - m2Rcos2 [r = R cos]
GLv‡b, 2R cos2 = AwfKl©R Z¡iY n«v‡mi gvb|
A we›`y‡Z AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb g' n‡j e¯‘wUi AvcvZ IRb nq mg'.
A we›`y‡Z AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb g' n‡j e¯‘wUi AvcvZ GLv‡b,
IRb nq mg' =
2
T
 2 R cos2  
AZGe g' = g 1   ... (6.20)
 T = c„w_exi wbR A‡ÿi Dci AveZ©bKvj
 g 
= 24 N›Uv
wbiÿ‡iLvq  = 0°; Kv‡RB cos = 1
 2 R 
 g' = g 1   = g - 2R .... .... .... (6.21)

 g 
A_©vr wbiÿ‡iLv‡Z AwfKl©R Z¡iY c„w_ex c„ô †_‡K Kg|
Avevi, †giæ we›`y‡Z  = 90°; Kv‡RB cos = 0; g' = g| A_©vr †giæ Ges f‚c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb Avevi, †giæ
we›`y‡Z  = 90°; Kv‡RB cos = 0;  g' = g| A_©vr †giæ Ges f‚c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb Avevi, †giæ we›`y‡Z 
= 90°; Kv‡RB cos = 0;  g' = g| A_©vr †giæ Ges f‚c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb GKB|
myZivs c„w_exi wbR A‡ÿi Pviw`‡K N~Y©‡bi `iæb g-Gi gvb cwiewZ©Z nq| wbiÿ‡iLvq g-Gi gvb me©wb¤œ Ges `ywU
†giæ‡Z m‡e©v”P nq| Ab¨vb¨ ¯’v‡b g-Gi gvb GB `ywU cÖvwšÍK gv‡bi g‡a¨ _v‡K| ¯úóZ c„w_exi AvK…wZ I AvwýK MwZi
`iæb g-Gi gv‡bi GKB ai‡Yi cwieZ©b nq|

c~‡e©i Av‡jvPbv Ges cixÿvjä djvdj n‡Z g-Gi gvb m¤ú‡K© Avgiv wb¤œwjwLZ wm×všÍ wb‡Z cvwi|
1. c„w_exi c„ô n‡Z Ici w`‡K DV‡j Gi gvb K‡g|
2. c„w_exi Af¨šÍ‡i bvg‡j Gi gvb K‡g|
3. welye AÂj n‡Z †giæ A‡j AMÖmi n‡j Gi gvb ev‡o|
4. N~Y©bRwbZ Kvi‡Y †giæ A‡j Gi gvb Aí K‡g, wKš‘ welyexq A‡j †ewk K‡g|
5. ‡giæ‡Z g Gi gvb = 9.832 ms-2; welye A‡j g Gi gvb = 9.780 ms-2|
[XvKvq g Gi gvb = 9.7835 ms-2; ivRkvnx‡Z g Gi gvb = 9.790 ms-2]
6. f‚-c„‡ô g Gi gvb wewfbœ ¯’v‡b wewfbœ e‡j mgy`ª c„‡ô Ges 45° Aÿvs‡k g-Gi gvb‡K Av`k© gvb aiv nq| g Gi
Av`k© ev e¨envwiK gvb = 9.81 ms-2|
7. g Gi gvb †R‡b c„w_exi Mo NbZ¡ m¤^‡Ü aviv jvf Kiv hvq|
8. c„w_exi wbR A‡ÿi Ici AveZ©bKvj 24 N›Uv|
9. wbiÿxq A‡j Gi gvb me©wb¤œ, †giæ‡Z me©vwaK|
e¨vL¨v Ki: GKwU hvÎxc~Y© †bŠKvi hvÎx‡`i `uvov‡Z wb‡la Kiv nq †Kb?
hvÎxiv emv Ae¯’vq †bŠKvi fvi‡K›`ª †hLv‡b Aew¯’Z _v‡K hvÎxiv `uvov‡j IB Ae¯’vq Zv wKQzUv Ic‡i I‡V hvq weavq
hvÎxc~Y© †bŠKv Aw¯’i mvg¨ve¯’vq †cuŠQvq| G‡Z †bŠKvwU D‡ë †h‡Z cv‡i, ZvB hvÎx‡`i `uvov‡Z wb‡la Kiv nq|
AbymÜvb: †Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y c„w_exi AveZ©b eÜ n‡j wbiÿxq †iLvq Aew¯’Z †Kv‡bv e¯‘i IR‡bi Kxiƒc cwieZ©b n‡e? e¨vL¨v
Ki|
wbiÿ‡iLvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb, g' = g - 2R| GLv‡b g = c„w_ex c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY,  = c„w_exi †KŠwYK †eM|
myZivs, c„w_exi AvwýK MwZi Rb¨ wbiÿxq †iLvq Aew¯’Z †Kv‡bv e¯‘i IRb,

35
 W = W' = mr2R
GLb c„w_exi AveZ©b eÜ n‡q †M‡j,  = 0 nq| AZGe, W' = W|
G‡ÿ‡Î e¯‘i IRb e„w× W = m2R|
AZGe, IR‡bi kZKiv e„w×,
2
W m2 R  2  R
 100 =  100 =   × × 100
W mg  T  g
4 2 6400 103
= × × 100
(24  60  60) 2 9.8
A_©vr e¯‘wUi AvcvZ IRb 0.3465% e„w× cv‡e|

MvwYwZK D`vniY:
1. c„w_exi AvwýK MwZi †KŠwYK `ªæwZ 7.3×10-3 rad s-1| c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6400km Ges †giæ A‡j AwfKl©R Z¡iY 9.8
ms-2 n‡j, welye †iLvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
g' = g -  R2 ‡giæ A‡j AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2
= 9.8 - (7.3×10-5)2 × 6.4 × 106 ‡KŠwYK `ªæwZ,  = 7.3×10-5rads-4
= 976 ms-2 c„w_exi e¨vmva©, R = 6400 km = 6.4×104m
welye A‡j AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g' = ?
2. XvKvi Aÿvsk 23° DËi| AvwýK MwZ bv _vK‡j XvKvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb KZUzKz e„w× †cZ? (c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6400
km)
g' =g (1 - 2R cos2) GLv‡b, †`Iqv Av‡Q,
 g' = g - g2R cos2 XvKvi Aÿvsk,  = 23°
g - g' = 2R cos2 c„w_exi e¨vmva©, R = 6400 m = 6.4×106 m
wKš‘ c„w_exi †KŠwYK †eM, AvwýK MwZi Abycw¯’wZ‡Z AwfKl©R
2 2  3.14 Z¡i‡Yi e„w×, g - g' = ?
= = = 7.269×10-5 rads-1
T 86400s
 g - g' = (7.269 × 10-5)2 × 6.4×10-6 cos223°
= 0.0286 ms-2

KvR: c„w_exi ‡K›`ª †_‡K AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb Ges `~i‡Z¡i †jLwPÎwU Kxiƒc n‡e?
c„w_exi evB‡i AwfKl©R Z¡iY c„w_exi †K›`ª †_‡K `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK| AwfKl©R Z¡iY c„w_ex Avi c„w_exi †fZ‡i
†K›`ª †_‡K `~i‡Z¡i mgvbycvwZK| c„w_exi †K‡›`ª AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb k~b¨| AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi cwieZ©b †jLwP‡Î|

gnvk~b¨Pvixi IRbnxbZv

36
Weightlessness of an astronaut
‡Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici c„w_exi AvKl©Y ejB e¯‘i IRb| hw` †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici c„w_exi AvKl©Y ej gvb _v‡K Zvn‡jB e¯‘
IRbnxb n‡e| c„w_exi †K‡›`ª ev c„w_exi †_‡K Amx‡g ev Puv` ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv MÖn Ges c„w_ex gv‡S †hLv‡b †Kv‡bv e¯‘i
Ici c„w_exi AvKl©Y _v‡K bv| A_©vr †hLv‡b g = 0 nq †mLv‡b e¯‘ IRbnxb nq c„w_ex‡Z †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici hLb Zvi
IR‡bi mgvb I wecixZgywL †Kv‡bv cÖwZwµqv ej cÖhy³ nq ZLbB Zv GK Abyfe K‡i|

gnvk~b¨Pvixiv gnvk~b¨hv‡b K‡i c„w_ex‡K GKUv wbw`©ó D”PZvq e„ËvKvi Kÿc‡_ cÖ`wÿY K‡ib| d‡j e„ËvKvi MwZi Rb¨
gnvk~b¨ hv‡bi c„w_exi †K‡›`ªi w`‡K IB D”PZvq g-Gi gv‡bi mgvb GKwU Z¡iY nq| G Ae¯’vq gnvk~b¨hv‡bi †`Iqv‡ji
mv‡c‡ÿ gnvk~b¨Pvixi Z¡iY (g-g) = 0 nq Ges gnvk~b¨Pvix gnvk~b¨hv‡bi †`Iqv‡ji ev †g‡S‡Z †Kv‡bv ej cÖ‡qvM K‡ib
bv| d‡j wZwb Zvi IR‡bi wecixZ †Kv‡bv cÖwZwµqv ejI Abyfe K‡ib bv| ZvB wZwb IRbnxbZv Abyfe K‡ib| GB
Ae¯’vq gnvk~b¨Pvix gnvk~b¨ †_‡K bv c‡o `uvwo‡q _vK‡eb|
gnvk~b¨Pvixi fi _vKvq Ges IB ¯’v‡b AwfKl©R Z¡iY _vKvq IRb _v‡K| wKš‘ hLb gnvk~b¨hv‡b g Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj nq
ZLb gnvk~b¨Pvix IRbnxbZv Abyfe K‡ib|
K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni gva¨‡g †gvevBj †dvb, †Uwj‡dvb Ges B›Uvi‡bU Z_¨ †cÖiY cÖhyw³
Technology of transmitting of information in mobile phone, telephone and internet
through artifical satellite
f‚w¯’i DcMÖn †hvMv‡hvM e¨e¯’vq eûjfv‡e e¨eüZ nq| G‡K ejv
nq SYNCOM Satellite (Synchronous
communication Satellite)| †Uwjwfkb ms‡KZ, †Uwj‡dvb
K_‡cvK_b, †eZvi ms‡KZ BZ¨vw` G DcMÖn Øviv cÖwZdwjZ n‡q
c„w_ex‡Z wd‡i Av‡m, d‡j wewfbœ †`k I `~i‡Z¡i m‡½ †hvMv‡hvM
¯’vcb Kiv mnR nq|
g~jbxwZ: ‡cÖiK hš¿ †hgb †gvevBj †Kvb, B›Uvi‡bU, †Uwj‡dvb
†_‡K ˆe`y¨wZK ms‡KZ‡K cÖ_‡g †cÖiY Kiv nq g‡Wg bvgK hš¿|
c‡i g‡Wj †_‡K ‰e`y¨wZK m‡¼Z B‡jK‡Uªv g¨vM‡bwUK A¨v‡›Ubv‡Z| DcMÖ‡ni A¨v‡›Ubv †_‡K B‡jK‡Uªv g¨vM‡bwUK Zi½
†cÖiYv Kiv nq g‡W‡g| †mB g‡Wg †_‡K cybivq MÖvnK h‡š¿ A_©vr hvi mv‡_ †hvMv‡hvM ¯’vcb Ki‡Z PvB †mB h‡š¿
(‡gvevBj, †Uwj‡dvb, Kw¤úDUv‡i) †cuŠ‡Q| cÖwµqvwU cÖvq ZvrÿwYK N‡U| Av`vb-cÖ`v‡b GB cÖhyw³ e¨eüZ nq|
‡cvjvi DcMÖn: Avi GK ai‡Yi DcMÖn i‡q‡Q| G‡`i‡K ejv nq †cvjvi DcMÖn (Polar Satellite)| GB DcMÖn¸‡jv Lye
Kg D”PZvq (mvaviYZ 500km ‡_‡K 800 km Gi g‡a¨) Dr‡ÿcY Kiv nq| DËi `wÿ‡Y GB DcMÖn AvewZ©Z nq| f‚ -
c„‡ôi LwbR m¤ú` A‡š^lY, ebR, K…wlR Ges mvgyw`ªK m¤ú` A‡š^l‡Y GB DcMÖn e¨eüZ nq| wewfbœ †`‡ki ‡Uwjwfkb
Abyôv‡b †`L‡Z, B-‡gBj, d¨v·, I‡qemvBU eªvDR Ki‡Z K…wÎg DcMÖn ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f‚wgKv cvjb K‡i| K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni Rb¨
†`k we‡`‡ki mv‡_ †hvMv‡hvM iÿv Kiv m¤¢e I mnR n‡q‡Q|

K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni †eM, ch©vqKvj Ges D”PZv wbY©q

Determination of velocity, time period and height of an articial satellite
K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni †eM: g‡b Kwi, f‚-c„ô n‡Z GKwU f‚-w¯’i DcMÖ‡ni D”PZv, h, c„w_exi e¨vmva© R n‡j IB DcMÖ‡ni
Kÿc‡_i e¨vmva© r = R + h| c„w_exi gnvKl©xq AvKl©Y DcMÖnwUi AveZ©‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq Awf‡K›`ª ej †hvM`vb †`q|
GMm mu 2
myZivs DcMÖnwUi †eM v n‡j, = |
r2 r

37
GLv‡b, M I m n‡jv h_vµ‡g c„w_ex Ges DcMÖ‡ni fi|
GM
 v2 = ... .... ... (6.38)
r
GM GM
ev, v = = .... ... ... (6.39)
r Rh
K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni ch©vqKvj: DcMÖnwUi ch©vqKvj T n‡j A_©vr f‚-c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq †_‡K c„w_exi m¤ú~Y© GKevi cÖ`wÿY
Ki‡Z T mgq jvM‡j
e„‡Ëi e¨vmva©
T = ‰iwLK †eM

2r 2(R  h )
= = = [ r = R + h]
v v
2(R  h )
ev, v =
T
GM
Avevi, v = (mgxKiY 6.39 Abymv‡i)
(R  h )

2(R  h ) GM
 =
T (R  h )

Rh
ev, T = 2 (R + h)
GM
K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni D”PZv: g‡b Kwi c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni D”PZv = h mgxKiY (6.40) Gi Dfq cv‡k eM© K‡i
cvB,
4 2 ( R  h ) 2
 T2 =
GM
GMT 2
ev, (R+h)3 =
4 2
1
 GMT 2  3
 h =  2 
  R ... .... ... (6.41)
 4r 
hvPvB Ki: g‡b Ki GKB Kÿ c‡_ `ywU DcMÖn‡K ‡cÖiY Kiv n‡jv| GKwUi fi AciwUi wظY| Zvn‡j wظY fiwewkó
DcMÖ‡ni AveZ©bKv‡ji †Kv‡bviƒc cwieZ©b n‡e Kx? - e¨vL¨v Ki|
f‚-c„‡ôi Lye wbK‡U AveZ©biZ DcMÖn: hw` †Kv‡bv K…wÎg DcMÖn f‚-c„‡ôi Lye wbK‡U _v‡K A_©vr R Gi Zzjbvq h Lye †QvU
n‡j, †hme DcMÖn c„w_ex‡K e„nËi e¨vmv‡a©i Kÿc‡_ cÖ`wÿY K‡i, Zv‡`i AveZ©bKvj †ewk nq Ges Kg †e‡M IB
Kÿc‡_ †Kv‡bv K…wÎg DcMÖn‡K ¯’vcb Ki‡j DcMÖnwU IB Kÿc‡_ ¯’vqxfv‡e c„w_ex‡K cÖ`wÿY Ki‡Z cvi‡e bv Ges
f‚c„‡ô †b‡g Avm‡e|
cvwK©s Kÿc‡_i D”PZv I f‚w¯’i DcMÖ‡ni cÖ`wÿY ‡eM
Height of parking orbit and orbital velocity of a geostationary satellite
g‡b Kwi c„w_exi fi M Ges e¨vmva© R, c„w_ex c„ô n‡Z f‚-w¯’i DcMÖ‡ni D”PZv h, f‚-w¯’i DcMÖnwUi fi m, cÖ`wÿY †eM
v Ges cÖ`wÿYKvj T|

38
myZivs c„w_exi †K›`ª †_‡K f‚-w¯’i DcMÖnwUi `~iZ¡, r = R + h
GLb, gnvKl©xq AvKl©Y ej †h‡nZz DcMÖnwUi AveZ©‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq Awf‡K›`ª ej mieivn K‡i, ZvB
mv2 GMm
=
r r2
GM
ev, r2 = ... ... ... (6.42)
r
Avevi, Avgiv Rvwb, AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
GM
g=
R2
mgxKiY (6.42) G GB gvb ewm‡q cvB,
gR 2
v2 =
r
gR 2
v = ... ... .. (6.43)
r
AZGe, cÖ`wÿYKvj,
2 2 r gR 2
T= = 2r
v

r3
= 2 ... ... ... (6.44)
gR 2

r3
ev, T2 = 42
gR 2
DcMÖnwUi Kÿc‡_i e¨vmva©, r
1
 T 2 gR 2  3
r =  2 
 .... .... ... (6.45)
 4 
myZivs, f‚-w¯’i DcMÖ‡ni D”PZv,
h=r-R
1
 T 2 gR 2  3
=  2 
  R ... ... .... (6.46)
 4 
GLb, f‚w¯’i DcMÖ‡ni ch©vqKvj ev cÖ`wÿY Kvj,
T = 24 hrs = 24×60×60 s = 86400 s
g = 9.81 ms-2

39
R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106m
GB gvb¸wj mgxKiY (6.45) G ewm‡q cvB,
1
 (86400) 2  9.81 (6.4  106 ) 2  3
r=  
 4  9.87 
= 4.235×107 m (cÖvq)
= 42350 km
mgxKiY (6.46) G r Ges R - Gi gvb ewm‡q wbiÿ‡iLv †_‡K cvwK©s Kÿc‡_i D”PZv,
h = r - R = (42350 - 6400) km
= 35950 km ev, = 36000 km
f‚-w¯’i DcMÖ‡ni cÖ`wÿY ‡eM,
2r 2  3.14  4235 107
v= =
T 86400
= 3081 ms-1  3.08 kms-1
GB cÖ`wÿY †e‡Mi gvb c„w_exi gyw³‡eM (11.2 kms-1) ev f‚-c„‡ôi wbK‡U AveZ©biZ K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni cÖ`wÿY †eM (7.9
kms-1) Gi gv‡bi †P‡q A‡bK Kg|

40
 KvR, ¶gZv I kw³
cwieZ©bkxj ej Øviv K…ZKvR
Work done by a variable force
msÁv: †h e‡ji gv‡bi I w`‡Ki A_ev †h †Kv‡bv GKwUi cwieZ©b nq Zv-B cwieZ©bkxj ej| †hgb GKwU w¯úªs‡K †U‡b
j¤^v Ki‡j ev msKzwPZ Ki‡j †h KvR n‡e Zv‡K cwieZ©bkxj ej Øviv KvR eySvq| Avevi gnvKl©xq †ÿ‡Î †Kv‡bv e¯‘i
¯’vb cwieZ©bI cwieZ©bkxj ej Øviv KvR eySvq|
¯^í D”PZvq e‡ji cwieZ©b LyeB bMY¨| wKš‘ c„w_ex c„‡ôi †ek Ic‡ii w`‡K wKsev wb‡Pi w`‡K AwfKl©xq e‡ji gvb
Kg‡Z _v‡K| †m‡ÿ‡Î ej w¯’i (ev aªæe) aiv hvq bv| ej GKwU †f±i ivwk, myZivs Gi w`K I gvb DfqB Av‡Q| cÖ_‡g
e‡ji gvb cwieZ©bkxj we‡ePbv K‡i Avgiv wb‡¤œ K…Z Kv‡Ri mgxKiY †ei Kie|
K. e‡ji gvb hLb cwieZ©bkxj

awi †Kv‡bv GKwU cwieZ©bkxj ej F e¯‘i Ici x - Aÿ eivei wµqv Kivq e¯‘wU x -Aÿ eivei x1 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x2
Ae¯’v‡b m‡i †Mj Ges ejwU gv‡bi mv‡c‡ÿ cwieZ©x| GB cwieZ©x ej Øviv e¯‘wUi miY (x2-x1) NUv‡Z m¤úvw`Z KvR
wb‡¤œv³ Dcv‡q †ei Ki‡Z cvwi|
GLb †gvU miY (x2 - x1) †K eûmsL¨K AwZ ÿz`ª ÿz`ª mggv‡bi miY x - G wef³ Kiv n‡jv| d‡j cÖwZwU ÿz`ª mi‡Yi
ïiæ‡Z e¯‘i Ici †h ej wµqv K‡i IB e‡ji wµqv‡ZB IB miY msNwUZ n‡q‡Q we‡ePbv Kiv hvq| cÖwZwU ÿz`ª As‡k
wµqviZ ej wfbœ wfbœ gv‡bi| myZivs x1 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x1 + x ch©šÍ ÿz`ª mi‡Yi †ÿ‡Î F1 ej wµqvkxj n‡j KvR,
W1 = F1x

‡gvU miY (x2 - x1) ‡K hw` Giƒc N mgmsL¨K ÿz`ª miY x -G wef³ Kiv nq Z‡e †gvU KvR n‡e GB ÿz`ª ÿz`ª As‡ki
mi‡Yi Rb¨ Kv‡Ri mgwói mgvb|
 K…ZKvR, W = W1 + W2 + W3 + ..... + WN
= F1x + F2x + F3x + ...... FNx
N
= 
k l
Fkx

jÿYxq †h cÖwZwU ÿz`ª Ask x G e‡ji gvb aªæe aiv n‡q‡Q| wKš‘ GUv m¤úyY© mwVK bq| IB cÖwZwU ÿz`ª Ask‡K hw`
AviI ÿz`ª ÿz`ª As‡k fvM Kwi| Ges AwZ ÿz`ª As‡ki Rb¨ ej w¯’i (ev aªæeK) awi, Z‡e K…Z Kv‡Ri gvb AviI mwVK
n‡e| Gfv‡e ÿz`ª Ask AviI ÿz`ª A_©vr x hw` cÖvq k~‡b¨i KvQvKvwQ nq Ges wef³ As‡ki msL¨v N-‡K Amxg Kiv nq
Z‡e mwVK gvb cvIqv hv‡e| AZGe, Kv‡Ri mwVK gvb †jLv hvq
W = Lt v
x  0
K¨vjKzjv‡mi fvlvq,
N


x2

Lt Fk x = F( x )dx
x  0 k 1
x1

41
 x2
W= x1
F( x )dx ..... ...... ... ( 5.15)

= x1 I x2 mxgvi g‡a¨ Ave× †jLwP‡Îi †ÿÎdj

ej I mi‡Yi ga¨eZ©x †KvY  n‡j

  x2 
W=  F .d x =  x1
F cos dx F cos n‡”Q X-Aÿ eivei ej F Gi Dcvsk

L. e‡ji gvb I w`K DfqB hLb cwieZ©bkxj

ej gv‡b I Awfgy‡L cwieZ©bkxj n‡j IB e‡ji wµhvq e¯‘ GKwU †iLvq MwZkxj n‡Z cv‡i| e¯‘wUi MwZ wØgvwÎK
ev wÎgvwÎK| G †ÿ‡Î †iLvwUi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Aw¼Z ¯úk©K Øviv IB we›`y‡Z e¯‘i MwZ AwfgyL wbw`©ó n‡e| G‡ÿ‡Î

miY = r |

Kv‡RB GB cÖKvi e‡ji K…ZKvR wbY©‡q mgMÖ MwZc_‡K AwZ ÿz`ª miY d r Gi mgwó wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv hvq|
cÖ‡Z¨K ÿz`ª mi‡Yi ïiæ‡Z e¯‘i Ici †h ej F
wµqviZ _v‡K IB ej D³ mi‡Yi Rb¨ aªæe we‡ePbv Kiv hvq| awi †Kv‡bv GKwU ÿz`ª miY dr Ges IB mi‡Yi Rb¨
 
wµqviZ ej F Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY | ejwU‡K d r eivei GKwU As‡k Ges Zvi j¤^ w`‡K Aci GKwU As‡k wef³
Kwi| awi AskK `ywU h_vµ‡g
Fr = F cos Ges Fn = F sin
GB ÿz`ª mi‡Yi Rb¨ e‡ji Fn AskK KZ…©K K…Z KvR k~b¨, †Kbbv GB ÿz`ª miY I Fn Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY 90°| Zv
n‡j IB ÿz`ª mi‡Yi Rb¨ KvR
 
dW = Fdr cos = F . d r
Kv‡RB MwZc‡_i r0 Ae¯’vb n‡Z r Ae¯’v‡b ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii †ÿ‡Î KvR,
r r  
W= r0
(F cos dr ) = 
r0
F .d r .... .... .... (5.17)

L. e‡ji gvb I w`K DfqB hLb cwieZ©bkxj

ej gv‡b I Awfgy‡L cwieZ©bkxj n‡j IB e‡ji wµqvq e¯‘ GKwU †iLvq MwZkxj n‡Z cv‡i| e¯‘wUi cÖwZ wØgvwÎK
ev wÎgvwÎK| G †ÿ‡Î †iLvwUi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Aw¼Z ¯úk©K Øviv IB we›`y‡Z e¯‘i MwZ AwfgyL wbw`©ó n‡e| G‡ÿ‡Î

miY = r |

Kv‡RB GB cÖKvi e‡ji K…ZKvR wbY©‡q mgMÖ MwZc_‡K AwZ ÿz`ª ÿz`ª miY d r Gi mgwó wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv hvq|
cÖ‡Z¨K ÿz`ª mi‡Yi ïiæ‡Z e¯‘i Ici †h ej F wµqviZ _v‡K IB ej D³ mi‡Yi Rb¨ aªæe we‡ePbv Kiv hvq| awi
 
†Kv‡bv GKwU ÿz`ª miY dr Ges IB mi‡Yi Rb¨ wµqviZ ej F Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY 0| ejwU‡K d r eivei GKwU
As‡k Ges Zvi j¤^ w`‡K Aci GKwU As‡k wef³ Kwi| awi AskK `ywU h_vµ‡g
F1 = F cos  Ges Fn = F sin

42
 GB ÿz`ª mi‡Yi Rb¨ e‡ji Fn AskK KZ…©K K…ZKvR k~b¨, †Kbbv GB ÿz`ª miY I Fn Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY 90°| Zv
n‡j IB ÿz`ª mi‡Yi Rb¨ KvR
 
dW = Fdr cos  = F . d r
Kv‡RB MwZc‡_i r0 Ae¯’vb n‡Z r Ae¯’v‡b ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii †ÿ‡Î KvR,
r r  
W= r0
(F cos ) = 
r0
F .d r .... .... .... (5.17)

w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej I AwfKl©xq ej Ges m¤úvw`Z KvR

Elastic force and gravitational force and work done

w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Øviv K„ZKvR

Work done by elastic force
GKwU w¯úªs‡K †U‡b cÖmvwiZ Ki‡j g‡b nq †h, w¯úªs Avgv‡`i nvZ‡K wecixZ w`‡K Uvb‡Q| wbDU‡bi Z…Zxq m~Î †_‡K
Giƒc cÖwZwµqv e‡ji D™¢e e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq| ¯úóZ weK…Z Kivi †Póv‡K w¯úªswU evav †`q, w¯úªswU‡K †Q‡o w`‡j †mwU m‡½
m‡½ Gi cÖv_wgK ˆ`N©¨ wd‡i cvq| G‡ÿ‡Î †h e‡ji wµqvq e¯‘ c~‡e©i AvKvi ev AvqZb wd‡i †cj †mB ejB n‡jv
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej|
A_©vr w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ evB‡i †_‡K ej cÖ‡qv‡M †Kv‡bv e¯‘i AvKvi cwieZ©b NUv‡bvi ci ej AcmviY Ki‡j †h
e‡ji Kvi‡Y Zv Avevi c~‡e©i AvKvi wd‡i cvq Zv‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej e‡j|
1 2
w¯úªs‡K ej cÖ‡qv‡M x miY m„wó Ki‡j w¯úªs Øviv K…ZKvR W = kx n‡e| GLv‡b, k = w¯úªs aªæeK ev ej aªæeK|
2
Avevi ej cÖ‡qv‡M w¯úªswU‡K msKzwPZ K‡i x miY NUv‡Z K…ZKvRI GKB n‡e| A_©vr Dfq †ÿ‡Î GKB KvR n‡e| myZivs
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Øviv KvR mi‡Yi e‡M©i mgvYycvwZK A_©vr W = x2| w¯’wZ¯’vcK e‡ji wecix‡Z miY `yB ¸Y n‡j KvR Pvi
¸Y n‡e|
AwfKl©xq ej Øviv K…ZKvR
Work done by gravitatoinal force
‡Kv‡bv e¯‘‡K Ici †_‡K wb‡P bvgv‡j ev wbP †_‡K Ic‡i DVv‡j AwfKl©xq ej Øviv KvR nq| A_©vr e¯‘‡K Ic‡i DVv‡bv
ev wb‡P bvgv‡bv hv wKQz Kiv †nvK bv †Kb e¯‘ me©`v c„w_exi †K‡›`ªi w`‡K GKwU ej Øviv AvK…ó nq| c„w_exi GB AvKl©Y
ej‡K AwfKl©R ej e‡j|
c„w_exi e¨vmva© R, fi M Ges e¯‘i fi m Ges h D”PZvq e¯‘wU Zzj‡Z ev bvgv‡Z AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR n‡e W=
GMm GMm
2
 h , GLv‡b aªæe ivwk| myZivs AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR D”PZv ev mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK| A_©vr W  h|
R R2
myZivs AwfKl© e‡ji wecix‡Z miY wZb¸Y n‡j K…ZKvRI wZb¸Y n‡e|
cwieZ©bkxj ej KZ…©K K…ZKv‡Ri D`vnib
Examples of work done by varlable force
K. w¯úªs cÖmvi‡Y m¤úvw`Z KvR (ej  x) ev w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Z_v w¯úªs e‡ji wecix‡Z KvR
g‡b Kwi GKwU Abyf‚wgK Av`k© w¯úªs Gi GK cÖvšÍ †`qv‡ji mv‡_ AvUwK‡q Aci cÖv‡šÍ m f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ hy³
i‡q‡Q| e¯‘wU Abyf‚wgK Ges Nl©Ywenxb Z‡ji Ici w`‡q PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i|
e¯‘wU‡K †U‡b w¯úªs S -‡K ˆ`N©¨ eivei weK…Z Ki‡j w¯’wZ¯’vcK a‡g©i `iæY w¯úªs G cÖhy³ e‡ji mgvb I wecixZgywL
ej m„wó nq| G‡K cÖZ¨qbx ej (restoring force) e‡j| w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv AwZµg bv Ki‡j, cÖZ¨vqbx e‡ji gvb
û‡Ki m~Îvbyhvqx ‰`N©¨ cwieZ©‡bi mgvbycvwZK n‡e|

43
 g‡b Kwi, Fs Abyf‚wgK ej cÖ‡qv‡M e¯‘wU‡K evg n‡Z Wvb w`‡K miv‡bvi d‡j w¯úªs Gi ˆ`N©¨ Abyf‚wgK eivei x
cwigvY e„w× †cj| GB wµqvi `iæY w¯úªs G -kx cwigvY cÖZ¨vqbx ej Drcbœ n‡e| †Kbbv Fs  - x
ev, Fs = -kx
[GB cÖZ¨vqbx e‡ji w`K e¯‘wUi mi‡Yi wecixZ w`‡K nIqvq FYvZ¥K wPý e¨eüZ n‡q‡Q|]
GLv‡b k GKwU aªæe msL¨v| G‡K w¯úªs Gi ej aªæeK (spring constant) ejv nq|
msÁv: w¯úªs Gi GKK ˆ`N©¨ e„w×i Rb¨ cÖhy³ ej‡KB w¯úªs Gi ej aªæeK ejv nq| w¯úªs aªæe‡Ki GKK Nm-1] x ‰`N©¨
F
e„wׇZ F e‡ji cÖ‡qvRb n‡j w¯úªs aªæeK, k = |
x
w¯úªswU‡K cÖmvwiZ Ki‡Z n‡j mggv‡bi evwn¨K ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e| g‡b Kwi cÖhy³ ej F|
 F = Fs = - (-kx) = kx ... ... .. (5.18)
w¯úªswU‡K x1 Ae¯’vb n‡Z x2 Ae¯’v‡b cÖmvwiZ Ki‡Z cÖhy³ ej KZ…©K m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY
x2   x2
W= 
x1
F ( x )d x = x1
F( x ) dx

 
[ F I d x Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY k~b¨]
x2 x2 1 x2 1
= 
x1
kxdx  k x1
xdx 
2
k [x2 ]x1 = 2 k [x22 - x12]

1 1
W= kx22 - kx12 .... .... ... (5.19)
2 2
GB KvR abvZ¥K| mvwaZ KvR w¯úªs Gi g‡a¨ w¯’wZkw³ wn‡m‡e mwÂZ _v‡K|
w¯úªs Gi Avw` Ae¯’vb x1 = 0 Ges †kl Ae¯’vb x2 = x ai‡j,
1 1
W= kx22  kx12 .... ... ... (5.19)
2 2
GB KvR abvZ¥K| mvwaZ KvR w¯úªs Gi g‡a¨ w¯’wZkw³ wn‡m‡e mwÂZ _v‡K|
w¯úªs Gi Avw` Ae¯’vb x1 = 0 Ges †kl Ae¯’vb x2 = x ai‡j,
1 2
W= kx .... .... ... (5.20)
2
1 2
A_©vr, mi‡Yi cwigvY x n‡j mwÂZ w¯’wZkw³i cwigvY n‡e kx |
2
1 2
[cybt, w¯úªs -Gi ˆ`N©¨ x cwigvY msKzwPZ n‡jI mwÂZ w¯’wZkw³i cwigvY, W = kx n‡e]
2
AwfKl©xq ej KZ…©K K…ZKv‡Ri D`vniY
Examples of work done by gravitational force
K. e¯‘ wb‡P cZ‡bi ‡ÿ‡Î KvR
g‡b Kwi 'm' fiwewkó GKwU e¯‘‡K AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e 'h' D”PZv n‡Z †djv n‡jv|
 K…ZKvR = ej × miY
ev, W = F × h = mgh [  F = mg ] ... .... .. (5.22)
ev, W = fi × AwfKl©R Z¡iY × D”PZv
KvR‡K AwfKl©xq GK‡K cÖKvk Ki‡j, W = mgh A_©vr W  h| myZivs AwfKl© e‡ji w`‡K KvR miY ev D”PZvi
mgvbycvwZK|
L. e¯‘ Ic‡i DVv‡bvi †ÿ‡Î KvR

44
 'm' fiwewkó GKwU e¯‘‡K AwfKl© e‡ji weiæ‡× 'h' D”PZv Ic‡i DV‡j
KvR = fi × AwfKl©xq Z¡iY × D”PZv ev, W = mgh ... ... (5.23)
Aek¨ G KvR FYvZ¥K|
A_©vr W= - mgh ... .... .... (5.24)
A_©vr W  h| A_©vr AwfK‡l©i wecix‡Z K…ZKvR e¯‘i D”PZv ev mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK|
M. AvbZ Zj †e‡q bvgv‡bvi †ÿ‡Î KvR
g‡b Kwi, 'm' fiwewkó GKwU e¯‘ †Kv‡bv GKwU gm„Y bZ Zj †e‡q A n‡Z B-‡Z m‡i Gj| hw` g AwfKl©xq Z¡iY
nq, Z‡e AwfKl© ej mg e¯‘wU‡K Lvovfv‡e wb‡Pi w`‡K Uvb‡e
awi mi‡Yi AwfgyL Ges AwfKl© e‡ji Awfgy‡Li g‡a¨ 0 †KvY Av‡Q Ges AB = s
 AwfKl© ej mg - Gi w`‡K mi‡Yi Ask = s cos GLb AC = h `~iZ¡
 KvR, W = mgs cos ev, W = mgh .... (5.25)
ZjwU Abyf‚wg‡Ki mv‡_  ‡Kv‡Y Ae¯’vb Ki‡j,
0 = (90° - )
 W = mgs cos (90° - ) = mgs sin
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Ges AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR ‡_‡K †`Lv hvq †h,

1 2
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Øviv KvR, W = kx  KvR, W  (miY)2
2
Ab¨ w`‡K AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR †_‡K †`Lv hvq ‡h,
myZivs ejv hvq, w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Øviv KvR mi‡Yi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK| Aci w`‡K AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR D”PZvi ev mi‡Yi
mgvbycvwZK| AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb e„w× †c‡j GB ej Øviv KvRI e„w× cvq|
N. gnvKl© ej Øviv K…ZKvR
g‡b Kwi M f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ gnvKl© †ÿ‡Îi P we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z| P ‡_‡K r `~‡i m f‡ii Ab¨ GKwU e¯‘ O we›`y‡Z
GMm
Aew¯’Z| G‡ÿ‡Î m f‡ii e¯‘i Ici wµqvkxj gnvKl© ej F = . w`K QP eivei
r2

GLb m f‡ii e¯‘‡K Amxg n‡Z ÿz`ª `~iZ¡ dr mwi‡q R we›`y‡Z Avb‡Z K…ZKvR
r r r GMm
W= 

Fdr cos 0  

Fdr    r2
dr

r
r 1 
 r dr  GMm  
2
= GMm
  r 
1 1 GMm
=  GMm   = 
r  r

45
 GLb m f‡ii e¯‘wU‡K R ‡_‡K ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª `~iZ¡ dr mwi‡q Q we›`y‡Z gnvKl© ejv Øviv KvR,
dW = Fdr cos 180° = -Fdr
hw` e¯‘wUi Avw` Ae¯’vb ra Ges †kl Ae¯’vb rb nq †gvU KvR wbY©‡q r = ra ‡_‡K r = rb mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³
mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,
rb rb GMm
Wab = ra
Fdr   
ra r2
dr

1 1
r
 1
b

= - GMm   =  GMm   
 r  ra  rb ra 
gnvKl© ej Øviv K…Z abvZ¥ KvR: Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY Abyhvqx e¯‘i KYv `ywUi g‡a¨ `~iZ¡ n«vm Kiv n‡j A_©vr rb < ra n‡j,
1 1
 nq d‡j Wab abvZ¥K nq; myZivs gnvKl© ej Øviv KvR abvZ¥K KvR| Ici †_‡K wb‡P cZ‡bi †ÿ‡Î `~iZ¡ n«vm
rb ra
cvq Ges KvR abvZ¥K nq|
gnvKl© ej Øviv K…Z FYvZ¥K KvR: Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY Abyhvqx hw` rb > ra nq A_©vr hw` `ywU KYvi g‡a¨ `~iZ¡ e„w× cvq,
1 1
Zvn‡j  nq, †m‡ÿ‡Î KvR FYvZ¥K nq| wbP †_‡K †Kv‡bv e¯‘‡K Ic‡i DVv‡j `~iZ¡ e„w× cvq d‡j gnvKl© e‡ji
rb ra
Rb¨ KvR FYvZ¥K nq|
KvR: AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR Ges w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Øviv Kv‡Ri Zdvr †Kv_vq?
AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR `~i‡Z¡i mgvbycvwZK A_©vr W  h, Aci w`‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK e‡ji wecixZ KvR `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i
mgvbycvwZK A_©vr W  x2 nq|
Rvbvi welq: I. AwfKl© ej Øviv K…ZKvR mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK, W  x ( W = mgx)
1 2
II. w¯’wZ¯’vcK ej Øviv KvR mi‡Yi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK, W  x2 ( W = kx )
2
MvwYwZK D`vniY:
1. GKwU †Nvov f‚wgi mv‡_ 30° ‡Kv‡Y 120 N ej cÖ‡qv‡M GKwU e¯‘‡K †U‡b 2ms-1 mg‡e‡M miv‡Z cv‡i| 5 min G
†NvovwU KZ KvR Ki‡e?
W = Fs cos  GLv‡b,
= 120×600×0.866 F = 120 N
= 6.35 × 104 J t = 5 min = 5 × 60s
v = 2 ms-1
s = vt = 2×5×60 m = 600 m
 = 30°
2. Abyf‚wgK Z‡ji Ici Aew¯’Z GKwU e¯‘‡K w¯úªs Gi mv‡_ hy³ Kiv n‡jv| 2.4 N ej Øviv mvg¨ve¯’v n‡Z w¯úªswU‡K 3
cm msKzwPZ Kiv n‡jv| w¯úªs Øviv K…ZKvR KZ n‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
1 1 F = 2.4 N
KvR, W = Kx2 = × 80×(.03)2
2 2 x = 3 cm = 0.03 m
= 3.6 × 10-2 J F 2 .4
K= = = 80 Nm-1
x 0.03
W=?

46
eµc‡_ Pjgvb KYvi Ici K…ZKvR
Work done on a particle moving along a curved path

aiv hvK, GKwU KYv cwieZ©bkxj ej F Gi wµqvq eµc‡_ Pj‡Q| KYvwUi Ici †gvU K…ZKv‡Ri cwigvY W|

wPÎvbymv‡i †Kv‡bv ÿz`ª miY d s n‡j P ‡_‡K Q ch©šÍ mgMÖ c_wU AwZµg Kiv‡bvi Rb¨ KYvwUi Ici †gvU K…ZKv‡Ri
cwigvY,
Q   Q
W= P
F .d s = 
P
Fs cos d ..... .... (5.25)

mgxKiY (5.25) -G F ev  ‡Kv‡bvwUB aªæe ivwk bq|

N~Y©‡bi †ÿ‡Î KvR KvR

Work done in rotation

aiv hvK, GKwU PvKv ¯úk©K ej F Gi wµqvq Zvi †K›`ªgywL A‡ÿi mv‡c‡ÿ Nyi‡Q| aiv hvK, PvKvwU IB e‡ji wµqvq 
†Kv‡Y Ny‡i †Mj
AZGe e‡ji cÖ‡qvM we›`yi ‰iwLK miY,
s=r
GLv‡b, r = PvKvi e¨vmva©
myZivs, K…ZKvR; W = Fs = Fr
Fr n‡”Q N~Y©b we›`y mv‡c‡ÿ (0 ‡iwWqv‡b cÖKvwkZ) e‡ji åvgK ev UK© ()

KvR-kw³ Dccv`¨
Work-energy theorem
‡Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici wµqviZ jwä ej KZ…©K K…Z KvR Zvi MwZkw³i cwieZ©‡bi mgvb|
cÖwZcv`b: g‡b Kwi, 'm' fiwewkó GKwU e¯‘ '0' Avw` †e‡M Pj‡Q| MwZi w`‡K wbw`©ó gv‡bi GKwU ej F e¯‘i Ici
cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j e¯‘i †eM e„w× cv‡e| d‡j e¯‘ kw³ jvf Ki‡e| g‡b Kwi s `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi ci †kl †eM '' n‡jv| Zv
n‡j K…Z KvR, W = F × s|
F  2  02
ej KZ…©K m„ó Z¡iY, a = = [ 2 = 02  2as ]
m 2s
  2  02 
ev, F = ma = m  

 2s 

47
   2  02 
 K…Z KvR, W = F × s = m   × s = 1 m (2  02)
 2s 2
 
1 1
W= m2  m02 ... ... (5.29)
2 2
= ‡kl MwZkw³  Avw` MwZkw³|
 e‡ji Øviv K…Z KvR = kw³ jvf = MwZkw³i cwieZ©b
myZivs †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici wµqviZ jwä ej KZ…©K K…Z KvR Zvi MwZkw³i cwieZ©‡bi mgvb| GwU ÔKvR-kw³ Dccv`¨Õ
bv‡g cwiwPZ| mgxKiY (5.29) Dccv`¨wU cÖgvY K‡i|
[we.`ª. cwieZ©bkxj e‡ji †ÿ‡ÎI Dccv`¨wU cÖ‡hvR¨|]
weKí c×wZ
aiv hvK m f‡ii GKwU e¯‘KYv A we›`y †_‡K AB c‡_ B we›`y‡Z hvq| GB AB c‡_i GKwU ÿz`ª Ask ds †f±i Øviv

m~wPZ Kiv n‡q‡Q [wPÎ 5.17)| KYvwUi Dci ds mi‡Yi mgq wµqvkxj ej F nq, Z‡e K…Z KvR, dW = F.ds
myZivs m¤ú~Y© c_ AB-Gi Rb¨ K…Z KvR,
B B  B    
W =  dW   F.ds =  ma.d s [  F = m a ]
A A A

B d 

 ds
B
ev, W = m
A dt 
.d s = m 
A
d.
dt
B  B
= m  d. = m  d
A A

A I B we›`y‡Z KYvwUi †eM h_vµ‡g a I b

n‡j,

W = m d  m2 ab

h 1 

a 2
1
= m (b2  a2)
2
1 1
= mb2  ma2
2 2
A_©vr, K…Z KvR = KYvwUi MwZkw³i cwieZ©b|
GB m¤úK©wUB KvR-kw³ ev KvR-MwZkw³ Dccv`¨|
D‡jø¨L, ej w¯’i †nvK ev cwieZ©bkxj †nvK, K…Z KvR me©`vB KYvwUi MwZkw³i cwieZ©‡bi mgvb n‡e|
KvRwU evPvB Ki: nvB Rv¤ú ev js Rv¤ú †`Iqvi mgq cÖwZ‡hvMxiv w¯’i Ae¯’v †_‡K jvd ‡`q bv, wKQz `~i †_‡K †`Š‡o
G‡m jvd †`q| d‡j A‡bK `~i jvd †`Iqv hvq| e¨vL¨v Ki|
mgm¨v mgvavb
Solution of problems
1| MwZkw³ wK FYvZ¥K n‡Z cv‡i?
1
‡Kv‡bv mPj e¯‘i fi m Ges †eM  d‡j e¯‘i MwZkw³ m2| e¯‘i fi m KL‡bvB FYvZ¥K n‡Z cv‡i bv| e¯‘i
2
†eM abvZ¥K ev FYvZ¥K n‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ †e‡Mi eM© memgq abvZ¥K n‡e| AZGe e¯‘i MwZkw³ KL‡bv FYvZ¥K n‡Z
cv‡i bv|
2| GKwU nvjKv e¯‘ Ges GKwU fvix e¯‘i fi‡eM mgvb| †KvbwUi MwZkw³ †ewk?
g‡b Kwi, fvix e¯‘i fi = M Ges †eM 1 Ges nvjKv e¯‘i fi = m Ges †eM 2| e¯‘ `ywUi fi‡eM mgvb n‡j
M1 = m2 = P

48
 1
m 22
nvjKv e¯i MwZkw³ P 2 / 2m M
 = 2  2 
fvix e¯i MwZkw³ 1 m
Mv12 P / 2M
2
 m A‡cÿv M eo n‡j (M > m) nvjKv e¯‘i MwZkw³ fvix e¯‘i MwZkw³i †P‡q †ewk n‡e|
3| GKwU nvjKv e¯‘ Ges GKwU fvix e¯‘i MwZkw³ mgvb| †KvbwUi fi‡eM †ewk?
g‡b Kwi, fvix e¯‘i fi M I †eM 1 Ges nvjKv e¯‘i fi m I †eM 2| AZGe fvix e¯‘i fi‡eM P1 = M1 Ges
nvjKv e¯‘i fi‡eM P2 = m2| wKš‘ `ywU e¯‘i MwZkw³ mgvb|
1 1
 M12 = M22
2 2
2 2
P P
 1  2
2M 2m
P M
 1
P2 m
m A‡cÿv M eo n‡j (M > m) fvix e¯‘i fi‡eM nvjKv e¯‘i fi‡e‡Mi †P‡q †ewk n‡e|

1| 2000 kg f‡ii GKwU Mvwo f‚wgi mv‡_ 30° ‡Kv‡Y AvbZ GKwU iv¯Ív
a‡i 16 ms-1 †e‡M wb‡q bvgvi mgq Mvwoi PvjK †eªK cÖ‡qvM Kivq
MvwowU 40 m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi ci †_‡g hvq| wK cwigvY MwZ
cÖwZ‡ivaKvix ej MvwowUi Dci wµqv K‡i?
cÖkvœ byhvqx, AwfKl©xq ej mg Gi Zj eivei AskK = mg sin 30°|
Gi wecix‡Z MwZ cÖwZ‡iva ej wµqv K‡i| ej؇qi jwä = F  mg
sin 30°

Avgiv Rvwb, MwZkw³ = KvR GLv‡b, m = 2000 kg

1
m02 = (F  mg sin 30°) × s 0 = 16 ms-1
2 s = 40 m
1 1
= × 2000 × (162) = (F  2000 × 9.8 × ) × 40 g = 9.8 ms-2
2 2
2000  162
1
F= + 2000 × 9.8 × 16200
2  40 2

2| GKwU ivB‡d‡ji ¸wj GKwU Z³v †f` K‡i| hw` ¸wji †eM wZb¸Y Kiv nq Zv n‡j GKB cyiæ‡Z¡i KqwU Z³v †f`
Ki‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
K…Z KvR = MwZkw³i cwieZ©b awi, ¸wji fi = m
1g †ÿ‡Î, 1wU Z³vi cyiæZ¡ = x
1 1 wb‡Y©q Z³vi msL¨v = n
max = mv12  0  mv12
2 2  nwU Z³vi cyiæZ¡ = nx
2q †ÿ‡Î,
cÖ_g ¸wji ‡eM = 1
ma.nx = mv12  0  m312 
1 1
2 2 wØZxq ¸wji †eM = 2 = 31
9
= m12
2
1
mv12
max 2
AZGe, 
ma.nx 9
mv12
2
1 1
ev, 
n 9

49
n=9

weKí:
1
1g †ÿ‡Î, m2 = KvR = mgx ... ... ... (i)
2
1
2q †ÿ‡Î, m(2)2 = mg × nx ... ... ... (ii)
2
mgxKiY (ii)-‡K mgxKiY (i) Øviv fvM K‡i cvB,
1
m9 2
2 mgnx

1 mgx
m 2
2
 n = 9 wU
3| 2000 ‡KwR f‡ii GKwU Uªv‡Ki fi‡eM 200 kg ms-1 n‡j Gi MwZkw³ KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

Ek =
P2

2002  10J m = 2000 kg
2m 2  2000 P = 200 kg ms-1
4| 2 kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ 30 m D”PZv m¤úbœ GKwU wewìs-Gi Qv` †_‡K wb‡P †d‡j †`qv n‡jv| (i) e¯‘wUi cÖv_wgK
w¯’wZkw³, (ii) e¯‘wU †h †e‡M f‚wg ¯úk© K‡i, (iii) e¯‘wU m‡e©v”P MwZkw³ Ges (iv) f‚wg n‡Z 3m DuPz‡Z e¯‘wUi MwZkw³
I w¯’wZkw³ wbY©q Ki|
(i) e¯‘wUi cÖv_wgK w¯’wZkw³ = mgh = 2 × 9.8 × 30 = 588 J
(ii) g‡b Kwi, e¯‘wU  †e‡M f‚wg ¯úk© K‡i|
1
GLb, Qv‡` _vKvKvjxb e¯‘wUi w¯’wZkw³ = f‚wg ¯úk© Kivi mgq e¯‘wUi MwZkw³ A_©vr mgh = m2
2
1
 588 = × 2 × 2
2
ev, 2 = 588
  = 588 = 24.25 ms-1
(iii) e¯‘wUi m‡e©v”P MwZkw³ = e¯‘wUi cÖv_wgK w¯’wZkw³
AZGe, e¯‘i m‡e©v”P MwZkw³ = 588 J
(iv) f‚wg n‡Z 3m DuPz‡Z e¯‘wUi w¯’wZkw³ = 2 × 9.8 × 3 = 58.8 J
IB ¯’v‡b e¯‘wUi MwZkw³ = w¯’wZkw³ n«vm = 588  58.8 = 529.2 J
5| GKRb evjK I GKRb †jvK GK‡Î †`Šov‡”Qb| evjKwUi fi †jvKwUi f‡ii A‡a©K Ges †jvKwUi MwZkw³ evjKwUi
MwZkw³i A‡a©K| †jvKwU hw` Zvi †eM 1 ms-2 e„w× K‡ib| Z‡e Zvi MwZkw³ evjKwUi MwZkw³i mgvb nq| G‡`i
Avw`‡eM wbY©q Ki|
MwZkw³i mgxKiY †_‡K cvB, GLv‡b,

evj‡Ki MwZkw³, KE1 =

1
m112 ... (i) evj‡Ki fi = m1
2
‡jv‡Ki fi, m2 = 2m1
Ges †jvKwUi MwZkw³,
evj‡Ki Avw`‡eM, 1 = ?
1 1
KE2 = m 2 22  .2m122
2 2 ‡jv‡Ki Avw`‡eM 2 = ?
= m122 ... (ii)

50
 ‡jv‡Ki †kl †eM, 2 = 2 + 1
1
cÖkgœ ‡Z †jvKwUi MwZkw³ = (evj‡Ki MwZkw³)
2
1 1 2
m122 =  m11 
2 2 
1
 2m122 = m112 ... ... (iii)
2
1
Avevi, 2 = 2 + 1 n‡j cÖkgœ ‡Z m112 = m1 (2 + 1)2
2
1
mgxKiY (iii) †_‡K cÖvß, m112 Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
2
2m122 = m1 (2 + 1)2
ev, 222 = 22 + 22 + 1
ev, 22  22  1 = 0
2 44 2 8
 2 = = =1± 2
2 2
kw³i wbZ¨Zvi bxwZi e¨envi
Use of conservation principle of energy
`yB nv‡Zi Zvjy GK‡Î Nl‡j Zvjy Mig nq; G‡ÿ‡Î hvwš¿K kw³ Zvckw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| cZbkxj e¯‘ gvwU‡Z AvNvZ
K‡i †_‡g †M‡j hvwš¿K kw³ Zvckw³‡Z Ges wKQzUv kã kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| Avevi †h †Kv‡bv h‡š¿i wewfbœ As‡ki
g‡a¨ Nl©‡Yi d‡j Zvc kw³i D™¢e nq| GB NUbv¸wj jÿ Ki‡j †`Lv hvq †h, kw³ GK iƒc †_‡K Ab¨ iƒ‡c iƒcvšÍwiZ
nq| Avevi AvBb÷vB‡bi Av‡cwÿK Z‡Ë¡ †`Lv hvq †h, fi kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| †Kv‡bv e¯‘i g‡a¨ kw³i cwigvY
evo‡j IB e¯‘i fiI ev‡o| Avevi e¯‘i g‡a¨ kw³i cwigvY Kg‡j Gi fiI K‡g| †g‡Si Ici w`‡q GKwU ev·‡K
Uvb‡j Nl©‡Y Zvc m„wó nq|
Dc‡iv³ mKj †ÿ‡Î (msiwÿZ ev AmsiwÿZ) †`Lv hvq †h, kw³ ‡Kej GK iƒc †_‡K Ab¨ iƒ‡c iƒcvšÍwiZ Kiv hvq
(Energy is eternal, it can neither be created nor destroyed, but can only be converted from one
form to another)| we‡k¦i †gvU kw³i cwigvY aªæeK| ˆe`y¨wZK Bw¯¿‡Z Zwor ev we`y¨r Pvjbv Ki‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq|
GB Zvc w`‡q Avgiv Kvco Bw¯¿ Kwi| G‡ÿ‡Î we`y¨r kw³ Zvc kw³‡Z Ges Zvc kw³ hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq|
G‡ÿ‡Î kw³i ÿq ev webvk †bB| †KejgvÎ iƒcvšÍi Av‡Q|
wbDwK¬qvi wiq¨v±‡ii K_v †Zvgiv ï‡bQ| wbDwK¬qvi wiq¨v±‡ii g‡a¨ GKwU wbDUªb Øviv fvix cigvYy ( U 92
235
) †K AvNvZ
K‡i wbDwK¬I wdkb wewµqv NUv‡bv nq| GB wewµqvq cÖPzi cwigv‡Y Zvc kw³ Drcbœ nq| GB Zvc kw³‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q
UvievBbn Nywi‡q we`y¨r kw³‡Z Drcbœ Kiv nq| G‡ÿ‡Î †`Lv hvq cvigvYweK kw³ Zvc kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq Ges Zvc
kw³ Avevi we`y¨r kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| G‡ÿ‡ÎI kw³i †Kv‡bv webvk ev aŸsm †bB| GK iƒc †_‡K Ab¨ iƒ‡c iƒcvšÍwiZ
n‡”Q|
kw³ hLb GK iƒc †_‡K Ab¨ iƒ‡c cwiewZ©Z nq ZLb Gi †Kv‡bv NvUwZ ev evowZ N‡U bv| A_©vr kw³i webvk ev m„wó
DfqB Am¤¢e| hLb GK cÖKvi kw³ wejyß nq ZLb Zv Ab¨ iƒ‡c †Kv_vI AvZ¥cÖKvk K‡i| Gi bvg kw³i wbZ¨Zv ev
kw³i Awebk¦iZv (Conservation of energy)|
hvwš¿K kw³i iƒcvšÍ‡ii GiKg AmsL¨ `„óvšÍ †`Iqv hvq- †hgb mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjb Ges bZZ‡j e¯‘i MwZ| Avgiv
Rvwb, kw³ m„wó ev aŸsm Kiv hvq bv| AZGe, GB me D`vni‡Y e¯‘i MwZkw³ w¯’wZkw³‡Z I w¯’wZkx³ MwZkw³‡Z
iƒcvšÍwiZ nq gvÎ; w¯’wZkx³ I MwZkw³i †hvMdj A_©vr e¯‘i †gvU hvwš¿K kw³ me mgq w¯’i _v‡K| G‡K hvwš¿K kw³i

51
msiÿY bxwZ (Principle of conservation of mechanical
energy) e‡j| wKš‘ Nl©Y ej _vK‡j GB ej me mgq e¯‘i MwZ‡K
evav ‡`q| d‡j wKQz cwigvY hvwš¿K kw³ GB evav AwZµg Kivi Rb¨
AcPq nq Ges Zvckw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq|
Dc‡ii D`vni‡Yi †ÿ‡Î kw³i wbZ¨Zvi m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq| †Kv‡bv
AcPqx ej bv _vK‡j Ges msNl©wU m¤ú~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK n‡j †gvU kw³ AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K| AZGe
1 1
msN‡l©i Av‡M MwZkw³ = mwÂZ w¯’wZkw³ = m112 + m222
2 2
‡Kv‡bv cÖwµqvq †Kv‡bv ivwki gvb memgq AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j ivwkwU msiwÿZ (conserved) Av‡Q ejv nq| AZGe †gvU
hvwš¿K kw³ msiwÿZ Av‡Q|
AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: GKwU M¨vm †ejyb Ic‡ii w`‡K IVvi mgq Gi MwZkw³ Ges w¯’wZkw³ DfqB e„w× cvq| G‡ÿ‡Î
kw³i msiÿY m~Î jw•NZ nq wK-bv- e¨vL¨v Ki|
G‡ÿ‡Î kw³i msiÿY m~Î jw•NZ nq bv| EaŸ©Mvgx †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici AwfKl© Qvov Ab¨ †Kv‡bv evwn¨K ej wµqvkxj e‡j
kw³i msiÿYm~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq bv|
M¨vmc~Y© †ejy‡bi †gvU IRb A‡cÿv Gi Ici cøeZv A_©vr EaŸ©gywL NvZ A‡bK †ewk| d‡j †ejy‡bi Dci GKwU EaŸ©gywL
e‡ji Rb¨ †ejy‡bi Ici GKwU EaŸ©gywL Z¡iY _v‡K| d‡j †ejybwUi Ic‡ii w`‡Ki †eM ax‡i ax‡i ev‡o, ZvB MwZkw³I
ax‡i ax‡i ev‡o| Avevi Ic‡ii w`‡K IVvi d‡j AwfK‡l©i weiæ‡× K…Z KvRI ev‡o| G‡Z †ejy‡bi w¯’wZkw³I evo‡Z
_v‡K|
K. Drwÿß e¯‘i m‡e©v”P D”PZvq kw³i wbZ¨Zvi m~Î
Conservation of energy of a body thrown up at maximum height
MwZi Rb¨ e¯‘‡Z MwZkw³ Ges Ae¯’v‡bi Rb¨ w¯’wZkw³ _v‡K| GKwU mPj e¯‘i MwZkw³ (Ek) Ges w¯’wZkw³ (Ep) `yB-
_vK‡Z cv‡i| †hgb GKwU DošÍ wegv‡bi ev Ici w`‡K †Qvov cv_‡ii MwZkw³ I w¯’wZkw³ `yB-B _v‡K| ZLb e¯‘i †gvU
hvwš¿K kw³ ej‡Z Gi MwZkw³ I w¯’wZkw³i †hvMdj †evSvq| AZGe, †gvU hvwš¿K kw³-
Er = Ek + Ep
e¯‘i MwZkw³ w¯’wZkw³‡Z ev w¯’wZkw³ MwZkw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡Z cv‡i| GiKg iƒcvšÍ‡ii A‡bK D`vniY †`Iqv hvq|
GLb Avgiv Drwÿß e¯‘i me©vwaK D”PZvi kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î cÖ‡qvM Kie|
1
g‡b Kwi, f‚c„ô wb‡`©k Zj a‡i wb‡q cv_iwUi cÖv_wgK w¯’wZkw³ = 0 cÖv_wgK MwZkw³ = m02| cv_iwU hZ Ic‡i
2
I‡V Gi AwfKl©xq w¯’wZkw³ ZZ evo‡Z _v‡K; wKš‘ mv‡_ mv‡_ cv_iwUi †eM Kg‡Z _v‡K A_©vr Gi MwZkw³ Kg‡Z
_v‡K| AZGe, Ic‡i IVvi mgq cv_iwUi MwZkw³ w¯’wZkw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwZ n‡Z _v‡K| h D”PZvq cv_iwUi Ic‡ii w`‡K
1
†eM hw`  nq ( < 0), Z‡e GB we›`y‡Z cv_iwUi MwZkw³ m2 I w¯’wZkw³ = mgh nq| myZivs cv_iwUi †gvU
2
1
hvwš¿K kw³ nq = m2 + mgh| m‡e©v”P Ae¯’v‡b †cŠ‡Q cv_iwU g~û‡Z©i Rb¨ w¯’i _v‡K| ZLb cv_iwUi MwZkw³ k~b¨
2
wKš‘ Gi w¯’wZkw³ me‡P‡q †ewk nq| cv_iwUi m‡e©v”P D”PZv hw` H nq Z‡e IB Ae¯’v‡b cv_iwUi w¯’wZkw³ = mgH
nq|
AZGe m‡f©v”P Ae¯’v‡b cv_iwUi m¤ú~Y© MwZkw³ w¯’wZkx³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡q hvq|
m‡e©v”P Ae¯’v‡b †cŠuQv‡bvi ci cv_iwU Avevi wb‡Pi w`‡K co‡Z _v‡K| ZLb wVK wecixZ wµqv nq; cv_iwUi w¯’wZkw³
µgk Kg‡Z _v‡K Ges MwZkw³ evo‡Z _v‡K| wb‡`©k Z‡j e¯‘wUi †Kej MwZkw³ _v‡K; Ii w¯’wZkw³ Avevi k~b¨ nq|

52
G‡ÿ‡Î mn‡R cÖgvY Kiv hvq †h, Nl©Y e‡ji g‡Zv †Kv‡bv AcPqx ej (dissipative force) bv _vK‡j cÖv_wgK Ae¯’v‡b
cv_iwUi bxU kw³ (hv m¤ú~Y©B MwZkw³) m‡e©v”P Ae¯’v‡b cv_iwUi †gvU kw³i (hv m¤ú~Y©B w¯’wZkw³) mgvb nq, A_©vr
1
m02 = mgH| A_©vr Av‡Mi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡ZI †gvU kw³ AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K| AZGe,
2
1 1
m02 = mgH = m2 = mgh .... ... ... (5.34)
2 2
Aev‡a cZbkxj e¯‘i †ÿ‡ÎI GB bxwZ cÖ‡hvR¨ nq| †h ¯’vb †_‡K e¯‘‡K Ic‡ii w`‡K 0 †e‡M †Qvuov n‡qwQj, e¯‘wU
hLb Avevi †mB cÖv_wgK Ae¯’v‡b wd‡i Av‡m ZLb Gi †eM 0 nq| GB mgq e¯‘wUi kw³ m¤ú~Y©B MwZkw³| AZGe Gi
1
†gvU kw³ cybivq m02 nq| AZGe Drwÿß e¯‘ me©vwaK D”PvZvq kw³i wbZ¨Zvi m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
2
L. mij Qw›`Z MwZi kw³
Energy of simple harmonic motion
mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ n‡jv mij Qw›`Z MwZ| mij †`vjK hLb `yj‡Z _v‡K ZLb KL‡bv ‡`vj‡Ki MwZkw³ w¯’wZkw³‡Z,
Avevi KL‡bv †`vj‡Ki w¯’wZkw³ MwZkx³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| wKš‘ cÖwZ gyn~‡Z© ‡`vj‡Ki MwZkw³ I w¯’wZkw³i †hvMdj
aªæe _v‡K|
g‡b Kwi, mij †`vj‡Ki e‡ei fi m Ges mvg¨ve¯’v 0| ‡`vjvqgvb Ae¯’vi mvg¨ve¯’v †_‡K †h †Kv‡bv GK w`‡K A `~iZ¡
AwZµg K‡i m‡e©v”P we›`y B †Z †cŠuQ‡j [wPÎ 5.25] B we›`y‡Z †eM  = 0 e‡j Gi mKj kw³ wefekw³| mij †`vj‡Ki
Ici wµqviZ ej F n‡j F = kx| AZGe m‡e©v”P we›`y B ‡Z wefekw³
A
A x2 
A
 
1
Ep =  Fdx  kxdx = k   = kA2
0 0
 2  0
2

k
Avgiv Rvwb, = 2  k = 2m
m
1
 Ep = × m2A2 ... ... .. (5.35)
2
1
‡h‡nZz B we›`yi MwZkw³ Ek = 0 AZGe B we›`y‡Z e‡ei †gvU kw³ E = m2A2 ... ... (5.36)
2
GLb aiv hvK, GKwU ee B we›`y ‡_‡K mvg¨ve¯’vq 0 Gi w`‡K hvÎv K‡i †Kv‡bv GK mgq C we›`y‡Z †cŠQvj| mvg¨ve¯’vb
1
n‡Z C Gi `~iZ¡ x Ges Gi e‡ei †eM  n‡j C we›`yi MwZkw³ E k C = m2
2
wKš‘ mij Qw›`Z MwZi †ÿ‡Î †eM
 =  A2  x 2
1
AZGe E k C = m2(A2  x2) ... .... ... (5.37)
2
C we›`y‡Z e‡ei wKQz wefekw³ _vK‡e| hvi cwigvY
x
EpC =  kxdx
0

x
x2  1
= k   = kx2
 2  0 2

1
= m2x2 [ k  m2 ] ... ... ... (5.38)
2
C we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³

53
 Ek = E kC  E pC
1 1
= m2(A2  x2) + m2x2
2 2
1
= m2(A2  x2 + x2)
2
1
Ek = m2A2 ... ... ... (5.39)
2
gšÍe¨: Ic‡ii mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, B I C we›`yi †gvU kw³ GKB| A_©vr †`vjvqgvb GKwU mij †`vjK Ôkw³i
wbZ¨Zvi m~ÎÕ †g‡b P‡j|
1| GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki e‡ei fi 0.2 kg I Kvh©Ki ˆ`N©¨ 1m| Djø¤^ †iLv n‡Z 0.4 m `~‡i †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j MwZc‡_i
mvg¨ve¯’vb AwZµg Kv‡j e‡ei MwZkw³ I †eM wbY©q Ki| A I B we›`y‡Z kw³i msiÿYkxjZv cÖ‡hvR¨ nq wK-bv
we‡kølY Ki|

awi, wb‡Y©q †eM  GLv‡b, e‡ei fi, m = 0.2 kg

kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î Abymv‡i, O we›`y n‡Z m‡e©v”P we›`y B = 0.4 m
SzjšÍ e‡ei m‡e©v”P we›`y B-‡Z w¯’wZkw³ = mvg¨ve¯’vq A = 0
mvg¨ve¯’vb we›`y A-‡Z MwZkw³ OB2 = ON2 + BN2
GLb, OA eivei m‡e©v”P Djø¤^ miY ev, ON2 = OB2  BN2
AN = OA  ON  ON = OB 2  BN2
= OA  OB 2  NB 2
= 1  12  0.42
= 0.083 m
GLb, m‡e©v”P we›`y‡Z w¯’wZkw³ = mgh

cÖkvœ bymv‡i,
1
MwZkw³, Ek = m2 = mgh = 0.2 × 9.8 × 0.83 = 0.163 J
2
1
Avevi, mv 2 = mgh  2 = 2gh
2
ev,  = 2gh  2  9.8  0.083
= 1.275 ms-1
kw³i wbZ¨Zvi m~Îvbymv‡i SzjšÍ we›`y n‡Z e‡ei m‡e©v”P we›`y (B)-‡Z w¯’wZkw³ = mvg¨ve¯’vb we›`y (A) †Z w¯’wZkw³|
1 1
w¯’i Ae¯’vq MwZkw³ = m2 = × 0.2 × (1.275)2 = 0.163 J
2 2
Avevi m‡e©v”P D”PZvi wefekw³ = mgh = 0.2 × 9.8 × .083 = 0.163J
A we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ E = wefekw³ + MwZkw³ = 0 + .163 = 0.163 J
B we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ E = wefekw³ + MwZkw³ = 0.163 + 0 = 0.163 J
‡h‡nZz E = E , Kv‡RB A I B we›`y‡Z kw³i msiÿYkxjZv cÖ‡hvR¨ nq|

54
 c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v I Pvc
weK…wZ (Strain): Avgiv Rvwb, †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i Ici ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j e¯‘i ˆ`wbK ev ÿwqK cwieZ©b N‡U| GB
cwieZ©b‡K weÁv‡bi fvlvq weK…wZ e‡j| GB weK…wZ ˆ`‡N©¨ n‡Z cv‡i, AvKv‡i n‡Z cv‡i ev AvqZ‡bI n‡Z cv‡i| †Kv‡bv
GKwU e¯‘i GKK gvÎvq †h cwieZ©b N‡U Zv Øviv weK…wZ cwigvc Kiv hvq|
g‡b Kwi, †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i Avw` gvÎv = s
ej cÖhy³ nevi ci gvÎv = y
 gvÎvi cwieZ©b = x  y
xy
 GKK gvÎvi cwieZ©b A_©vr weK…wZ =
x
weK…wZi cÖKvi‡f`: weK…wZ g~jZ wZb cÖKvi, h_v-
(1) ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ ev Aby‰`N©¨ weK…wZ (Longitudinal strain)
(2) K…šbÍ weK…wZ ev AvKvi weK…wZ ev †gvPp weK…wZ (Shearing strain)
Ges
(3) AvqZb weK…wZ (Volume strain)
1. ‰`N©¨ weK…wZ: ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j hw` e¯‘i ˆ`‡N©¨i cwieZ©b N‡U, Z‡e
Zv‡K ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ e‡j| GKK ˆ`‡N©¨i ˆ`N©¨ cwieZ©b Øviv e¯‘i ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ
cwigvc Kiv hvq|
g‡b Kwi, †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i Avw` ˆ`N©¨ = L; ej cÖ‡qv‡M Gi ˆ`‡N©¨i cwieZ©b = l [wPÎ 7.9]
 ‰`N©¨ weK…wZ = l/L
2. K…šÍb ev †gvPo weK…wZ (Shearing strain): hw` cÖhy³ evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq e¯‘i AvqZb AcwiewZ©Z ‡_‡K †KejgvÎ
Gi AvK…wZi cwieZ©b nq ev e¯‘wU †gvPo Lvq
Z‡e IB ai‡bi weK…wZ‡K K…šbÍ ev †gvPo
weK…wZ ejv nq| d‡j e¯‘i Af¨šÍ‡i †h cxob
m„wó nq Zv‡K K…šbÍ cxob (shearing strain)
e‡j| G ai‡bi weK…wZ‡K e¨eZ©b weK…wZI
e‡j|
D`vniY: GKwU †gvUv eB‡K †Uwe‡ji Ic‡i
†P‡c a‡i Dc‡ii gjv‡Ui ¯úk©K eivei nvZ w`‡q Abyf‚wgKfv‡e †Vj‡j †`Lv hv‡e †h eBwUi AvK…wZ cwiewZ©Z n‡q‡Q
[wPÎ 7.13]| cÖhy³ e‡ji wµqvq eBwUi cÖ‡Z¨K cvZv wVK wb‡Pi cvZvi mv‡c‡ÿ Aí cwigv‡Y m‡i hvq| GUvB K…šÍb
weK…wZ| wP‡Î eBwUi cvk¦©Z‡j GKwU AvqZ‡ÿÎ AvK‡j GB weK…wZi d‡j Zv GKwU mvgvšÍwiK cwiYZ n‡e [wP‡Îi wfZ‡ii
As‡k †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q||
AvKvi cwieZ©‡b m„ó †KŠwYK weK…wZ Øviv K…šÍb ev †gvPo weK…wZ cwigvc Kiv hvq|
e¨vL¨v: g‡b Kwi, ABCE GKwU eM©‡ÿÎ (wPÎ 7.11) Gi CE evû w¯’i
†i‡L AB evûi Ici F cwigvY ¯úwk©bx ej cÖ‡qvM Kivq A we›`y A Ges B we›`y
B -G ¯’vbvšÍwiZ n‡jv Ges e¯‘ ABCE AvKvi aviY Kij| wKš‘ ABCE
GKwU i¤^m| Zv n‡j †`Lv hvq †h, ej cÖhy³ nIqvq e¯‘i AvKv‡ii cwieZ©b
N‡U‡Q| Gi bvg K…šbÍ weK…wZ|

55
GB K…šÍb weK…wZ e¯‘i †KŠwYK wePz¨wZ Øviv cwigvc Kiv nq| g‡b Kwi †KŠwYK wePz¨wZ =  Ges  LyeB ‡QvU|
d
 K…šÍb weK…wZ =  =
D
d
GLv‡b, AA = BB = d Ges BC = AE = D [  = tan= ]
D
Av‡ cwÿK miY
Kv‡RB, K…šÍb weK…wZ = ... ... (7.2)
e¨eavb `~ iZ¡
3| AvqZb weK…wZ: ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j hw` e¯‘i AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b N‡U Z‡e Zv‡K
AvqZb weK…wZ e‡j Ges GKK AvqZ‡bi AvqZb cwieZ©b Øviv AvqZb weK…wZ cwigvc
Kiv nq|
g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i Avw` AvqZb = V [wPÎ 7.12] Ges ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j
AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b = 
AvqZ‡ bi cwieZ  b 
 AvqZb weK…wZ = = ... ... (7.3)
Avw` AvqZb V
weK…wZi GKK Ges gvÎv mgxKiY (Unit and dimension of strain): weK…wZ GKB RvZxq `ywU ivwki AbycvZ| myZivs
Gi GKK Ges gvÎv mgxKiY †bB|
cxob (Stress): evwn¨K ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j †Kv‡bv e¯‘i weK…wZ NUv‡j w¯’wZ¯’vcKZvi Rb¨ e¯‘i †fZi †_‡K IB e‡ji
evav`vbKvix GKwU e‡ji D™¢e nq| e¯‘i GKK †ÿÎd‡ji Ici j¤^fv‡e D™¢‚Z GB weK…wZ cÖwZ‡ivaKvix ej‡K cxob
e‡j|
g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i †ÿÎdj = A Ges cÖhy³ ej = F
ej F
 cxob = = ... .... .... (7.4)
‡ ÿÎdj A
cxo‡bi cÖKvi‡f` (Kinds of stress): cxob wZb cÖKvi, h_v-
(1) ˆ`N©¨ cxob (Longitudinal stress);
(2) AvKvi ev K…šÍb ev †gvPo cxob (Shearing stress) Ges
(3) AvqZb cxob (Volume stress)|
1. ˆ`N©¨ cxob: ‰`N©¨ weK…wZ NUvevi Rb¨ cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎd‡ji Ici ˆ`N¨© eivei cÖhy³ ej‡K ˆ`N©¨ cxob e‡j| g‡b Kwi
†Kv‡bv GKwU Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj A | hw` Zvi ˆ`N©¨ eivei F cwigvY ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq, Z‡e ˆ`N©¨ cxob =
ej F
=
‡ ÿÎdj A
2. AvKvi ev K…šÍb ev †gvPo cxob: AvK…vi weK…wZ NUvevi Rb¨ †h cxob cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K AvKvi v K…šÍb ev †gvPo
cxob e‡j| hw` †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i †ÿÎd‡ji Ici F cwigvY ¯úk©K ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i AvK…wZi weK…wZ NUv‡bv nq Z‡e,
ej F
K…šÍb cxob = =
‡ ÿÎdj A
3| AvqZb cxob: AvqZb weK…wZ NUvevi Rb¨ †h cxob cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K AvqZb cxob e‡j|
g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘i Pviw`K n‡Z F cwigvY ej Awfj¤^fv‡e cÖ‡qvM K‡i AvqZb weK…wZ NUv‡bv n‡q‡Q| hw` Zvi
ej F
Z‡ji †ÿÎdj A nq, Z‡e AvqZb cxob = =
‡ ÿÎdj A
cxo‡bi GKK (Unit of stress): Gg. †K. Gm. c×wZ‡Z I Gm. AvB. c×wZ‡Z cxo‡bi cig ev wbi‡cÿ GKK
wbDUb/eM©wgUvi ms‡ÿ‡c Nm-2|
cxo‡bi gvÎv mgxKiY (Dimension of stress)

56
 ej fi × Z¡iY
cxob = =
‡ ÿÎdj (‰`N©¨)2

 MLT 2  -1 -2
=   = [ML T ]
 L 
2

1| GKwU Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 3m, cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj 2 mm2- Ges Amn cxob 2.45 × 108 Nm-2 | ZviwUi Amn IRb I
Amn fi wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Amn IRb = Amn cxob × cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj ‰`N©¨, L = 3m
= 2.45 × 108 × 2 × 10-6 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj, A = 2 mm2
= 4.90 × 102 N = 2 × 10-6 m2
Avgiv Av‡iv Rvwb, Amn cxob = 2.45 `& 108 Nm-2
Amn IRb 4.90  10 2 Amn IRb = ?
Amn fi = = = 50 kg
AwfKl  xq Z¡ iY 9.8 Amn fi = ?

û‡Ki m~Î
Hooke's Law
weL¨vZ weÁvbx ievU© ûK cxob I weK…wZi g‡a¨ GKwU wbweo m¤úK© jÿ K‡ib| GB m¤úK©‡K wZwb 1678 wLª÷v‡ã GKwU
m~‡Îi AvKv‡i cÖKvk K‡ib| Gi bvg û‡Ki m~Î| m~ÎæwU wb‡¤œ wee„Z n‡jv:
Òw¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i Ici cÖhy³ cxob Zvi weK…wZi mgvbycvwZK|Ó MvwYwZKfv‡e †jLv hvq, cxob  weK…wZ|
ev, cxob = aªæeK × weK…wZ
cxob
ev, = aªæeK (constant)
weK  wZ
GB ayªeK‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ ev w¯’wZ¯’vcK gvbv¼ (Modulus of elasticity) e‡j| G‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK
aªæeKI (Elastic constant) ejv nq| ¯úóZ GKK weK…wZi Rb¨ D™¢‚Z cxob‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ e‡j| w¯’wZ¯’vcK
¸Yv‡¼i gvb c`v‡_©i cÖK…wZi Ici Ges ZvcgvÎvi Ici wbf©i K‡i| ZvcgvÎv evo‡j Gi gvb n«vm cvq|
e¨vL¨v: †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici hLb ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq ZLb Zvi weK…wZ N‡U| ej w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv AwZµg bv Ki‡j û‡Ki
m~Îvbymv‡i †Kv‡bv e¯‘i weK…wZ hZ †ewk n‡e, cxobI ZZ †ewk n‡e| A_©vr weK…wZ cÖwZ‡ivaKvix e‡ji gvbI ZZ †ewk
n‡e| cxo‡bi msÁv †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb GKK †ÿÎd‡ji Dci cÖh³ ejB n‡jv cxob| ZvB, GKK †ÿÎd‡ji Ici cÖhy ³
ej hZ †ewk n‡e e¯‘wUI ZZ †ewk weK…Z n‡e| A_©vr Zvi ˆ`N©¨, AvqZb ev AvKvi ZZ †ewk cwiewZ©Z n‡e| GKK
†ÿÎd‡ji Dci hZ¸Y ej cÖhy³ n‡e weK…wZI ZZ¸Y n‡e|
‡jLwP‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ cxob-weK…wZi m¤úK©
Graphical representation for stress-strain relation
wPÎ 7.13 G GKwU bgbxq (ductile) avZe Zv‡ii cxob-weK…wZ †jLwPÎ †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| GB †jLwPÎwU wb‡¤œv³ K‡qKwU
As‡k fvM Kiv hvq:

57
 (K) OA mij‡iLv: OA As‡k ZviwUi Ici cÖhy³ cxob
Gi weK…wZi mgvbycvwZK| A we›`y ch©šÍ ZviwU c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘i
g‡Zv AvPiY K‡i Ges û‡Ki m~Î †g‡b P‡j| A n‡jv AvbycvwZK
mxgv (Proportional limit) wb‡`©kK we›`y|
(L) AB †iLvsk: GB As‡k cxob I weK…wZ mvgbycvwZK
nq bv A_©vr û‡Ki Zm~Î †g‡b P‡j bv| GB As‡k cxob/weK…wZ Gi
gvb A‡cÿvK…Z Kg nq| Z‡e GB As‡k Avmvi ci ej AcmviY
Ki‡j ZviwU Zvi Av‡Mi Ae¯’A wd‡i cvq| B we›`ywU w¯’wZ¯’vcK
mxgv (elastic limit) wb‡`©k K‡i| †ewki fvM e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î A I B
we›`y Awfbœ Avevi iev‡ii †ÿ‡Î A I B Gi `~iZ¡ wKQzUv †ewk|
(M) BC ‡iLvsk: GB As‡k cxob/weK…wZ Gi AbycvZ AviI Kg‡Z _v‡K Ges e¯‘wU w¯’wZ¯’vcK ag© nviv‡Z _v‡K Ges
cøvw÷K ag© jvf Ki‡Z _v‡K| GB Ae¯’vq cÖhy³ ej Zz‡j wb‡j e¯‘wU Avi Av‡Mi Ae¯’v‡b wd‡i †h‡Z cv‡i bv| A_©vr
ZviwUi weK…wZ k~b¨ bv n‡q GKwU ¯’vqx gvb nq| d‡j ZviwUi ¯’vqx weK…wZ N‡U| C we›`ywU bwZ we›`y (yield point) e‡j|
G Ae¯’vq cxob Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í Kwg‡q k~b¨ Ki‡j weK…wZ k~b¨ bv n‡q ¯’vqx OO g‡b nq| OO n‡jv ¯’vqx ZweK…wZ| D‡jøL¨
†h A, B, C I D we›`y¸‡jv LyeB KvQvKvwQ nq, d‡j PviwU we›`yB cÖvq Awfbœ we›`y aiv hvq|
(O) DE ‡iLvsk: GB As‡k cxob/weK…wZ me‡P‡q Kg nq Ges ZviwUi †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv Ask miæ n‡q hvq| ZviwUi GB
As‡k cøvw÷K ag© eZ©gvb n‡q _v‡K|
(P) EF ‡iLvsk: GB As‡k Zv‡ii wewfbœ ¯’v‡b Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj `ªæZ Kg‡Z _v‡K Ges ZviwU wQ‡o hvq| F
we›`y‡Z cxo‡bi gvb‡K Amn cxob (breaking stress) e‡j|
myZivs, Amn cxo‡bi msÁv †jLv hvq- cÖwZ GKK cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i ‡ÿÎd‡j b~¨bZg †h e‡ji wµqvq ZviwU wQ‡o hvq, Zv‡K
IB Zv‡ii Amn cxob e‡j| Amn cxob‡K Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i ‡ÿÎdj w`‡q ¸Y K‡i Amn fvi (breaking weight) ev
Amn ej cvIqv hvq| D‡jøL¨ cxob w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv A‡cÿv Kg n‡jI Zv hw` e¯‘i Ici `xN©ÿY hveZ wµqvkxj _v‡K
Z‡e †m‡ÿ‡Î e¯‘i weK…wZ ¯’vqx n‡e|
Abyavebg~jK KvR: B¯úvZ ivev‡ii †P‡q †ewk w¯’wZ¯’vcK †Kb?
Avgiv Rvwb †Kv‡bv e¯‘i weK…wZ NUv‡Z hZ †ewk e‡ji cÖ‡qvRb nq Zvi cxobI ZZ †ewk nq| Avevi cxo‡bi gvb †ewk
n‡j Zvi w¯’wZ¯’vcKZvI †ewk nq| †mB wePv‡i †`Lv hvq ivevi A‡cÿv B¯úv‡Z weK…wZRvZ ej Z_v cxo‡bi gvb A‡b
†ewk| ZvB B¯úvZ ivevi A‡cÿv †ewk w¯’wZ¯’vcK|
weKí: g‡b Kwi GKB ˆ`N¨© L Ges GKB cÖ¯‡’ ”Q` ‡ÿÎdj A wewkó GKwU B¯úvZ I GKwU ivev‡ii fv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ
†Kv‡bv `„p KvVv‡gvi AvUwK‡q Aci cÖv‡šÍ GKwU Uvbv ej F cÖ‡qvM Kiv n‡jv| G‡Z G‡`i ˆ`N¨© e„w× h_vµ‡g Ls I lr nq|
FL
 Bqs- Gi ¸Yv¼, Ys = ... ... ... (7.5)
Al s
FL
Avevi, Yr = .... ... ... ... (7.6)
Al r
Ys FL Al r l r
 =   ... ... ... (7.7)
Yr Al s FL l s

wKš‘ ev¯Í‡e lr > ls AZGe Ys > Yr | A_©vr B¯úv‡Zi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ Y5, ivev‡ii w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ Yr Gi †P‡q
†ewk n‡e| w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ †ewk n‡j weK…wZi weiæ‡× cÖwZ‡iva ÿgZv †ewk n‡e| myZivs B¯úvZ ivevi A‡cÿv †ewk
w¯’wZ¯’vcK|

58
AbykxjbwU hvPvB Ki: †Kv‡bv w¯’wZ¯’vcKZvi Uvb cÖ‡qvM K‡i ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Ki‡j I‡Z w¯’wZkw³ mwÂZ nq| Uvb AcmviY
Ki‡j c„‡ói ˆ`©N¨ wd‡i cvq ZLb I‡Z GB kw³i wK cwieZ©b nq?
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼
Modulus of elasticity
û‡Ki m~Î †_‡K Avgiv cvB w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ cxob I weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU ayªe msL¨v| GB ayªe msL¨v‡K
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ e‡j|
msÁv: w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv e¯‘i cxob I weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ e‡j|
cxpb
 w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼, E =
weK  wZ
cxob I weK…wZ †¯‹jvi ivwk| Kv‡RB w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼I †¯‹jvi ivwk|
gvÎv: w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv‡¼i gvÎv I cxo‡bi gvÎv Awfbœ A_©vr, [E] = ML-1T-2]
GKK: w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv‡¼i GKK Nm-2 ev Pa

cxob I weK…wZi Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB †h, cxob I weK…wZi wewfbœZvi Rb¨ w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ wZb cÖKvi nq|
h_v- (1) Bqs-Gi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ (2) `„pZvi ¸Yv¼ (3) AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼|

Bqs-Gi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼

Young's modules
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i Aby‰`N©¨ cxob I Aby‰`N©¨ weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe ivwk| GB aªæe ivwk‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ e‡j| Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼‡K Y Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|

Aby‰`N©¨ cxob
Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼, Y =
Aby‡`N©¨ weK…wZ

e¨vL¨v: L Avw` ˆ`‡N©¨i I r e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU Zvi‡K †Kv‡bv `„p Aej¤^ †_‡K GK cÖvšÍ Szwj‡q ci cÖv‡šÍ m fi A_©vr F =
mg ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ hw` l cwigvY e„w× cvq Zvn‡j,
F l
ZviwUi Aby‰`N©¨ cxob = Ges Aby‰`N©¨ weK…wZ =
A L
Aby‰`N©¨ cxob
F/ A
AZGe, Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼, Y = Aby‡`N©¨ weK…wZ =
l/L

mgL
Y= ... ... ... (7.8)
r 2 l
(A = Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj = r2)
FL
hw` Y = mgxKi‡Y, A = l GKK Ges l = L nq, Z‡e Y = F n‡e|
Al
myZivs, GKK cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdjwewkó †Kv‡bv Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ †h ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j ZviwUi
ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Avw` ˆ`‡N©¨i mgvb nq Zv‡K Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ e‡j|
B¯úv‡Zi Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ = 2 × 1011 Nm-2 ej‡Z eySvq †h, 1 m2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i ‡ÿÎdjwewkó ‡Kv‡bv B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡ii

59
 w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi ˆ`N©¨ eivei 2 × 1011 N ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv n‡j ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Avw` ˆ`‡N©¨i mgvb nq|
KvR: L Avw` ˆ`‡N©¨i Zvi‡K F ej cÖ‡qv‡M l cwigvY ˆ`N©¨ m¤úªmvi‡Y K…ZKvR,
1
W= × cxob × weK…wZ
2
1 YAl 2
W=
2 L

cxob
Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ Y-Gi gvÎv: [w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼] =
weK…wZ

[Y] = [ML-1T-2]
Y Gi GKK: wbDUb/eM©wgUvi (Nm-2)
KvRwU AbymÜvb Ki: B¯úv‡Zi Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ Av‡Q; wKš‘ cvwbi Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ bvB †Kb?
1| 2 × 10-4 m2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdjwewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ wظY n‡e? [Y = 2 ×
1011 Pa]
g‡b Kwi, cÖhy³ ej = F GLv‡b, Y = 2 × 1011 Pa
Avgiv Rvwb, A = 2 × 10-4 m2
Y=
F L

Avw` ˆ`N©¨ L n‡j,
A l
‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 2L  L = L
YAl
ev, F =
L

2 1011Pa  2 10 4 m 2  L
=
L
= 4 × 107 Pa m2
= 4 × 107 N[  1Pa = 1 Nm-2]
2| 1 mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q`wewkó GKwU B¯ÍvcZ Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 5% e„w× Ki‡j KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? [B¯úv‡Zi ˆ`N©¨ Y =
2 × 1011 Nm-1]
Avgiv Rvwb, awi, Avw` ˆ`N©¨ = L
F L 5L
Y=   ˆ`N©¨ e„w×, l = = 0.05 L
A l 100

ev, F =
YAl ‡ÿÎdj, A = 1 mm2 = 1 × 10-4 m3
L
Y = 2 × 1011 Nm-2
2  1011  1  10 4  0.05L
= ej, F = ?
L
= 1 × 104 N
3| GKwU Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ 2 × 1011 Nm-2| ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ 15% e„w× Ki‡Z cÖhy³ cxob wbY©q Ki|

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

‰`N ¨ cxob F L Y = 2 × 1011 Nm-2
Y= = 
‰`N ¨ weK  wZ A l l 15
 15% 
F L 100
 ˆ`N©¨ cxob, = Y × ‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
A cxob = F/A = ?
= Y × l/L

60
 F 15
  2  1011 
A 100
= 3 × 1028 Nm-2

4| 1 eM© †mwg cÖ¯’‡”Q`wewkó GKwU Zv‡i KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv n‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Avw` ˆ`‡N©¨i mgvb n‡e? (Y = 2 × 1011
Nm-2)

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

Y=
FL Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼, Y = 2 × 1011 Nm-2
AL
awi Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = L
YAl 2  1011  10 4  L
ev, F =   ˆ`N©¨ e„w× l = L
L L
= 2 × 107 N cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i ‡ÿÎdj, A = 10-4 m2
ej, F = ?
5| `ywU mgvb ˆ`‡N©¨i Zv‡ii e¨vmv‡a©i AbycvZ 1:2| G‡`i Ici GKwU mgvb ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv n‡jv| hw` Zvi `ywUi ˆ`‡N©¨i
e„w×i AbycvZ 3:1 nq Z‡e Zvi `ywUi Dcv`v‡bi Bqs Gi ¸Yv‡¼i AbycvZ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Y1 l 2 A 2 l r 2 r1 : r2 = 1 : 2
  = 2  22
Y2 l1 A1 l1 r1 l1 : l2 = 3 : 1
l 2 r22
= 
l1 r12
2
=     
1 2
3  1 
4
=
3
6| 1 mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q`wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 5% e„w× Ki‡Z KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? Y = 2 × 1011
Nm-2
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

F=
YAl A = 1 mm2 = 1 × 10-6 m2
L 5
6
l = 5% = L = 0.05 L
2  10  1  10
11
 0.05L 100
= N
L Y = 2 × 1011 Nm-2
= 104 N
7| mgvb ˆ`‡N©¨i `ywU wfbœ c`v‡_©i Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei gvb ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv n‡jv| d‡j wØZxq ZviwU cÖ_gwUi 2.5 ¸Y
cÖmvwiZ n‡jv| Zvi `ywUi Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ h_vµ‡g 1.8 × 1011 N/m2 I 1.6 × 1011 N/m2| G‡`i e¨vmv‡a©i AbycvZ
wbY©q Ki|

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, l2 = 2.5 l1

Y=
F / A FL
 , l2 = 2.5 l1 Y1 = 1.8 × 1011 Nm-2
l / L Al
Y2 = 1.6 × 1011 Nm-2
YAl
F=
L

61
cÖkgœ ‡Z, F1 = F2
Y1A1l1 YA l
 = 2 2 2 ev, Y1A1l1 = Y2A2l2
L L
2 2
d 
ev, Y1 ×   1   l1 = Y2 ×   2  × 2.5l1
d
 2  2 
2
 d1  Y  2.5 1.6  2.5 d
   2   1 = 1.5
 2
d Y1 1.8 d 2

r1
 = 0.75
r2

 r1 : r2 = 0.75 : 1 (Ans)

K…šÍb ev `„pZv ev KvwV‡b¨i ¸Yv¼

Rigidity modulus
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i K…šbÍ cxob I K…šÍb weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K K…šbÍ ev `„pZv ev
KvwV‡b¨i ¸Yv¼ e‡j| G‡K n Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|

K…šÍb cxob
KvwV‡b¨i ¸Yv¼, n =
K…šÍb weK…wZ

e¨vL¨v: †Kv‡bv e¯‘i DcwiZ‡j ¯úk©x ej F cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j hw` K…šÍb weK…wZ  nq Ges c„‡ôi †ÿÎdj A nq, Zvn‡j,
F/ A F
n= ev, n = ... ... ... (7.9)
 A
KvwV‡b¨i ¸Yv‡¼i GKK I gvÎv Bqs-Gi ¸Yv‡¼i GKK I gvÎvi Abyiƒc|
‡jvnvi KvwV‡b¨i ¸Yv¼ 7.7 × 1010 Nm-2 ej‡Z Avgiv eywS †h, GKwU †jvnvi Nb‡Ki AvK…wZ cwieZ©b K‡i GK
‡iwWqvg e¨eZ©b †KvY Drcbœ Ki‡Z Gi DcwiZ‡ji cÖwZ eM©wgUvi †ÿÎd‡ji Dci 7.7 × 1010 N ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z
n‡e|
hvPvB Ki: w¯úªs mvaviYZ B¯úv‡Zi ˆZwi nq, Zvgvi nq bv †Kb?

AvqZb ¸Yv¼
Bulk moddulus
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i AvqZb cxob I AvqZb weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| †B aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
AvqZb ¸Yv¼ e‡j| G‡K K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|

AvqZb cxob
AZGe, AvqZb ¸Yv¼, K =
AvqZb weK…wZ

e¨vL¨v: aiv hvK, V AvqZ‡bi †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Dci j¤^fv‡e Pviw`K †_‡K F ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv n‡jv| d‡j e¯‘i AvqZb  n«vm
cvq| Zvn‡j AvqZb weK…wZ = /V| hw` e¯‘wUi c„‡ôi †ÿÎdj A nq Zvn‡j AvqZb cxob = F/A.

AvqZb cxob
F / A FV
AvqZb ¸Yv¼, K = =  ... ... (7.10)
AvqZb weK…wZ  / V A

62
 AvqZb ¸Yv‡¼i GKK I gvÎv Bqs-Gi ¸Yv‡¼i GKK I gvÎvi Abyiƒc| cvwbi AvqZb ¸Yv¼ = 0.2 × 1010 Nm-2
ej‡Z eySvq †h, cvwbi Avw` AvqZ‡bi mgvb AvqZb n«v‡mi Rb¨ Gi cÖwZ eM©wgUvi †ÿÎd‡ji Dci j¤^fv‡e Pviw`K †_‡K
0.2 × 1010 N ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e|

msbg¨Zv
Compressibility
‡Kv‡bv e¯‘i Pviw`K †_‡K mgvb Pvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j e¯‘wUi AvqZb K‡g hvq| e¯‘i G ag©‡K msbg¨Zv e‡j|

1
1
msbg¨Zv = AvqZb weK…wZ ¸Yv¼ ev msbg¨Zv, C = , GLv‡b K = AvqZb weK…wZ ¸Yv¼|
K
P PV
GLb K =  = 
V V
V
1 V
C= 
K PQ
MvwYwZK msÁv: AvqZb ¸Yv‡¼i wecixZ ivwk‡K msbg¨Zv e‡j|
[`ªóe¨: AvqZb ¸Yv¼‡K KLbI KLbI Amsbg¨Zv (Incompressibility) ejv nq| KwVb c`v‡_©i Y, K Ges n GB
wZb cÖKvi ¸Yv‡¼i me¸‡jvB Av‡Q| Zij I evqexq c`v‡_©i ïay AvqZb ¸Yv¼ K Av‡Q|] 7.1 mviwY‡Z wewfbœ c`v‡_©i
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ ‡`Lv‡bv n‡jv|
mviwY 7.1
c`v_© Y(Nm-2) n (Nm-2) K (Nm-2)
B¯úvZ 20 × 1010 8.4 × 1010 18 × 1010
Zvgv 12.6 × 1010 4 × 1010 14 × 1010
‡jvnv (XvjvB) 11 × 1010 4.4 × 1010 9 × 1010
A¨vjywgwbqvg 7 × 1010 2.6 × 1010 7.5 × 1010
mxmv 1.6 × 1010 0.56 × 1010 4.6 × 1010
cvwb __ __ 0.2 × 1010
cvi` __ __ 2.6 × 1010

w¯’wZ¯’vcK wefekw³ ev w¯’wZkw³

Elastic potential energy
hLb †Kv‡bv e¯‘ Zvi ¯^vfvweK AvK…wZ wb‡q Ae¯’vb K‡i ZLb Zvi AvYweK ejRwbZ w¯’wZkw³ me©wb¤œ _v‡K| evB‡i †_‡K
IB e¯‘‡Z †Kv‡bv ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j A_©vr evwn¨K e‡ji cÖfv‡e e¯‘wU‡K weK…Z Ki‡j e¯‘i g‡a¨ Af¨šÍixY cÖwZwµqv e‡ji
D™¢e nq hv cÖhy³ ej‡K evav cÖ`vb K‡i Ges evwn¨K ej‡K GB Af¨šÍixY cÖwZwµqv e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR m¤úvv`b K‡i
e¯‘‡K weK…Z Ki‡Z nq| GB KvR e¯‘i g‡a¨ w¯’wZ iƒ‡c mwÂZ _v‡K| GB kw³‡KB e¯‘i w¯’wZ¯’vcK wefe kw³ ev
w¯’wZkw³ e‡j|
(K) Aby‰`N©¨ weK…wZi Rb¨ K…Z KvR (Work done for longitudinal strain)
aiv hvK L ˆ`‡N©¨i GKwU Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q` A Ges Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Bqs -Gi ¸Yv¼ Y| ZviwUi GKwU `„p Aej¤^‡bi mv‡_
AvUwK‡q Ab¨ cÖv‡šÍ IRb W Szjv‡bv n‡jv [wPÎ 7.14]| Gi d‡j ZviwUi cwigvY e„w× †cj| GB ˆ`N©¨ e„w× l-‡K AmsL¨
ÿz`ª ÿz`ª ˆ`N©¨ e„w× dl-Gi mgwó we‡ePbv Kiv †h‡Zv| GLb dl ‰`N©¨ e„w× Ki‡Z K…Z KvR, dW = F.dl

63
 myZivs, l ‰`N©¨ e„w× Ki‡Z K…Z KvR,
l
W =  F.dl ... ... ...
0

Avevi Avgiv Rvwb,

F/A l
Y= ev, F = Y. A ... ...
l/L L
mgxKiY (i) G F Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
l YA l
 Y L Adl  
l
W= Idl
0 L 0
l
YA  p  YA l 2
=   
L  2  L 2

1 YAl 2
ev, W = ... ... ...
2 L
(iii)
1 1  1
ev, W =  Y. .A  .l = × F × L mgxKiY (ii) e¨envi K‡i
2 2  2
1
 K…Z KvR = × cÖhy³ ej × ‰`N©¨ e„w×
2
GB KvR e¯‘‡Z w¯’wZkw³iƒ‡c mwÂZ _v‡K|
AZGe, GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ w¯’wZkw³ ev kw³ NbZ¡,
W 1 F l
=   [ V = AL]
V 2 AlL
1 F l
=  
2 A L
1
= × ‰`N©¨ cxob × ‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
2
1
A_©vr, GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ kw³ = × ‰`N©¨ cxob × ‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
2
(L) AvqZb weK…wZi Rb¨ K…Z KvR (Work done for volume strain)
aiv hvK, V AvqZ‡bi †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici Awfj¤^ Pvc
P cÖ‡qvM Kivq Gi AvqZb p cwigvY n«vm cvq|
P P K
G‡ÿ‡Î K…Z KvR, W =  Pd  
P
d [ AvqZb weK…wZ ¸Yv¼, K = ]
  V 
V
1K 2
= 
2V
GB KvR e¯‘‡Z w¯’wZkw³iƒ‡c mwÂZ _v‡K|
AZGe, GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ kw³ ev kw³ NbZ¡,
W 1 K 2 1K 
=    
V 2 V V V V
1  1
= P = × AvqZb cxob × AvqZb weK…wZ
2 V 2
(M) K…šÍb weK…wZi `iæb K…Z KvR (Work done for shearing strain)

64
aiv hvK, GKwU NbK AvKv‡ii e¯‘i ˆ`N©¨ = L| e¯‘wUi wb¤œZj Ave× †i‡L Ic‡ii Z‡ji Ici mwc©bxfv‡e
(tangtentially) F ej cÖ‡qvM Kivq Ic‡ii Zj wb‡Pi Z‡ji mv‡c‡ÿ l `~iZ¡ m‡i †Mj| AZGe, e¯‘wU‡K Drcbœ K…šÍb
l
weK…wZ = | GLb, e¯‘wUi `„pZv ¸Yv¼,
L
F/A
n=
l/L
GLb aiv hvK, F e‡ji Rb¨ wb‡Pi Z‡ji mv‡c‡ÿ Ic‡ii Z‡ji AwZÿz`ª miY dl nq, Zvn‡j K„Z KvR, dW = Fdl
AZGe, l mi‡Yi Rb¨ K…Z KvR n‡e,
l
W =  Fdl
0

l
ev, W =  nLdl
F L F
[ n =   ]
0 L2 l Ll
l nLl 2
 W = nL  ldl 
0 2

=
1
nLll = 1 F  l
2 2
W 1 F l l F l
 kw³ NbZ¡, =  3 =  2
V 2 L 2 L L
1
=  cxob × weK…wZ
2
AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: GKwU Uvbv Zvi nVvr wQu‡o †M‡j ZviwU †Kb DËß nq?- e¨vL¨v Ki|
‡Kv‡bv Uvbv Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ e„wׇZ †h KvR Kiv nq Zv Zv‡ii g‡a¨ w¯’wZkw³iƒ‡c mwÂZ _v‡K| GLb †Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y ZviwU
wQu‡o †M‡j Zv‡ii mwÂZ IB w¯’wZkw³ Zvckw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq, d‡j ZviwU DËß nq|
4| GKRb evj‡Ki ¸jwZ 5 mm e¨vm I 36 cm ˆ`N©¨ ivev‡ii wdZv w`‡q ˆZwi| evjKwU wdZv‡K 18 cm ‡U‡b GKwU
cv_‡ii ¸wj‡K Qzoj| ¸wjwUi fi 0.02 kg| ¸wjwU ¸jwZ †_‡K 15 ms-1 ‡e‡M Qz‡U †M‡j ivev‡ii Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q
Ki|

¸wjwUi MwZkw³ =
1 1
mv2 = × 0.02 × (15)2
GLv‡b,
2 2
¸jwZi e¨vm = 5 mm = 5 × 10-3 m
= 2.25 J
5
¸wjwUi wdZv KZ…K
© K…Z KvR, ¸jwZi e¨vmva©, r = × 103 m
2
W = Mo ej × we¯Í…wZ = 2.5 × 10-3 m
=
1
× F × 0.18 J ¸jwZi ˆ`N©¨ = 36 cm = 0.36 m
2
wdZvi we¯Í…wZ, r = 18 cm = 0.18 m
wdZv KZ…K
© K…Z KvRB ¸wjwUi MwZkw³‡Z cwiYZ nq|
¸jwZi fi, m = 0.02 kg
1
AZGe,  F  0.18  225 ¸wji †eM,  = 15 ms-1
2
225  2
ev, F = = 25 N
0.18
F 25 25
GLb, cxob =  
A r 2 5 
2
3.14    10  3 
2 
25
=

3.14 25  10  3 
2

65
 0.18 1
Ges weK…wZ = 
0.36 2
AZGe, ivev‡ii Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼,
cxob
Y= weK…wZ

25

= 3.142.5  10  =
3 2
25  2
1 
3.14  2.5  10  3 
2

2
50
= = 2.55 × 107 Nm-2
3.14  2.5  10
2 6

5| 4.0 mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q`wewkó Ges 2.5 m ˆ`‡N©¨i GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zvi‡K †U‡b 2.5 mm ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Kiv n‡jv| Uvb Kiv
Ae¯’vq ZviwU‡Z mwÂZ w¯’wZkw³ wbY©q Ki| (B¯úv‡Zi Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ Y = 2.5 × 1011 Nm-2)

Avgiv Rvwb, ZviwU‡Z mwÂZ w¯’wZkw³, GLv‡b,

Ep = ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ cÖmvi‡Yi `iæb K…Z KvR A = 40 mm2 = 4 × 10-6 m2
1 L = 25 m
ev Ep = ×F×l ... (i)
2 l = 25 mm = 25 × 10-3 m
F/A
GLv‡b F n‡jv cÖhy³ ej Ges l n‡jv ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Avevi, Y = Y = 2.0 × 1011 Nm-2
l/L
F Yl
ev, 
A L
l
ev, F = Y × ×A
L
F Gi gvb mgxKiY (i)-G ewm‡q cvB,

×  Y   A   l
1 l
Ep =
2  L 

1  2.5  103 
 Ep = ×  2.0  1011   4.0  10 6  × 2.5 × 10-3
2  2.5 
= 1.0 × 1011 × 1 × 10-3 × 4.0 × 10-6 2.5 × 10-6 × 2.5 × 10-3
= 1.0 J

cqm‡bi AbycvZ
Poisson's ratio
c~‡e© Av‡jvwPZ wZbwU w¯’wZ¯’vcK ayªeK Qvov AviI GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ayªyeK Av‡Q| GwU Avwe®‹vi K‡ib
weÁvbx cqmb| Zvui bvgvbymv‡i GB aªæe‡Ki bvg †`Iqv n‡q‡Q cqmb-Gi AbycvZ|
‡Kv‡bv GKwU Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ `„p Aej¤^‡bi mv‡_ AvUwK‡q Ab¨ cÖv‡šÍ ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i Uvb‡j ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZi m‡½ m‡½ cvk¦©
weK…wZ N‡U| A_©vr Zv‡ii e¨vm ev e¨vmva© K‡g hvq| cqmb- Gi cixÿv Ges cÖvß djvdj Abymv‡i w¯’wZ¯’AcK mxgvi
g‡a¨ e¯‘i cvk¦© weK…wZ I ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe ivwk|
cvk¦© weK…wZ
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
66
 A_©vr, = aªæeK| GB aªæeK‡K '’ Øviv m~wPZ Kiv nq| Gi bvg cqmb-Gi AbycvZ|

cvk¦© weK…wZ
=
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ

e¨vL¨v: g‡b Kwi, GKwU Zv‡ii Avw` ˆ`N©¨ 'L' Ges e¨vmva© 'r' [wPÎ 7.18]|
ZviwUi GK cÖvšÍ `„p Aej¤^‡bi mv‡_ AvUwK‡q wb¤œ cÖv‡šÍ ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i
Uvb‡j ˆ`N©¨ e„w× cv‡e Ges cvk¦© n«vm cv‡e| g‡b Kwi ˆ`N©¨ e„w× †c‡q L n‡jv
Ges e¨vmva© n«vm †c‡q r n‡jv|
AZGe, ˆ`N©¨ e„w× = L  L = L
Ges e¨vmva© n«vm = r  r = r
r L
myZivs, cvk¦© weK…wZ = Ges ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ =
r L
cvk¦© weK…wZ
 cqmb-Gi AbycvZ,  = ... ...
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
(7.20)

r / r L r
= =
L / L r L
L abvZ¥K n‡j r-FYvZ¥K nq| Avevi L FYvZ¥K n‡j r abvZ¥K nq|
L r
= ... ... (7.21)
r L
cqmb-Gi AbycvZ †KejgvÎ KwVb c`v‡_©iB ‰ewkó¨|
1 1
 Gi gvb: †Kv‡bv c`v‡_©i cqmb-Gi AbycvZ 1 n‡Z Gi ga¨eZ©x, A_©vr, 1 <  < G
2 2
gvÎv I GKK: cqm‡bi AbycvZ `ywU weK…wZi AbycvZ, ZvB Gi †Kv‡bv gvÎv I GKK †bB|
Zvrch©: Zvgvi cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.33 ej‡Z eySvq †h w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ ˆ`N©¨ eivei ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j cvk¦ weK…wZ
I ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZi AbycvZ 0.33 nq|
1 1 1
 Gi gvb 1 A‡cÿv †ewk Ges A‡cÿv Kg nq| A_©vr  Gi gvb 1 n‡Z Gi g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z (1 <  < )|
2 2 2
1
wKš‘ ev¯Í‡e  Gi FYvZ¥K gvb m¤¢e bq| ZvB  Gi ev¯Íe gv‡bi mxgv 0 <  < | cÖK…Z c‡ÿ †`Lv hvq -Gi gvb
2
0.2 †_‡K 0.4 Gi g‡a¨ _v‡K|
cqm‡bi AbycvZ w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ bq; GwU GKwU w¯’wZ¯’vcK aªæeK| GB AbycvZ †Kej e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi Ici wbf©i
K‡i| cqm‡bi AbycvZ ïaygvÎ KwVb c`v‡_©i ˆewkó¨, Zij ev M¨v‡mi Rb¨ GB AbycvZ †bB|
1| 150 cm ‰`‡N©¨i GKwU avZe Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ AvU‡K †i‡L Aci cÖv‡šÍ Zvi Szjv‡j 2 mm ˆ`‡N©¨i cÖmviY nq|
Zv‡ii e¨vm 1 mm Ges Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.24 n‡j cÖmvwiZ Ae¯’vi ZviwUi e¨v‡mi cwieZ©bn wbY©q
Ki|
d / d GLv‡b, Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l = 150 cm
Avgiv Rvwb,  =
l / L
‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 2mm = 0.2 m
  l  d 0.24  0.2  0.1
 Zv‡ii e¨v‡mi cwieZ©b,  =  Zv‡ii e¨vm, d = 1 mm = 0.1 m
l 150
= 3.2 × 10-5 cm d = ?

67
 2| 1m `xN© †Kv‡bv Zv‡ii e¨vm 5 mm| Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei GKwU ej cÖ‡qvM Kivq Gi e¨vm 0.01 mm n«vm cvq Ges
ˆ`N©¨ 2 cm e„w× cvq| cqm‡bi AbycvZ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
e¨vm weK…wZ L = 1m = 1000 cm
cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  = ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ
l = 2 cm
D = 5 mm = 0.5 cm
d d = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
= D  dL =?
l Dl
L
0.001  100
=  0.1
0.5  2
3| GKwU Zv‡ii ‰`N©¨ 2m Ges e¨vm 5 mm| Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei GKwU ej cÖ‡qvM Kivq Gi e¨vm 0.01 mm n«vm cvq
Ges ˆ`N©¨ 5% e„w× cvq| cqm‡bi AbycvZ KZ n‡e?

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

dL 1  10 5  2 Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 2 cm
cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  = 
Dl 5  10  3  0.1 e¨vm, D = 5 mm = 5 × 10-5 m
2  10 5 n«vmK…Z e¨vm, d = 0.01 mm = 1 × 10-3 m
=
0.5  10  3
25
= 4 × 10-2 = .04 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = L × 5% = = 0.1 wU
100

4| 2mm e¨v‡mi GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 15% e„w× Ki‡Z KZ KN ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e d‡j Zv‡`i e¨v‡mi
KZUv cwieZ©b n‡e? [B¯úv‡Zi Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ 2 × 1011 N/m2 Ges cqm‡bi AbycvZ]

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

YlA Yl  r 2 Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 2 cm
F= 
L L e¨vm, D = 5 mm = 5 × 10-5 m
2  1011  0.15L  3.14  10 6 n«vmK…Z e¨vm, d = 0.01 mm = 1 × 10-3 m
=
L
25
= 2 × 1011 × 0.15 × 3.14 × 10-6 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = L × 5% = = 0.1 wU
100
= 9.42 × 106 N = 94.2 KN
dL
=
Dl
Dl 0.25  2  0.15L
ev, d =  = 0.75 mm
L L

w¯’wZ¯’vcK aªæeK¸‡jvi g‡a¨ m¤úK©

Relation amonng the elastic constants
Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ Y, `„pZv ¸Yv¼ m, AvqZb ¸Yv¼ K Ges cqmb-Gi AbycvZ  Gi g‡a¨ wb‡¤œv³ i‡q‡Q:
(K) Y, K I -Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK©: Y = 3K (1  2)
(L) Y, K I  Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK©: Y = 2m (1 + )

68
 3K  2n
(M) K, n I -Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK© =  =
6K  2m
1| 150 cm ˆ`‡N©¨i GKwU avZe Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ AvU‡K †i‡L Aci cÖv‡šÍ fvi Szjv‡j 2mm ˆ`N©¨ cÖmviY nq| fv‡ii
e¨vm 1 mm Ges Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.24 n‡j cÖmvwiZ Ae¯’vi ZviwUi e¨v‡mi cwieZ©b wbY©q Ki|
d / d GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,  =
l / L
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l = 150 cm
  l  d
 Zv‡ii e¨v‡mi cwieZ©b,  = = ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 2mm 0.2 cm
l
0.24  0.2  0.1 Zv‡ii e¨vm, d = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
150 d = ?
= 3.2 × 10-5 cm

2| 1m `xN© †Kv‡bv Zv‡ii e¨vm 5 mm| Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei GKwU ej c‡ªqvM Kivq Gi e¨vm 0.01 mm n«vm cvq Ges
‰`N©¨ 2 cm e„w× cvq| cqm‡bi AbycvZ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, e¨vm weK…wZ GLv‡b,
cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  = L = 1 m = 100 cm
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ
l = 2 cm
d D = 5 mm = 0.5 cm
= D  dL d = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
l Dl
L =?
0.001  100
= = 0.1
0.5  2

3| GKwU Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 2m Ges e¨vm 5mm| Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei GKwU ej cÖ‡qvM Kivq Gi e¨vm 0.01 mm n«vm cvq
Ges ‰`N©¨ 5% e„w× cvq| cqm‡bi AbycvZ KZ n‡e?

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

dL 1  10 5  2 Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 2m
cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  = 
Dl 5  10  3  0.1 e¨vm, D = 5mm = 5 × 10-3 m
2  10 5 n«vmK…Z e¨vm, d = 0.01 mm = 1 × 10-5 m
=
0.5  10  3
25
= 4 × 10-2 = 04 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = L × 5% = = 0.1 m
100
cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  = ?

4| 2mm e¨v‡mi GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 15% e„w× Ki‡Z KZ KN ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? Gi d‡j Zv‡`i e¨v‡mi
KZUv cwieZ©b n‡e? [B¯úv‡Zi Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ 2 × 1011 N/m2 Ges cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.25]

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, l = 15%L =

15
L = 0.15 L
100
YlA Yl  r 2
F= 
L L D 2 10 3
r=  m = 1 × 10-3 m
2 2
2 1011  0.15L  3.14 10 6
= Y = 2 × 1011 Nm-2
L

69
= 2 × 1011 × 0.15 × 3.14 × 10-6  = 0.25
= 9.42 × 106 N = 94.2 KN d=?
dL
=
Dl
dl 0.25  2  0.15L
ev, d =  = 0.075 mm
L L
w¯’wZ¯’vcK aªæeK¸‡jvi g‡a¨ m¤úK©
Relation among the elastic contants
Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼ Y, `„pZv ¸Yv¼ m, AvqZb ¸Yv¼ K Ges cqmb-Gi AbycvZ  Gi g‡a¨ wb‡¤œv³ m¤úbœ i‡q‡Q:
(K) Y, K I  Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK©: Y = 3K (1  2)
(L) Y, n I  Gi g‡a¨ ¤úK©: Y = 2m (1 + )
3K  2m
(M) K, n I  Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK© =  =
6K  2m

e¯‘i Dci Zv‡ci cÖfve

†h hš¿ Øviv e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv wbfz©jfv‡e cwigvc Kiv hvq Zv‡K Zvcgvb-hš¿ ev _v‡g©vwgUvi (Thermometer) e‡j|
ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©‡b c`v‡_©i M‡h we‡kl we‡kl ag© wbqwgZfv‡e cwiewZ©Z nq Ges †h a‡g©i cwieZ©b j&l K‡i mnR I
mwVKfv‡e ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv hvq Zv‡K DòZvwgwZ ag© (Thermometric properties) e‡j Ges †h mKj c`v‡_©i
DòZvwgwZ ag© e¨envi K‡i _v‡g©vwgUvi ˆZwi Kiv nq Zv‡`i‡K DòZvwgwZ c`v_© (Thermo-metric substances)
e‡j| mvaviYZ DòZvwgwZ c`v‡_©i ev Zvi a‡g©i bvg Abymv‡i _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii bvgKiY Kiv nq| †hgb cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi,
†iva _v‡g©vwgUvi BZ¨vw`| _v‡g©vwgUvi cÖ¯‘ZKv‡j GB DòZvwgwZ ag© Ges DòZvwgwZ c`v‡_©i Dci wbf©i K‡i ZvcgvÎv
cwigvc Kiv nq| †hg cvi` _v‡g©vwgUv‡i cvi‡`i cÖmviY n‡jv DòZvwgwZ ag© Ges cvi` n‡jv DòZvwgwZ c`v_©| GB
bxwZ e¨envi K‡i Zvcxq mgZv I ZvcgvÎvi aviYv e¨vL¨v Kiv n‡jv|
Zvcxq mgZv
Thermal equilibrium
GKwU DËß †jvnvi ej‡eM Kÿ ZvcgvÎvi GKwU ¯’v‡b †i‡L `vI| Kx †`L‡Z cv‡e? †`Lv hv‡e †h, DËß e¯‘ Zvc nviv‡Z
_vK‡e Ges hZÿY ch©šÍ DËß e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv Kÿ ZvcgvÎv Z_v cwicv‡k¦©i ZvcgvÎvi mgvb bv n‡e ZZÿY ch©šÍ Zvc
nviv‡bv cÖwµqv Pj‡Z _vK‡e| GKBiƒc NUbv jÿ Kiv hvq hw` `ywU wfbœ ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘i g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK Zvcxq ms‡hvM
Kiv nq| G‡ÿ‡Î D”P ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘ n‡Z wb¤œ ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘‡Z Zvc cÖevwnZ nq Ges GK mgq Dfq e¯‘B GKB
ZvcgvÎvq DcbxZ nq| ZLb ejv nq e¯‘ `ywU Zvcxq mgZvq Av‡Q|
A_©vr GKvwaK e¯‘ hw` Zvcxqfv‡e mshy³ _v‡K Ges Zv‡`i g‡a¨ Zv‡ci †Kv‡bv Av`vb cÖ`vb bv NU‡j e¯‘¸wj Zvcxq
mgZvi Av‡Q aiv nq| G msµvšÍ ZvcMwZwe`¨vi m~ÎwU n‡jv Ôk~b¨Zg m~ÎÕ ev Zeroth Law.
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi k~b¨Zg m~Î (Zeroth law of thermodynamics): `ywU e¯‘ hw` Z…Zxq †Kv‡bv e¯‘i mv‡_ Zvcxq
mvg¨ve¯’vq _v‡K Z‡e cÖ_‡gv³ e¯‘ `ywU ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡e| G‡K ZvcMwZwe`¨vi k~b¨Zg m~Î ejv
nq|

70
 e¨vL¨v: `ywU e¯‘ mvg¨ve¯’vq Av‡Q, Zv wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨ Z…Zxq GKwU
e¯‘ e¨envi Kiv nq| aiv hvK P I Q DfqB Z…Zxq e¯‘ R-Gi ms¯ú‡k©
ZivLv n‡jv [wPÎ 1.1]| wKQzÿY c‡i ‡`Lv hv‡e P I Q DfqB Z…Zxq e¯‘
R-Gi mv‡_ Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯’vq †cŠuQ‡e| GLb Kzcwievnx †`IqvjwU mwi‡q
Mwb‡jI P I Q-Gi ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b n‡e bv| G †_‡K eySv
hv‡”Q †h †`Iqvj miv‡bvi Av‡MB P I Q ci¯úi Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯’vq
†cŠu‡Q‡Q| GB D`vniY †_‡KB Dc‡ii m~Î cÖgvwYZ nq| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi
k~b¨Zg m~Î †_‡K mivmwi wm×všÍ MÖnY Kiv hvq †h, cÖwZwU e¯‘i Ggb GKwU
ag© Av‡Q hv Ab¨ GKwU e¯‘i m‡½ mgvb n‡j e¯‘ `ywU ci¯úi Zvcxq mv‡g¨
_vK‡e| GB ag©wUB n‡jv ZvcgvÎv| GB m~‡Îi Dci wfwË K‡B _v‡g©vwgUvi ˆZwi Kiv n‡q‡Q|

ZvcgvÎvi aviYv
Concept of temperature
Mig ev VvÛvi Abyf‚wZ Avgv‡`i mK‡jiB i‡q‡Q| myZivs †Kv‡bv GKwU e¯‘ Kx cwigvY Mig ev VvÐv Zvi cwigvc‡K IB
e¯‘i AvcvZ ZvcgvÎv e‡j| A_©vr AvcvZfv‡e ejv hvq ZvcgvÎv ej‡Z e¯‘i DËv‡ci cwigvY (degree of heat) eySvq|
g‡b Ki `ywU e¯‘ i‡q‡Q GKwU e¯‘ A Ges AciwU B| hw` ¯úk© Ki‡j A e¯‘ B e¯‘ A‡cÿv †ewk Mig Abyf‚Z nq, Z‡e
Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi e¯‘ A-Gi ZvcgvÎv †ewk Ges e¯‘ B-Gi ZvcgvÎv Kg| wbLyuZfv‡e ZvcgvÎvi wb¤œwjwLZ msÁv †`qv
†h‡Z cv‡i:
ZvcgvÎv n‡jv e¯‘i GKwU MZvcxq Ae¯’v hv IB e¯‘ n‡Z Ab¨ e¯‘‡Z Zv‡ci cÖevn wbqš¿Y K‡i Ges Zvc cÖev‡ni AwfgyL
wba©viY K‡i|

ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î

First law of thermodynamics
aviYv
Concept
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î Av‡jvPbv Kivi Av‡M Avgv‡`i Rvbv `iKvi ZvcMwZwe`¨v Kx? Avgiv Rvwb, KvR Kivi mvg_©¨‡K
kw³ e‡j| wewfbœ cÖKvi kw³i mv‡_ Avgiv cwiwPZ| ‡hgb hvwš¿K kw³, Zvckw³, kã kw³ BZ¨vw`| Gme kw³i g‡a¨
cvi¯úwiK iƒcvšÍi N‡U| me iƒcvšÍ‡ii g‡a¨B †`Lv hvq †h, me iKg kw³ AwZ wbixÿvi mvnv‡h¨ cÖgvY K‡ib †h, KvR
Z_v hvwš¿K kw³ n‡Z Zvc Drcbœ nq Ges Zvc MwZiB GKwU iƒc| Zv‡`i GB gZev` n‡ZB e¯‘Z ZvcMwZwe`¨vi
m~ÎcvZ| c`v_©weÁv‡bi †h kvLv Zvc I hvwš¿K kw³i ci¯úi iƒcvšÍi I m¤úK© wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv‡K ZvcMwZwe`¨v
(Thermodynamics) e‡j|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi m~Îvewj Av‡jvPbvi c~‡e© ZvcMwZ m¤úKx©q K‡qKwU ivwki msÁv Avgv‡`i Rvbv cÖ‡qvRb|
(K) ZvcMZxq e¨e¯’v ev wm‡÷g (Thermodynamic system): ZvcMZxq e¨e¯’v ev wm‡÷g ej‡Z Zj ev †eóbx Øviv
mxgve× †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó cwigvY e¯‘‡K eySvq †hLv‡b ZvcMZxq Pjivwk (Pvc, AvqZb, ZvcgvÎv) cwigvc Kiv hvq| ‡hgb
GKwU wc÷bhy³ wmwjÛv‡i A_ev GKwU †ejy‡b Ave× M¨vm‡K Avgiv ZvcMZxq e¨e¯’v ev wm‡÷g e‡j _vwK| wKš‘
XvKbvnxb nvuwo‡Z cvwb †dvUv‡bv n‡j Zv‡K wm‡÷g ejv nq bv|
(L) cwicvk¦© (Sorroundings): GKwU e¨e¯’vi Av‡kcv‡ki me wKQz‡K ejv nq cwicvk¦©| †hgb wc÷b I wmwjÛv‡ii
Av‡kcv‡ki evqy n‡jv Gi cwicvk¦|© Ab¨fv‡e ejv hvq, †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó e¨e¯’vi mv‡_ kw³ wewbg‡q mÿg ‡h †Kv‡bv e¨e¯’v‡K
IB e¨e¯’vi cwicvk¦© e‡j|

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(M) ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼ (Thermodynamic co-ordinates): ‡h mKj ivwki gvb †Kv‡bv e¨e¯’vi Ae¯’v wba©viY K‡i
†m¸wj‡K e¨e¯’vi ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼ e‡j|
‡hgb wmwjÐv‡i Ave× M¨vm n‡jv e¨e¯’v Ges M¨v‡mi Ae¯’vi ˆewkó¨ wb‡`©k K‡i Gi Pvc, AvqZb I cig ZvcgvÎv| ZvB
Pvc, AvqZb I cig ZvcgvÎv‡K ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼ e‡j|
(N) mvg¨ve¯Ív (Equilibrium): ‡Kv‡bv wew”Qbœ e¨e¯’vi P‚ovšÍ AwePj (steady) Ae¯’v‡K ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v e‡j|
mvg¨ve¯’vq e¨e¯’vi mKj we›`y‡Z ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼ A_©vr Pvc, AvqZb, ZvcgvÎvi gvb mgvb|
(O) ZvcMZxq cÖwµqv (Therodynamic process): ‡Kv‡bv e¨e¯’vi ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼mg~‡ni †h †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b‡K
ZvcMZxq cÖwµqv ejv nq|
(P) Af¨šÍixY ev AšÍ¯’ kw³ (Internal energy): ‡Kv‡bv wm‡÷‡gi g‡a¨ †h kw³ AšÍwb©wnZ ev myß Ae¯’vq _v‡K ev
cwi‡ek cwiw¯’wZ‡Z ewntcÖKvk NUvq Zv‡KM Af¨šÍixY ev AšÍ¯’ kw³ e‡j| wm‡÷‡g Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j Af¨šÍixY kw³
e„w× cvq| Avi Zvc cÖ‡qvM bv Ki‡j Af¨šÍixY kw³ aªæe (constant) _v‡K|
weÁvbx Ryj me©cÖ_g KvR I Zv‡ci g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb K‡ib Ges m¤úK©wU m~ÎvKv‡i cÖKvk K‡ib| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g
m~Î e¨envi ZK‡i wm‡÷‡g m¤úvw`Z KvR, Af¨šÍixY kw³ wbY©q Kiv hvq| G‡K Ry‡ji gZev` e‡j| weÁvbx Ryj
wb¤œwjwLZ Dcv‡q ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î wee„Z K‡ib|
m~Î: hLb KvR m¤ú~Y©fv‡e Zv‡c ev Zvc m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c Zv‡c cwiYZ nIqvq Q cwigvY Zvc Drcbœ nq, Z‡e ZvcMwZwe`¨vi
cÖ_g m~Îvbymv‡i, W  Q
ev, W = JQ
GLv‡b J GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| G‡K Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZv (mechanical equivalent of heat) ev Ryj Zzj¨v¼
(Joule's equivalent) e‡j|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~‡Îi GKwU we‡kl iƒc| weÁvbx K¬wmqvm (Clausius) GB m~·K mvaviYfv‡e
cÖKvk K‡ib| Zvui g‡Z Zvckw³ Ab¨ †Kv‡bv kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j wKsev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv kw³ Zvckw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j
wm‡÷‡gi †gvU kw³i cwigvY GKB _v‡K| G‡K K¬wmqv‡mi gZev` e‡j| weÁvbx K¬wmqvm wb¤œwjwLZ Dcv‡q ZvcMwZwe`¨vi
cÖ_g m~·K wee„Z K‡ib|
m~Î: hLb †Kv‡bv e¨e¯’vq (system) Zvc mieivn Kiv nq ev e¨e¯’v KZ…©K Zvc M„nxZ nq, ZLb Gi wKQz Ask Af¨šÍixY
kw³ e„w× Ki‡Z A_©vr ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡Z Ges Aewkó Ask evwn¨K KvR m¤úv`‡b e¨q nq| A_©vr, cÖ`Ë Zvc =
Af¨šÍixY kw³ e„w× + evwn¨K KvR|
AbymÜvbg~jK KvRN: RjcÖcv‡Zi cvwb Ici n‡Z wb‡P co‡j wb‡Pi cvwbi DòZv Ic‡ii cvwbi Zzjbvq mvgvb¨ †ewk nq-
e¨vL¨v Ki|
Ic‡ii cvwbi w¯’wZkw³ wb‡P _vKv cvwbi Zzjbvq †ewk| Ici n‡Z cvwb wb‡P covi mgq cvwbi GB w¯’wZkw³ MwZkw³‡Z
iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡Z _v‡K| f‚-c„ô ¯úk© Kivi gyn~‡Z© cvwbi MwZkw³ wKQzUv Zvckw³ I kãkw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| GB Zvckw³
AR©‡bi Rb¨B wb‡Pi cvwbi DòZv mvgvb¨ e„w× cvq|

ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi Zvrch©

Significance of the first law of thermodynamics
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi wb¤œwjwLZ Zvrch© i‡q‡Q:
(1) GwU Zvc I Kv‡Ri g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb K‡i|
(2) GB m~Î Abyhvqx wbw`©ó cwigvY KvR †c‡Z n‡j wbw`©ó cwigvY Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb A_ev wbw`©ó cwigvY Zvc †c‡Z n‡j
wbw`©ó cwigvY KvR m¤úv`b Kiv cÖ‡qvRb|
(3) †Kv‡bv wKQz e¨q bv K‡i KvR ev kw³ cvIqv Am¤¢e|

72
(4) KvR I Zvc G‡K Ac‡ii mgZzj¨|
(5) GwU kw³i msiÿY m~Î Qvov Avi wKQzB bq| †h †Kv‡bv e¨e¯’vq m¤úbœ KvR I Af¨šÍixY kw³ cwieZ©‡bi mgwó me©`v
cÖhy³ Zv‡ci mgvb|
(6) Ggb †Kv‡bv h‡š¿i D™¢veb nqwb hv R¡vjvwb ev kw³ e¨wZ‡i‡K KvR Ki‡Z mÿg A_©vr AbšÍ MwZhy³ hš¿ (perpetual
motion machine) D™¢veb m¤¢e bq ev kw³ e¨q bv K‡i ‡Kv‡bv KvR cvIqv m¤¢e bq|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î e¨envi K‡i Zvc, Af¨šÍixY kw³ Ges Kv‡Ri g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb Kiv hvq| GQvov wewfbœ Zvcxq
c×wZ‡Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY Rvbv hvq| wm‡÷gwU Zvc MÖnY Ki‡Q bv Zvc nviv‡”Q G m¤ú‡K©I aviYv cvIqv hvq| wb‡¤œi
e¨vL¨v¸‡jv jÿ Kiv:
‡Kv‡bv ms¯’v dQ Zvc †kvlY Kivi Rb¨ Gi AšÍwb©wnZ kw³i cwieZ©b du Ges K…Z KvR dW n‡j e¨eKjbxq mgxK‡Yi
mvnv‡h¨ ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~·K †jLv hvq-
dQ = du + dW ... ... ... (1.2)
ev du = dQ  dW
(1.2) bs mgxKiYwU kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~‡ÎiB GKwU we‡kl iƒc| mgxKiY (1.2) n‡jv ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi MvwYwZK
iƒc| GwU mKj e¯‘i †ÿ‡ÎB cÖ‡hvR¨|
mgxKiY (1.2)-G dQ, du Ges dW ivwk¸wj wb‡¤œi kZ© mv‡c‡ÿ abvZ¥K Ges FYvZ¥K n‡Z cv‡i|
(i) dQ abvZ¥K n‡e hw` wm‡÷‡g Zvc mieivn Kiv nq ev wm‡÷g Zvc MÖnY K‡i Ges FYvZ¥K n‡e hw` wm‡÷g Zvc
nvivq ev wm‡÷g n‡Z Zvc cwicv‡k¦© Mgb K‡i|
(ii) wm‡÷‡gi Af¨šÍixY kw³ †c‡j du abvZ¥K Ges kw³ n«vm †c‡j du FYvZ¥K n‡e|
(iii) wm‡÷‡gi Øviv cwicv‡k¦©i Ici KvR ¤úvw`Z n‡j dW abvZ¥K Ges cwicvk¦© wm‡÷‡gi Ici KvR Ki‡j dW
FYvZ¥K n‡e|

ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~‡Îi GKwU we‡kl m~‡Îi GKwU we‡kl iƒc
First law of thermodynamics is a special form of the principle of energy conservation
weÁvbx K¬wmqv‡mi g‡Z, †Kv‡bv wm‡÷‡g Zvckx³ Ab¨ †Kv‡bv kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv kw³ Zvckw³‡Z
iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j wm‡÷‡gi ‡gvU kw³i cwigvY GKB n‡e| A_©vr, ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~ÎæwU kw³ wbZ¨Zv m~‡Îi GKwU
we‡kl iƒc|
hLb †Kv‡bv wm‡÷‡g Zvc cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq, ZLb Zvi wKQz Ask e¯‘i Af¨šÍixY kw³ e„w× K‡i Ges evwK Ask cwi‡e‡ki
Ici evwn¨K Kvh© m¤úv`b K‡i| A_©vr, kw³i †Kv‡bv AcPq nq bv| G‡ÿ‡Î Q = u + W nq|

ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi mxgve×Zv

Limitations of the first law of thermodynamics
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi wb‡¤œv³ mxgve×Zv i‡q‡Q:
1| Dò e¯‘ n‡Z Zvc kxZj e¯‘‡Z cÖevwnZ n‡jI kxZj e¯‘ n‡Z Zvc KLbB Dò e¯‘‡Z †h‡Z cv‡i bv| hw`I kxZj e¯‘
n‡Z Dò e¯‘‡Z Zvc hvIqvi welqwU ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î ev kw³i msiÿY m~Î †g‡b P‡j| wKš‘ ev¯Í‡e GB NUbv
KLbB N‡U bv|
2| †Kv‡bv wm‡÷‡g cÖhy³ Zv‡ci wKQz Ask Kv‡R cwiYZ nq; wKš‘ cy‡ivUvB Kv‡R cwiYZ n‡e wKbv ev n‡Z cv‡i wKbv Zv
cÖ_g m~Î †_‡K Rvbv hvq bv|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi GB mxgve×Zvi Rb¨ ZvcMwZwe`¨vi AviI GKwU m~‡Îi cÖ‡qvRb nq| †mwUB n‡jv
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î|

73
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î
Second law of thermodynamics
aviYv
Concept
B‡Zvc~‡e© wewfbœ cÖKvi kw³i m‡½ Avgiv cwiwPZ n‡qwQ| mKj kw³B KvR Kivi mvg_©¨ †hvMvq| †hgb hvwš¿K kw³, we`y¨r
kw³, ivmvqwbK kw³, †mŠi kw³, Zvckw³ BZ¨vw`| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î †_‡K Avgiv ‡R‡bwQ †h Zvc Kv‡R Ges KvR
Zv‡c iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e †Kvb w`‡K Zvc cÖevwnZ n‡e ev KvR m¤úvw`Z n‡e Zv cÖ_g m~Î †_‡K Rvbv hvq bv|
GQvov wbw`©ó cwigvY Zvckw³‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c Kv‡R cwiYZ Kiv hvq bv| hvwš¿K kw³mn wewfbœ ai‡bi kw³ †_‡K Zvc kw³
mn‡RB cvIqv hvq; wKš‘ Zvc BwÄb Qvov Zvc †_‡K hvwš¿K kw³ Z_v KvR m¤úv`b m¤¢e bq| †hgb RjcÖcv‡Zi cvwbi
cZ‡b m„ó Zvckw³‡K Ab¨ †Kv‡bv h‡š¿i mvnvh¨ Qvov Ab¨ kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍi Kiv hvq bv| ZvB Bwćbi Dci wewfbœ
M‡elYvi djvdj †_‡K weL¨vZ cÖ‡KŠkwj mvw` Kv‡b©v (Sadi Carnot) GB wm×v‡šÍ DcbxZ nb †h, Zvckw³‡K KLbB
m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c Kv‡R cwiYZ Kiv hvq bv| GB e³e¨B ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~‡Îi wfwË|
weÁvbx K¬wmqvm Ges †Kjwfb c„_K c„_Kfv‡e Kv‡b©vi Dc‡iv³ Z‡_¨i †h mvaviY iƒc †`b ZvB Zvc-MwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î
bv‡g cwiwPZ| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~ÎwU wewfbœ iƒ‡c cÖKvk Kiv hvq, Z‡e cÖ‡Z¨KwU cÖ¯Ívebvi g~jfve GKB Ges Zv
n‡”Q Zvc KLbI ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e wb¤œ ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘ n‡Z D”P ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘‡Z †h‡Z cv‡i bv| GB m~‡Îi mswÿß iƒc-
"Efficiency cannot be one" A_©vr †Kv‡bv wKQzi `ÿZv GK n‡Z cv‡i bv Gme cÖ¯Ívebvi g‡a¨ K¬wmqv‡mi cÖ¯Ívebv‡K
wbLyuZ I DbœZ e‡j MY¨ Kiv n‡q‡Q wb‡¤œ m~ÎwUi we‡kl K‡qKwU iƒc eY©bv Kiv n‡jv|
(K) K¬wmqv‡mi wee„wZ (Clausius's statement): ÒevB‡ii †Kv‡bv kw³i mvnvh¨ e¨wZ‡i‡K †Kvb ¯^qswµq h‡š¿i c‡ÿ
wb¤œ ZvcgvÎvi †Kv‡bv e¯‘ n‡Z D”P ZvcgvÎvi †Kv‡bv e¯‘‡Z Zv‡ci ¯’vbvšÍi m¤¢e bq|Ó
Ab¨ K_vq, ÒevB‡ii †Kv‡bv kw³ KZ©„K m¤úvw`Z KvR e¨wZ‡i‡K kxZj e¯‘ n‡Z Dò e¯‘‡Z Zvc wb‡R cÖevwnZ n‡Z cv‡i
bv|
Dc‡ii wee„wZwU n‡Z GwU cwi®‹vi †h, ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î c`v_©we`¨vi Ab¨vb¨ kvLvi AšÍfz©³ wewfbœ NUbvi mv‡_
msMwZc~Y©| †hgb evB‡i †_‡K †Kv‡bv e¯‘i Ici KvR m¤úbœ bv Ki‡j e¯‘ KLbB wb¤œ Zj n‡Z D”P Z‡j †h‡Z cv‡i bv|
cybt, KvR bv Ki‡j wb¤œ wefe Zj n‡Z D”P wefe Z‡j we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡Z cv‡i bv, BZ¨vw`| D³ m~Î n‡Z †evSv hvq †h,
DòZi e¯‘ n‡Z kxZjZi e¯‘‡Z Zvc Avcbv n‡ZB cÖevwnZ n‡Z cv‡i|
cvnv‡oi Ici †_‡K †Kv‡bv e¯‘ Mwo‡q ¯^vfvweKfv‡e e¯‘wU wb‡P P‡j Av‡m| wKš‘ e¯‘wU‡K wb‡P †_‡K Ic‡i wb‡Z n‡j
evB‡ii kw³ e¨envi K‡iB Ki‡Z nq; A_©vr e¯‘i Ici KvR Ki‡Z nq| AvR ch©šÍ Ggb †Kv‡bv wngvqb hš¿
(refrigerator) Avwe®‹vi Kiv hvqwb hv kw³i mieivn Qvov KvR Ki‡Z cv‡i| GB NUbv K¬vwmqvm cÖ`Ë ZvcMwZwe`¨vi
wØZxq m~‡Îi mZ¨Zv cÖgvY K‡i|
(L) †Kjwf‡bi wee„wZ (Kelvin's statement): Ò‡Kv‡bv e¯‘‡K Zvi cwicv‡k¦i© kxZjZg Ask n‡Z AwaKZi kxZj
K‡i kw³i Aweivg mieivn cvIqv m¤¢e bq|Ó
GB m~Î n‡Z eySv hvq †h, Zvc‡K Kv‡R cwiYZ Kiv hvq ZZÿY hZÿY ch©šÍ †h e¯‘ n‡Z Zvc MÖnY Kiv hv‡e Zv Zvi
cwicv‡k¦©i kxZjZg Ask n‡Z AwaKZi kxZj n‡e bv| `ywU e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv gvb n‡j IB e¯‘؇qi g‡a¨ Zv‡ci cwigvY hZ
Kg †ewkB †nvK bv †Kb GK e¯‘ n‡Z Ab¨ e¯‘‡Z Zvc cÖevwnZ n‡e bv|
(M) cøvsK-Gi wee„wZ (Planck's statement): Ò‡Kv‡bv Zvc Drm n‡Z AbeiZ Zvc †kvlY Ki‡e Ges Zv m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c
Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡e Giƒc GKwU Zvc BwÄb ‰Zwi m¤¢e bq|Ó
(N) Kv‡b©vi wee„wZ (Carnot's statement): Ò‡Kv‡bv wbw`©ó cwigvY Zvckw³ m¤ú~Y© ev cy‡ivcywifv‡e hvwš¿K kw³‡Z
iƒcvšÍi Kivi Mg‡Zv e¯¿ ˆZwi Kiv m¤¢e bq|Ó

74
 m¤úªmvwiZ wµqvKg©: ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g I wØZxq m~‡Îi Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbv Ki|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi `yB m~‡Îi g~j cv_©K¨ ‡evSv cÖ‡qvRb| cÖ_g m~ÎwU kw³i msiÿY m~‡ÎiB we‡kl iƒc| cÖ_g m~‡Îi cÖ¯Ívebv
GB †h, Zvc I hvwš¿K kw³ DfqB kw³i wewfbœ iƒc Ges GKiƒc n‡Z Ab¨iƒ‡c cwieZ©b m¤¢e| GwU Qvov iƒcvšÍ‡ii mgq
G‡K A‡b¨i mgZzj¨, GwUI cÖ_g m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Rvbv hvq| ev¯Íe‡ÿ‡Î hw`I Avgiv GKwU wbw`©ó cwigvY Kvh©‡K
m¤ú~Y©fv‡e Zv‡c iƒcvšÍi Ki‡Z cvwi; wKš‘ GKwU wbw`©ó cwigvY Zvc‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c Kv‡h© iƒcvšÍi Kivi cwiKíbv KLbI
ev¯ÍevwqZ Kiv m¤¢e bq| wKsev, Zv‡ci DrcwË †Kv_vq- †Kv‡bv DËß e¯‘‡Z, bv †Kv‡bv kxZj e¯‘‡Z| Gme cÖ‡kœi DËi
Avgiv cÖ_g m~Î n‡Z cvB bv| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi mv‡_ mvgÄm¨c~Y© Gme cÖ‡kœi Av‡jvPbvB ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~‡Îi
cÖwZcv`¨ welq|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î Abymv‡i hLb Zvc Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ nq ZLb Zvi wKQz Ask Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ nq, m¤ú~Y© Zvc
Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ nq bv| AwaKš‘ IB iƒcvšÍ‡ii Rb¨ me©`v GKwU DËß I GKwU kxZj e¯‘i hyMcr Dcw¯’wZ cÖ‡qvRb| DËß
e¯‘ n‡Z kxZj e¯‘‡Z Zvc MgbKv‡j wKQz KvR m¤úbœ n‡e|

ZvcMwZwe`¨vi k~b¨Zg, cÖ_g I wØZxq m~‡Îi g~j e³e¨

1| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi k~b¨Zg m~‡Îi g~j e³e¨ n‡jv- cÖK…wZ‡Z ZvcgvÎv bvgK GKwU cÖ‡qvRbxq ZvcMZxq Pj ivwk i‡q‡Q|
2| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~‡Îi g~j e³e¨ n‡jv- cÖK…wZ‡Z Af¨šÍixY kw³ bvgK GKwU cÖ‡qvRbxq ZvcMZxq Pj ivwk
i‡q‡Q Ges
3| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~‡Îi g~j e³e¨ n‡jv- cÖK…wZ‡Z GbUªwc bv‡g GKwU cÖ‡qvRbxq ZvcMZxq Pj ivwk i‡q‡Q|

Zvcxq wm‡÷‡g wewfbœ cÖKvi ZvcMZxq cwieZ©b

Different thermodynamical changes in thermal system
ZvnMwZwe`¨vq wewfbœ cÖKv‡ii cwieZ©b N‡U| GB cwieZ©b †gvU Pvi cÖKv‡ii; h_v-
(1) m‡gvò cwieZ©b (Isothermal change)
(2) iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b (Adiabatic change)
(3) mgAvqZb cwieZ©b (Isochronic change) Ges
(4) mgPvc cwieZ©b (Isobaric change)
GLv‡b Avgiv m‡gvò cwieZ©b Ges iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

m‡gvò cwieZ©b
Isothermal change
GwU GKwU cixwÿZ NUbv †h, †Kv‡bv M¨v‡m Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i nVvr msKzwPZ Ki‡j wKQz Zvc Drcbœ nq| d‡j M¨v‡mi
ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq| wKš‘ Drcbœ Zvc‡K ZrÿYvr AcmviY K‡i ax‡i ax‡i Pvc e„w× Ki‡j ZvcgvÎvi †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b NU‡e
bv|
Avevi M¨vm‡K nVvr cÖmvwiZ K‡j Zv evwn¨K Pv‡ci weiæ‡× KvR Kivi mgq wKQz cwigvY Zvc nviv‡e| d‡j Gi ZvcgvÎv
n«vm cv‡e| wKš‘ M¨vm‡K hw` ax‡i ax‡i cÖmvwiZ Kiv nq Ges evB‡i †_‡K cÖ‡qvRbxq Zvc mieivn Kiv nq Z‡e M¨v‡mi
ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _vK‡e Giƒc cwieZ©b‡K m‡gvò cwieZ©b ejv nq| Zvn‡j †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, m‡gvò cwieZ©‡b M¨v‡m KLbI
Zvc mieivn K‡i Avevi KLbI M¨vm n‡Z Zvc AcmviY K‡i Gi ZvcgvÎv me©`v w¯’i ivLv hvq|

75
A_©vr †h cwieZ©‡b †Kv‡b M¨v‡mi Pv‡ci I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b nq, wKš‘ ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K †mB cwieZ©b‡K m‡gvò
cwieZ©b (isothermal change) e‡j Ges †h c×wZ‡Z GB cwieZ©b msNwUZ nq Zv‡K m‡gvò cÖwµqv (isothermal
process) e‡j|
1
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi m¤úK© e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j| A_©vr P 
V
ev PV = aªæeK, GLv‡b P I V h_vµ‡g Pvc I AvqZb|
1
cwiKwíZ KvR: m‡gvò cÖwµqvq M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi m¤úK© e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j| A_©vr P  †jLwP‡Î
V
m¤úK©wU †`LvI Ges e¨vL¨v Ki|
w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv Av`k© M¨v‡mi AvqZb V-‡K X-Aÿ eivei Ges Pvc P-‡K Y-Aÿ eivei ¯’vcb K‡i †jLwPÎ
A¼b Ki‡j †jLwU AvqZvKvi cive„Ë n‡e [wPÎ 1.6] wfbœ ZvcgvÎvq GKB AvK…wZi wfbœ †jL cvIqv hvq| GB †jL¸wj‡K
m‡gvò (Isothermal) ‡jL ejv nq|

iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b
Adiabatic change
‡Kv‡bv M¨vm‡K nVvr Pvc w`‡q m¼zwPZ Ki‡j wKQz cwigvY Zvc Drcbœ nq| hw` GB Drcbœ Zvc AcmviY Kiv bv nq, Z‡e
M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cv‡e| Avevi †Kv‡bv M¨vm‡K nVvr cÖmvwiZ n‡Z w`‡j M¨vmwU wKQz cwigvY Zvc nviv‡e Ges evB‡i
†_‡K hw` mgcwigvY Zvc mieivn Kiv bv nq, Z‡e M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv n«vm cv‡e| myZivs GB cwieZ©‡b ZvcgvÎv KLbI
w¯’i _v‡K bv| AviI D‡jøL _v‡K †h, GB M¨vm Zvc MÖnY ev eR©b K‡i bv e‡U, Z‡e M¨v‡mi AšÍwb©wnZ kw³ w¯’i _v‡K bv-
AšÍwb©wnZ kw³i n«vm-e„w× N‡U| Giƒc cwieZ©b‡K iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b ejv nq| 'a' A_© ÔbvÕ, 'dia' A_© ÔeiveiÕ Ges
'bates' A_© ÔZvcÕ| GK K_vq 'adiabatic' A_© 'heat not passing through' A_©vr Zvc wm‡÷g cÖ‡ek K‡i bv ev
wm‡÷g Zvc Z¨vM K‡i bv| iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi †ÿ‡Î PV = aªæeK mgxKiY Ges TV-1 = aªæeK mgxKiY cÖ‡hvR¨|
‡h cÖwµqvq wm‡÷g Zvc MÖnY K‡i bv wKsev Zvc eR©b K‡i bv Zv‡K iƒ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv e‡j| †h cwieZ©‡b †Kv‡bv Zvc
evwni n‡Z mieivn Kiv nq bv ev M¨vm n‡Z AcmviY Kiv nq bv A_P M¨v‡mi Pvc Ges AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b N‡U Zv‡K
iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b ejv nq|
A_ev, †h cÖwµqvq M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb cwieZ©bKv‡j Zv‡ci
cwigvY cwieZ©b nq bv A_©vr wm‡÷g (cÖwµqvaxb M¨vm) Zvc MÖnY ev eR©b
K‡i bv, wKš‘ ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b N‡U Zv‡K iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv e‡j| G
cwieZ©b‡K iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b e‡j|
M¨v‡mi iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi †ÿ‡Î e‡q‡ji m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ bq|
G‡ÿ‡Î M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© n‡”Q, PV = aªæeK Ges
ZvcgvÎv I AvqZ‡bi m¤úK© n‡jv TV = aªæeK| iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi
†ÿ‡Î P Ges V -Gi †jL‡K iƒ×Zvcxq †jL (adiabatic curve) e‡j| wPÎ
1.7 -G GKwU iƒ×Zvcxq †jL †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| iƒ×Zvcxq †jL m‡gvò †jL-Gi Zzjbvq †ewk Lvov nq|
iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi kZ©mg~n
Conditions for adiabatic change
iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ wb¤œwjwLZ kZ©mg~n cÖ‡qvRb:
(K) M¨vm‡K GKwU Kzcwievnx cv‡Î ivL‡Z n‡e|
(L) cv‡Îi PZz®úvk©¯’ gva¨‡gi ZvcMÖvwnZv Kg n‡Z n‡e|

76
(M) Pvc cwieZ©b Lye `ªæZ msNwUZ Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z evB‡ii mv‡_ Zvc Av`vb-cÖ`v‡bi †Kv‡bv my‡hvM bv _v‡K|
iƒ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi ˆewkó¨
Characteristics of adiabatic change
(1) †gvU Zv‡ci cwigvY w¯’i †i‡L †Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b‡K iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©b e‡j|
(2) GB cwieZ©‡b ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b N‡U|
(3) GwU GKwU AwZ `ªæZ cÖwµqv|
(4) GB cwieZ©‡b cvÎwU Zvc Kzcwievnx nIqv cÖ‡qvRb|
(5) GB cwieZ©‡b cv‡Îi PZz®úvk¦¯
© ’ gva¨‡gi ZvcMÖvwnZv wb¤œ n‡Z nq|
(6) Av`k© M¨v‡mi iæ×Zvcxq cwieZ©‡bi mgxKiY n‡jv, PV = aªæeK|
(7) iæ×Zvcxq ‡jL m‡gvò †jL n‡Z AwaK Lvov|

Zi½ I kã

x = a sin t ... ... ... (7.1)

GLv‡b a = we¯Ívi,  = ‡KŠwYK K¤úv¼, t = mgq
wb‡Pi [wPÎ 7.1] †jLwP‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ mgxKiYwU‡K †`Lv‡bv hvq:

ch©ve„wËK MwZi ˆewkó¨

Characteristics of periodic motion
ch©vqe„wËK MwZm¤úbœ †Kv‡bv KYv †h wbw`©ó mgq ci ci †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó we›`y‡K wbw`©ó w`K w`‡q AwZµg K‡i †mB mgq‡K
ch©vqKvj e‡j| ch©ve„wËK MwZi MwZc_ e„ËvKvi, Dce„ËvKvi, mij‰iwLK I Av‡iv RwUj n‡Z cv‡i|
ch©ve„wËK MwZm¤úbœ KYv hw` ch©vqKv‡ji A‡a©K mgq †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó w`‡K Ges evwK A‡a©K mgq GKB c‡_ Zvi wecixZ
w`‡K P‡j Z‡e Zvi MwZ‡K ¯ú›`b MwZ e‡j|
D`vniY: mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ, MxUv‡ii Zv‡ii MwZ, kã mÂvj‡bi mgq evqyi KYvi ¯ú›`b BZ¨vw`|

mij Qw›`Z MwZ ev mij †`vjb MwZ ev mij †`vj MwZ

Simple harmonic motion

77
Qw›`Z MwZ GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi †`vjbMwZ| g‡b Kwi, C Ges D we›`yi g‡a¨ mij‡iLv eivei †`vjbiZ GKwU KYv N
Gi MwZc_ wb‡`©wkZ n‡e [wPÎ 7.2]| O we›`y KYvwUi mvg¨ve¯’vb Ges †h‡Kv‡bv gyn~‡Z© mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K Gi miY xy|
KYvi MwZ Qw›`Z MwZ n‡j IB gyn~‡Z© KYvwUi Z¡iY a-Gi x-Gi mgvbycvwZK Ges AwfgyL O we›`yi w`‡K nq A_©vr a miY
x Gi wecixZgywL nq| †mRb¨ Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi,
a  x ev, a = kx
GLv‡b k = aªæeK = 2;  n‡jv KYvwUi †KŠwYK †eM
 a = 2x

Avevi, Z¡iY Kxfv‡e mg‡qi mv‡_ cwiewZ©Z nq Zv Avgiv Rvwb| wbDU‡bi 2q m~Î Abyhvqx ej †Kv‡bv e¯‘‡Z wµqvkxj
n‡j Z¡iY m„wó nq|
A_©vr F = ma
 F = m2x (7.1 mgxKiY Abyhvqx)
ev, F = (m2)x
F
ev, F = K x, GLv‡b K = w¯úªs aªæeK ev ej aªæeK =
x
 F  x
GLv‡b ve wP‡ýi A_© n‡jv miY †ewk n‡j Z¡iY I ej †ewk n‡e| wKš‘ w`K me©`v mi‡Yi wecixZ w`‡K A_©vr
mvg¨ve¯’v‡bi w`‡K|
A_©vr mij Qw›`Z MwZ ej ev cÖZ¨vqbx ej mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK I wecixZgywL|
Dc‡iv³ Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv mn‡RB Qw›`Z MwZi e‡ji ˆewkó¨ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvwi|
KvR: GKwU w¯úªs aªæeK 2.5 N/m ej‡Z Kx eyS?
G Øviv eySvq mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K GKwU w¯úªs-‡K 1m cÖmvwiZ Ki‡Z 2.5N e‡ji cÖ‡qvRb|
mij Qw›`Z MwZ m¤úwK©Z K‡qKwU ivwk
Some terms related to simple harmonic motion
wb‡`©kK e„‡Ëi aviYv‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q mij Qw›`Z MwZ msµvšÍ wewfbœ ivwki eY©bv cvIqv hvq| wb‡`©kK e„‡Ëi mvnv‡h¨
mij Qw›`Z MwZ msµvšÍ miY, †eM I Z¡i‡Yi ivwkgvjv Ges ch©vqKvj, K¤úv¼, †KŠwYK K¤úv¼ I `kv wb‡¤œ cÖwZcv`b
Kiv n‡jv-
1. miY (Displacement): g‡b Kwi GKwU e¯‘KYv O we›`y‡Z †K›`ª K‡i A e¨vmv‡a©i ABCD e„Ëc‡_ Zxi wPwýZ
w`‡K  †KŠwYK †e‡M Nyi‡Q Ges t mg‡q A we›`y n‡Z P we›`y‡Z Avm‡Q [wPÎ 7.3]| P we›`y n‡Z e„‡Ëi e¨vm DB-Gi
Dci PN j¤^ Uvwb| GLv‡b j¤^ cv` we›`yi miY, x = ON
wPÎ n‡Z AOP = OPN = 
ev, ON = OP × sin 
 x = A sin , GLv‡b x = g~jwe›`y †_‡K miY Ges OP = A
= wb‡`©kK e„‡Ëi e¨vmva©|
ev, x = A sin t ... ... (7.3)

78
GLv‡b  = t, Avw` `kv () we‡ePbv Ki‡j x = A sin (t + ) nq|
Bnv mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`biZ KYvi mvaviY mgxKiY wb‡`©k K‡i| GB mgxKi‡Y A, K¤úbiZ KYvi we¯Ívi wb‡`©k K‡i|
2
cv`we›`yi †`vjbKvj T n‡j,  = = 2n; GLv‡b cv`we›`yi K¤úv¼, n = T| (7.3) mgxKiY ‡_‡K cvB,
T
x = A sin 2nt
mgxKiY (7.3) Ges (7.4) n‡jv
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`bm¤úbœ GKwU KYvi mi‡Yi
ivwkgvjv| miY-mgq †jLwPÎ GKwU mvBb
m`„k †jL n‡e| 7.4 wP‡Î Qw›`Z MwZ-m¤úbœ
KYvi mi‡Yi mgxKiY †jLwP‡Îi gva¨‡g
†`Lv‡bv n‡jv|
2. †eM (Velocity): Avgiv Rvwb mgq mv‡c‡ÿ mi‡Yi cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K †eM e‡j| G‡K mvaviYZ  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv
nq|

 †eM,  =
d
x   d A sin t  = A  cos t GLv‡b, x = A sin t
dt dt
x
 sin t = Ges cos t = 1  sin 2 t
A

 ‡eM,  = A 1  sin 2 t = A 1  x 2 / A 2
ev,  =  A 2  x 2 ... ... ... (7.5)
mgxKiY (7.5) †eM I mi‡Yi g‡a¨ m¤úK© wb‡`©k K‡i|
(K) hLb x = A, ZLb  = 0 Ges (L) hLb x = 0,
max = A nq|
7.5 wPÎ Abyhvqx N we›`yi MwZc‡_i ga¨ Ae¯’v‡b Zvi †eM
me©vwaK Ges miY e„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ †eM Kg‡Z _v‡K Ges
Pig Ae¯’v‡b B ev D we›`y‡Z Gi †eM k~b¨ n‡e| mij
Qw›`Z MwZ ms‡ÿ‡c KYvi †eM-mgq †jLwUÎ GKwU
cosine m`„k †jLwPÎ [wPÎ 8.5 (L)]
3. Z¡iY (Acceleration): Avgiv Rvwb mgq mv‡c‡ÿ †e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j| G‡K a Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv nq|

Z¡iY, a =
d
  d A cos t  = A2 sin t
dt dt
ev, a = 2x
mgxKiY (7.6) Z¡iY I mi‡Yi g‡a¨ m¤úK© wb‡`©k K‡i|
FY wPý eySvq †h, Z¡iY I miY ci¯úi wecixZgywL|

(K) hLb x = 0, ZLb Z¡iY me©wb¤œ nq ev a = 0 Ges (L)

hLb x = A, A_©vr KYvwU hLb we¯Ív‡ii cÖv‡šÍ Dcw¯’Z nq,
ZLb Z¡i‡Yi gvb m‡e©v”P nq ev amax = 2A nq|

79
7.6 wP‡Î N we›`yi MwZc‡_i Pig Ae¯’v‡b Z¡iY k~b¨ n‡e| Z¡iY-mgq †jLwPÎ GKwU FYvZ¥K sine m`„k †jL| Bnv mij
Qw›`Z MwZm¤úbœ KYvi Z¡i‡Yi mgxKiY wb‡`©k K‡i|
evQvB Ki: mi‡Yi mgxKiY x = A sin t, †eM,  = A cos t Ges Z¡iY a = A2 sin t †K GKwU
†jLwPÎiƒ‡c cÖKvk Ki‡j Kxiƒc †`Lv‡e? ch©vqKvj I `kv we‡ePbv K‡i e¨vL¨v Ki|

mij Qw›`Z MwZi †ÿ‡Î e‡ji ˆewkó¨

Characteristics of force of simple harmonic motion
(i) GwU GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi Qw›`Z ev ‡`vjbMwZm¤úbœ KYvi Ici m„ó ej|
(ii) GB MwZi †ÿ‡Î KYvi Z¡iY Ges Gi Ici wµqvkxj fj-Gi gvb KYvi mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK|
(iii) Z¡i‡Yi Ges KYvi Ici wµqvkxj e‡ji AwfgyL me mgq mvg¨ve¯’v‡bi w`‡K
nq, A_©vr KYvi mi‡Yi wecixZ w`‡K nq|
(iv) GB ai‡bi MwZi e‡ji MwZc_ mij‰iwLK nq|
cÖZ¨vqbx ej I mi‡Yi †jLwPÎwU GKwU g~jwe›`yMvgx mij‡iLv hvi bwZ ev Xvj
(slope) = m2
‡Kv‡b †`vjbiZ KYvi MZ¡iY mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K Gi `~i‡Z¡i mgvbycvwZK I me mgq mvg¨ve¯’v‡bi AwfgyLx n‡j IB KYvi
MwZ‡K mij Qw›`Z MwZ e‡j|
¯úóZ me ch©vqe„wËK MwZi GB ˆewkó¨¸wj _v‡K bv| ZvB mij Qw›`Z MwZ gvÎB ch©vqe„wËK MwZ n‡jI me ch©ve„wËK
MwZ mij Qw›`Z MwZ ev mij †`vjbMwZ bq|

ch©vqKvj (Time period): mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`bm¤úbœ †Kv‡bv KYvi GKwU c~Y© ¯ú›`b m¤úbœ Ki‡Z †h mgq jv‡M Zv‡K
1
Zvi ch©vqKvj e‡j| G‡K T Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| K¤úv¼ n n‡j T = nq|
n

mij †`vjb MwZ

Simple harmonic motion
mij †`vjb MwZi Av‡jvPbv c`v_©weÁv‡b GKwU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© welq| ch©ve„wËK MwZm¤úbœ †Kv‡bv e¯‘i MwZ hw` Ggb nq †h
ch©vqKv‡ji AwaK mgq †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó w`‡K Ges evwK A‡a©K mgq wecixZ w`‡K P‡j Z‡e IB e¯‘i MwZ‡K †`vjb MwZ ev
¯ú›`b e‡j| GB MwZi GKwU we‡kl iƒc n‡jv mij †`vjb MwZ| †h‡Kv‡bv RwUj †`vjb MwZ‡K A‡bK¸wj mij †`vjb
MwZi mgwóiƒ‡c cÖKvk Kiv hvq|

80
 ‡Zvgiv mij †`vjK †`‡LQ, GwU‡K `yj‡Z w`‡j Gw`K Iw`K †`v‡j [wPÎ 7.7]|
jÿ Ki‡j †`L‡e †h, ee‡K a‡i †h‡Kv‡bv GKw`‡K †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j Zv Avevi
wecixZ w`‡K A_©vr w¯’i Aew¯’q ev †h Ae¯’v‡b wQj †mB w`‡K P‡j Av‡m| G
ai‡bi MwZm¤úbœ †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij †`vjb MwZ| mij †`vj‡Ki †KŠwYK we¯Ívi
4° Gi g‡a¨ ivL‡Z nq| †KŠwYK we¯Ívi 4° Gi †ewk miY †`vj‡bi MwZ
mij‰iwLK bv n‡q e„ËvKvi nq| d‡j mij †`vjK mij †`vjb MwZi ˆewkó¨
L
†g‡b P‡j bv| †m‡ÿÎ T = 2 mgxKiY cÖ‡hvR¨ nq bv|
g
msÁv: †Kv‡bv ch©vqMwZm¤úbœ e¯‘i Dci Kvh©iZ Z¡iY hw` Zvi
MwZc‡_i GKwU wbw`©ó we›`y Awfgy‡L Ggbfv‡e wµqv K‡i †h, Zvi gvb IB we›`y
n‡j e¯‘i mi‡Yi gv‡bi mgvbycvwZK nq, Z‡e e¯‘i D³ MwZ‡K mij †`vjb MwZ e‡j|
D`vniY: Lye Kg we¯Ív‡ii mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ, myi kjvKvi evûi K¤úb, w¯úªs Gi Djø¤^ K¤úb, Mvwoi Bwćbi wc÷‡bi
MwZ BZ¨vw`|
mij †`vj‡Ki m~Îvewj
cÖ_g m~Î (mgKvj m~Î): †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b wbw`©ó ˆ`N©¨wewkó GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki we¯Ívi 4° Gi g‡a¨ _vK‡j Zvi cÖwZwU
†`vj‡bi Rb¨ gvb mgq jvM‡e|
wØZxq m~Î (‰`‡N©¨i m~Î): we¯Ívi 4° Gi g‡a¨ _vK‡j †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjb Kvj Zvi Kvh©Kix ˆ`‡N©¨i
1
eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK| A_©vr T  |
g

PZz_© m~Î (f‡ii m~Î): we¯Ívi 4° Gi g‡a¨ Ges Kvh©Kix ‰`N©¨ w¯’i _vK‡j †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj †`vjK
wc‡Ði fi, AvK…wZ, Dcv`v‡bi Ici wbf©i K‡i bv|
L 1 L
mij †`vj‡Ki m~θ‡jv‡K GK‡Î T  ev, T = AvKv‡i †jLv hvq|
g 2 g

AZGe, ¯^í we¯Ív‡i †`vjvqgvb mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij †`vjb ev †`vj MwZ| GwU wb¤œwjwLZ ˆewkó¨-¸‡jv †g‡b P‡j|
mij †`vjb MwZi ˆewkó¨
Characteristics of simple harmonic motion
(1) GwU GKwU ch©ve„Ë MwZ|
(2) GKwU wbw`©ó mgq cici GB MwZ wecixZgywL nq|
(3) Gi MwZ mij‡iLvq N‡U|
(4) Z¡iY me©`v mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK|
(5) Z¡iY mi‡Yi wecixZgywL|
(6) Z¡iY e¯‘ KYvwUi ga¨ ev mvg¨ Ae¯’vb AwfgyLx|
(7) mij MwZm¤úbœ KYv ev e¯‘ †hB gyn~‡Z© mvg¨ve¯’vb AwZµg K‡i †mB gyn~‡Z© MwZ‡eM m‡e©v”P nq| mi‡Yi †kl cÖv‡šÍ
†eM gyn~‡Z©i Rb¨ k~b¨ nq|
(8) mij †`vjbMwZi ch©vqKvj Zvi we¯Ív‡ii Ici wbf©ikxj bq|
(9) MwZc‡_i ga¨ Ae¯’v‡b †eM me©vwaK, miY me©wb¤œ|

81
Zi‡½i ZxeªZv
Intensity of waves
cÖvej¨ ej‡Z kã KZUv †Rv‡i n‡”Q Zv †evSvq| k‡ãi cÖvej¨ wba©vwiZ nq k‡ãi ZxeªZv w`‡q| ZxeªZv hZ ev‡o A_©vr kã
Zi½ hZ †ewk nv‡i kã kw³ Avgv‡`i Kv‡b †cuŠ‡Q †`q, k‡ãi cÖvej¨ ZZ †ewk nq| Avevi ZxeªZv Kg‡j cÖvej¨ K‡g|
AZGe, ZxeªZv n‡jv KviY Ges cÖvej¨ Zvi dj|
cÖve‡j¨i GB msÁv e¨w³wbf©i| K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ Lye †ewk n‡j GKB ZxeªZvi wewfbœ K¤úv‡¼i kã †kÖvZvi Kv‡Q Kg‡ewk
†Rv‡i g‡b n‡Z cv‡i| AZGe k‡ãi cÖvej¨ K¤úv‡¼i IciI wbf©j K‡i| ¯úóZ cÖvej¨ I ZxeªZv cy‡ivcywi GK bq|
ZxeªZv k‡ãi GKwU †fŠZ ag©, wKš‘ cÖvej¨ GKwU Abyf‚wZ|
ZxeªZv †h‡Kv‡bv ai‡bi k‡ãi ˆewkó¨| myiewR©Z k‡ãiI ZxeªZv Av‡Q| k‡ãi ZxeªZv wbf©i K‡i Gi we¯Ív‡ii Ici|
Avgv‡`i Kv‡b mnbxq k‡ãi †Rviv‡jv ZxeªZvi we¯Ívi 10-5 m| Ab¨w`‡K ÿxYZg k‡ãi ZxeªZvi we¯Ívi cÖvq 10-11 m|
kã Zi‡½i ZxeªZvi GKwU eo cvjøv (range) gvby‡li Kv‡bi Rb¨ ms‡e`bkxj|
kã we¯Ív‡ii Awfgy‡Li m‡½ j¤^fv‡e ivLv GKK †ÿÎd‡ji ga¨ w`‡q cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û †h cwigvY kã kw³ cÖevwnZ nq,
Zv‡K IB k‡ãi ZxeªZv e‡j|
P
‡Mvj‡Ki GKK †ÿÎd‰ji ga¨ w`‡q kw³ cÖev‡ni nvi = ; GLv‡b 4r2 = †Mvj‡Ki c„ôZ‡ji †ÿÎdj|
4r 2

P
msÁvbyhvqx GwU †MvjK †_‡K r `~i‡Z¡ ZxeªZv I †evSvq, A_©vr I = |
4r 2
P
I=
4r 2
1
myZivs wbw`©ó Dr‡mi †ÿ‡Î I  | AZGe e¨¯ÍeM©xq m~Î cÖgvwYZ n‡jv|
r2
ZxeªZvi GKK: msÁvbyhvqx ZxeªZv n‡jv GKK †ÿÎd‡ji ga¨ w`‡q kw³ cÖev‡ni nvi| AZGe Gi S.I GKK n‡jv Joule
s-1 m-2 ev, Wm-2 (watt per square metre)| wKš‘ GB GKKwU Lye eo e‡j mvaviYZ microwatt per square
metre A_©vr µWm-2 GKKwU e¨eüZ nq|
Rvbvi welq: I. ‡Rviv‡jv k‡ãi we¯Ívi 10-5 m
II. ÿxYZi k‡ãi we¯Ívi 10-11 m

wewfbœ wel‡qi Dci ZxeªZvi wbf©iZv

Dependence of intensity on different factors
k‡ãi ZxeªZv wb‡Pi welq¸‡jvi Ici wbf©i K‡i-
1| Dr‡mi K¤ú‡bi we¯Ívi: k‡ãi ZxeªZv Dr‡mi K¤ú‡bi we¯Ív‡ii e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK| A_©vr, k‡ãi ZxeªZv I Ges Dr‡mi
K¤ú‡bi we¯Ívi a n‡j I  a2|
2| Dr‡mi AvKvi: Dr‡mi AvKvi hZ eo nq Drcbœ k‡ãi ZxeªZv ZZ ev‡o| ‡hgb, Zejvi k‡ãi ‡P‡q Xv‡Ki kã A‡bK
†ewk †Rviv‡jv|
3| Drm †_‡K `~iZ¡: Drm †_‡K †kÖvZvi `~iZ¡ hZ †ewk nq k‡ãi ZxeªZv ZZ K‡g| A_©vr k‡ãi ZxeªZv I Ges Drm †_‡K
†kÖvZvi `~iZ¡ r n‡j, I  1/r2|
4| gva¨‡gi NbZ¡: kã †h gva¨‡gi ga¨ w`‡q hvq Zvi NZ¡ hZ †ewk nq k‡ãi ZxeªZvI ZZ †ewk nq| †hgb, DòZv
Kg‡j evqyi NbZ¡ ev‡o e‡j kx‡Zi iv‡Z A‡bK `~‡ii kã ¯úó †kvbv hvq|

82
5| gva¨‡gi MwZ: gva¨‡gi MwZi Awfgy‡L †M‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv ev‡o Ges wecixZ w`‡K †M‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv K‡g| †hgb,
evqy cÖev‡ni w`‡K kã AMÖmi n‡j †Rv‡i kã †kvbv hvq|
6| Ab¨vb¨ e¯‘i Dcw¯’wZ: k‡ãi K¤úgvb Dr‡mi wbK‡U †Kv‡bv e¯‘ _vK‡j Dr‡mi K¤ú‡bi cÖfv‡e IB e¯‘wUI GKB
K¤úv‡¼ Kw¤úZ n‡Z ïiæ K‡i| G‡K ciek K¤úb e‡j| e¯‘wUi †ÿÎdj A‡bK †ewk n‡j ciek K¤úb m„wói nq| ZvB
†Rv‡i kã †kvbv hvq|
Zi‡½i ZxeªZvi MvwYwZK ivwkgvjv
Mathematical expression for intensity of wave
c~‡e©i Aby‡”Q‡` Avgiv wewfbœ wel‡qi Ici ZxeªZvi wbf©iZv Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ| GLb Avgiv †h‡Kv‡bv cÖKvi Pj Zi‡½i
Rb¨ ZxeªZvi GKwU ivwkgvjv wbY©q Kie| ¯úóZ GB Av‡jvPbv kã Zi‡½i †ÿ‡ÎI cÖ‡hvR¨ nq|
g‡b Kwi, GKwU Pj Zi½ abvZ¥K x AwfgyL w¯’i †eM  wb‡q Pj‡Q| Zi½MwZi Rb¨ gva¨‡gi KYv¸‡jv I‡`i mvg¨ve¯’vb
mv‡c‡ÿ mij †`vjMwZ‡Z Kw¤úZ n‡e| †h‡Kv‡bv mgq t-‡Z †Kv‡bv KYvi miY  n‡j KYvi MwZi mgxKiY nq, y = n
sin t; GLv‡b a we¯Ívi †evSvq| Zi‡½i K¤úv¼ n n‡j  = 2n|
mij †`vjbMwZhy³ KYvi kw³i GK Ask MwZkw³ Ges evwK Ask w¯’wZkw³ nq| wKš‘ KYvi mvg¨ve¯’v‡b w¯’wZkw³ k~b¨
nq| AZGe KYvi kw³i cy‡ivUvB MwZkw³ nq| myZivs mvg¨ve¯’v‡b m f‡ii KYvi †eM 0 n‡j IB KYvi †gvU kw³
1
m02 nq| wKš‘ 0 = a = 2na|
2
AZGe K¤úbiZ KYvi †gvU kw³ nq
mv02  ma2  m2na 2 = 22n2a2m
1 1 1
2 2 2
‡h gva¨‡gi ga¨ w`‡q Zi½ AMÖmi n‡”Q †mB gva¨‡gi GKK AvqZ‡b KYvi msL¨v, awi N| myZivs GKK AvqZ‡bi Rb¨
me KYvi †gvU kw³ A_©vr Zi‡½i kw³ NbZ¡ (energy density) nq,

E = N  mv02  = 22n2a2 mN
1
2 
wKš‘ mN = , gva¨‡gi NbZ¡
 †gvU kw³, E = 22n2a2 ... ... ... (7.7)
GKK mg‡q Zi½  `~iZ¡ AMÖmi nq| myZivs Zi‡½i MwZi Awfgy‡Li m‡½ j¤^fv‡e ivLv GKK †ÿÎd‡ji ga¨ w`‡q
GKK mg‡q cÖevwnZ kw³i cwigvY A_©vr Zi‡½i ZxeªZv (I), GKK cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i ‡ÿÎdj Ges  ˆ`N©¨wewkó C †Pv‡Oi g‡a¨
†h cwigvY kw³ ZAv‡Q Zvi mgvb nq [wPÎ 7.7]|
AZGe Zi‡½i ZxeªZv
I = kw³i NbZ¡ × C †Pv‡O k‡ãi †eM,
= E ×  = 22n2a2 ... ... (7.8)
GB mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h Zi‡½i ZxeªZv (i) Gi we¯Ív‡ii e‡M©i, (ii) K¤úv‡¼i e‡M©i (iii) Gi †e‡Mi Ges (iv)
gva¨‡gi Nb‡Z¡i mgvbycvwZK nq|
Avgv‡`i Kvb ZxeªZvi GKwU weivU cvjøv Ry‡o kã ïb‡Z cvq| 1000 Hz K¤úv‡¼ Avgv‡`i Kvb me‡P‡q g„`y †h kã
ïb‡Z cvq Zvi ZxeªZv n‡jv cÖvq 10-12 Wm-2| G‡K kÖve¨Zvi mxgv (threshold of hearing or Audibility) e‡j|
me‡P‡q †Rvov‡jv †h kã Kvb mn ¨Ki‡Z cv‡i Zvi cÖvej¨ cÖvq 1 Wm-2| k‡ãi cÖvej¨ Gi †P‡q †ewk n‡j Kv‡b hš¿Yv
nq| ZxeªZvi GB DaŸ©mxgv‡K mnb ev Abyf~wZ mxgv (threshold of pain or feeling) e‡j| kÖve¨ ZxeªZvi cvjøv GZ
eo e‡j wewfbœ ZxeªZvi Zzjbv Ki‡Z n‡j Av‡cwÿK ZxeªZv‡K jMvwi`‡g cÖKvk Ki‡j myweav nq| ZxeªZv I GKwU †fŠZ

83
 I
ivwk e‡j Gi wbw`©ó gvÎv Av‡Q, myZivs Gi jMvwi`g †bqv hvq bv| wKš‘ GKwU ZxeªZvi AbycvZ GKwU gvÎvnxb ivwk
I0
Ze‡j Gi jMvwi`g †bqv hvq|
KvR: ‡mZvi, †e‡njv, MxUvi cÖf…wZ Zv‡ii ev`¨h‡š¿ dvucv †Lvj ivLv nq †Kb?
hš¿wU evRv‡j Zvi¸wj Kvu‡c d‡j IB †Lvj Ges †Lv‡ji ga¨¯’ evqy‡Z ciek K¤úb m„wó nq| ZvB †Rv‡i kã †kvbv hvq|
1| evqy‡Z GKwU kã Zi‡½i Dr‡mi K¤úv¼ 412 Hz Ges we¯Ívi 0.25 cm, evqyi NbZ¡ 1.29 km m-3 n‡j Dr‡mi
ZxeªZv KZ n‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
k‡ãi ZxeªZv, n = 412 Hz
I = 2 n a 
2 2 2 a = 0.25 cm = 0.25 × 10-2 m
= 2 × 9.87 × (412)2 × (0.25 ×  = 1.29 kgm-3
10-2)2 × 1.29 × 330  = 330 ms-1
= 8915.08 Wm--2 I=?
2| GKwU Drm 40 W ÿgZvi kã Drcbœ K‡i| DrmwU‡K we›`y Drm a‡i wb‡q Ii †_‡K 2 km `~i‡Z¡ ZxeªZv wbY©q Ki|
mswkøó ZxeªZv ¯Íi †Wwm‡ej GK‡K MYbv Ki|
GKwU we›`y Drm †_‡K wbtm„Z ÿgZv P n‡j wecixZ eM©xq m~Îvbyhvqx Drm †_‡K r `~i‡Z¡ ZxeªZv,

I=
P GLv‡b, P = 40 W
4r 2
r = 2 km = 2 × 103 m
40
I= Wm-2

4  2  10 
3 2

40
=
4  4  106
= 7.962 × 10-7 Wm-2
ZxeªZv, I ‡Wwm‡ej GK‡K cvB, GLv‡b, I0 = 10-12 Wm-2
 I 
  = 10 × log10  
 I0 

7.962  10  7 
= 10 × log10  12  = 44.1 dB
 10 

Wcjvi cÖfve ev wµqv

Doppler's Effect
‡`Lv †M‡Q †h, k‡ãi Drm Ges †kÖvZvi Av‡cwÿK MwZ _vK‡j, kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv¼ Z_v Zx²Zvi (pitch) AvcvZ
cwieZ©b (apparent change) nq|
k‡ãi Drm Ges †kÖvZvi g‡a¨ Av‡cwÿK MwZi d‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úvs‡Ki †h AvcvZ cwieZ©b nq Zv‡K Wcjvi cÖfve ev
wµqv e‡j Ges †h bxwZi mvnv‡h¨ c`v_©we` †Rvnvb Wcjvi K¤úvs‡Ki GB AvcvZ cwieZ©b e¨vL¨v K‡iwQ‡jb Zv‡K Wcjvi
bxwZ (Doppler's Principle) e‡j|
`„óvšÍ¯^iƒc, †ij-‡÷k‡bi cøvUdi‡g `vuovb Ae¯’vq †Uª‡bi evuwk evRv‡bv ïb‡j, kÖæZ k‡ãi ZxÿèZvi G AvcvZ cwieZ©b
jÿ¨ Kiv hvq|

84
‡UªbwU hLb evuwk evRv‡Z evRv‡Z cøvUdi‡gi w`‡K AMÖmi nq, ZLb k‡ãi ZxÿèZv µgk e„w× cvq e‡j g‡b nq; Avevi
d¬vUdig AwZµg K‡i ‡UªbwU hLb P‡j hvq, ZLb k‡ãi ZxÿèZv K‡g hvq e‡j g‡b nq| GLv‡b D‡jøL‡hvM¨ †h, †kÖvZv
Ges Dr‡mi g‡a¨ Av‡cwÿK MwZ‡eM k‡ãi MwZ‡eM A‡cÿv †ewk n‡j, Wcjv‡ii m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq bv|

Wcjvi-Gi cÖfv‡ei `iæb k‡ãi ZxÿèZvi cwieZ©‡bi wnmve

Calculation of the change of Pitch of Sound due to Doppler's Effect
(1) Drm MwZkxj Ges †kÖvZv w¯’i (Source in motion and listener stationary): aiv hvK, L GKRb †kÖvZv
Ges S GKwU k‡ãi Drm hv n K¤úv¼ m¤úbœ k‡ãi m„wó K‡i| k‡ãi Drm n‡Z cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Gi K¤úvs‡Ki mgvb msL¨K
kã-Zi½ wbtm„Z nq| k‡ãi †eM v n‡j, n msL¨K kã-Zi½ v cwigvY ˆ`‡N©¨i g‡a¨ Ae¯’vb Ki‡e; †kÖvZv Ges Dr‡mi
g‡a¨ †Kvb Av‡cwÿK MwZ bv _vK‡j, cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û n msL¨K kã-Zi½ †kÖvZvi Kv‡b †cŠQv‡e, Kv‡RB Drm KZ…K wbtm„Z
kã-Zi‡½i cÖK…Z ˆ`N©¨  n‡j,
v
=
n

GLb aiv hvK, kã Drcbœ Ki‡Z Ki‡Z Drm S †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q| GLb Drm n‡Z
cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û n msL¨K Zi½ wbtm„Z n‡e| †kÖvZv w¯’i _vK‡j GLb GB n msL¨K Zi½ k‡ãi †eM v
A‡cÿv Kg `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ PvcvPvwc K‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡e [wPÎ 19-4]| Gi A_© `vuovq GB †h, eZ©gvb
†ÿ‡Î kã Zi‡½i ˆ`N©¨ K‡g hv‡e| wKš‘ w¯’i Ae¯’vq Ae¯’vbiZ †kÖvZvi wbKU k‡ãi †eM v `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ hZ¸‡jv kã-
Zi½ _vK‡e, cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Gi me¸‡jvB †cŠuQ‡e| †h‡nZz eZ©gvb †ÿ‡Î A‡cÿvK…Z Kg Zi½-‰`‡N©¨i A‡cÿvK…Z †ewk
msL¨K kã-Zi½ v `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ PvcvPvwc K‡i Av‡Q, Kv‡RB Drm w¯’i _vK‡j †kÖvZv cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û hZ¸‡jv kã-Zi½
MÖnY KiZ, Drm Gi w`‡K AMÖmi nIqvi `iæb GLb Zv A‡cÿv †ewk msL¨K A‡cÿvK…Z Kg Zi½-‰`‡N©¨ Zi½ MÖnY
Ki‡e| Kv‡RB G †ÿ‡Î kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv¼ Z_v ZxÿèZv e„w× cv‡e| Dr‡mi MwZi d‡j Zi½-‰`‡N©¨i cwieZ©‡bi cwigvY
wb¤œwjwLZfv‡e wnmve Kiv hvqt
‡h †Kvb mgq Drm S cÖ_g †h Zi½wU Drcbœ Ki‡e, H †m‡K‡Ûi g‡a¨ H Zi½wU k‡ãi †eM v `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i L
ch©šÍ †cŠQv‡e [wPÎ 19-4] Ges H mg‡q Drcbœ Ab¨vb¨ Zi½¸‡jv Gi wcQ‡b _vK‡e| GLb Drm hw` †kÖvZvi w`‡K vs ‡e‡M
AMÖmi nq, Zvn‡j GK †m‡K‡Û DrmwU S n‡Z S Ae¯’v‡b hv‡e| Kv‡RB eZ©gvb †ÿ‡Î n msL¨K Zi½ v  vs `~i‡Z¡i
g‡a¨ Ae¯’vb Ki‡e [wPÎ 19-5] Ges cwiewZ©Z Zi½-‰`N©¨ n‡e,
v  vs
  ... ... (19-12K)
n

Kv‡RB †kÖvZv L †h kã MÖnY Ki‡e Zvi AvcvZ K¤úv¼,

k‡ãi MwZ‡eM
v
n = cwiewZ©Z Zi½-‰`N©¨ =


19-12 K bs mgxKiY n‡Z  -Gi gvb ewm‡q cvIqv hvq,

85
 v v
n =  n ... ... (19-12L)
v  vs v  vs
n

19-12L bs mgxKiY n‡Z †`Lv hvq †h, n > n; A_©vr Drm †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡j kÖæZ
k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ Z_v Zx²Zv e„w× cv‡e|
Avevi, k‡ãi Drm hw` vs †e‡M ‡kÖvv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i †h‡Z _v‡K, Zvn‡j †kÖvZvi w`‡K Dr‡mi
†eM 'vs'| 19-12 (L) bs mgxKi‡Y Õvs' ¯’‡j 'vs' ewm‡q kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ `vuovqt
v
n = n ... ... 19-12 M
v  vs

Dc‡ii mgxKiY n‡Z eySv hvq †h, n < n; A_©vr Dr †kvZv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i †h‡Z _vK‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ Z_v
ZxÿèZv n«vm cvq|
[Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv n‡Z †`Lv hvq †h, k‡ãi Drm w¯’ifv‡e Ae¯’vbiZ †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡j A_ev `~‡i m‡i †M‡j kÖæZ
k‡ãi AvcvZ ZxÿèZvi cwieZ©b †kÖvZvi wbKU¯’ A‡j kã-Zi‡½i ˆ`‡N©¨i cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ nq|]
(2) †kÖvZv MwZkxj Ges Drm w¯’i (Listener in motion and source stationary): 19-6 bs wP‡Î S GKwU w¯’i
k‡ãi Drm Ges L GKRb ‡kÖvZv| hw` ‡kÖvZv w¯’i _v‡K, Ges Drm KZ…©K k‡ãi K¤úv¼ n nq, Zvn‡j cÖ„wZ †m‡K‡Û
†kÖvZZvi wbKU n msL¨K kã-Zi½ †cŠQ‡e Ges GB n msL¨K Zi½ k‡ãi †eM v `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ Ae¯’vb Ki‡e| myZivs
v
Drm n‡Z wbtm„Z k‡ãi cÖK…Z Zi½-‰`N©¨   |
n

GLb aiv hvK †kÖvZv vL †e‡M Drm n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Q Ges L Ae¯’v‡b _vKvKvjxb †m †h-‡Kvb mgq Drm KZ…©K wbtm„Z
Zi½-¸‡”Qi cÖ_g Zi½wU MÖnY K‡i‡Q (wPÎ 19-6)| Zi½¸‡”Qi cÖ_g Zi½wU GK †m‡K‡Û v `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i A

Ae¯’v‡b †cŠQ‡e Ges H ¸‡”Qi Ab¨vb¨ Zi½mg~n Gi wcQ‡b _vK‡e| wKš‘ we‡ePbvaxb mg‡q me©‡kl †h Zi½wU †kÖvZv
MÖnY Ki‡e Zv †m L Ae¯’v‡b †h‡q MÖnY Ki‡e| myZivs LL, A_©vr vL `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ Ae¯’vbiZ kã-Zi½mg~n †m nviv‡e
Ges †Kej LA A_©vr v-vL `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ AšÍfz©³ Zi½mg~n MÖnY Ki‡e| g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e †h, G †ÿ‡Î Zi½ ˆ`‡N©¨i
†Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv|
myZivs, kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ n‡e,
v  vL
n =

v
wKš‘,  
n

86
 v  vL
myZivs, n =
v
n

v  vL
 n = n ... .. (19-12 N)
v

G †ÿ‡Î n < n; A_©vr, †kÖvZv Drm n‡Z `~‡i Mm‡i †h‡Z _vK‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ Z_v ZxÿèZv n«vm cvq|
Avevi, †kÖvZv hw` Dr‡mi w`‡K VL ‡e‡M AMÖmi nq (wPÎ- 19-7), Zvn‡j Drm n‡Z `~‡i mi hvIqvq †eM n‡e 'vL'|
19-12 (N) bs mgxKi‡Y 'vL' ¯’‡j 'vL' ewm‡q kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv¼ `vuovqt

v  vL
n = n ... ... (19-12 O)
v

Dc‡ii mgxKiYwU n‡Z †`Lv hvq †h, n > n; A_©vr, ‡kÖvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡j, kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ ZxÿèZv e„w×
cv‡e|
[Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv n‡Z jÿ¨ Kiv hvq †h, Drm w¯’i †_‡K †kvZv MwZkxj n‡j, kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ n«vm-e„w× cvq|
GwU N‡U cÖwZ †m‡K‡Ð †kÖvZv KZ…K
© cÖvß Zi‡½i msL¨vi cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨| G †ÿ‡Î Zi½-‰`‡N©¨i †Kvb cwieZ©b N‡U bv|]
(3) Drm Ges †kÖvZv Df‡qB MwZkxj (Source and listener both in motion)t 19-8 bs wP‡Î S Ges L
h_vµ‡g k‡ãi Drm I †kÖvZv wb‡`©k Ki‡Q| Drm †kÖvZvi w`‡K vs ‡e‡M AMÖmi n‡”Q| H †eM‡K SS ˆ`N©¨ Øviv, w¯’i
evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM v-‡K SB ˆ`N©¨ Øviv Ges Drm n‡Z †kÖvZvi `~‡i m‡i hvIqvi †eM vL ‡K LL ˆ`N©¨ Øviv m~wPZ Kiv
n‡q‡Q|
G hver Av‡jvPbv wfwˇZ mn‡RB eySv hvq †h, eZ©gvb †ÿ‡Î Dr‡mi MwZi Rb¨ Zi½-‰`‡N©¨i cwieZ©b n‡e Ges †kÖvZv
MwZkxj bv n‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û †h msL¨K kã-Zi½ MÖnY Ki‡Z MwZkxj nevi Kvi‡Y Drm n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hvIqvq Zv
A‡cÿv Kg msL¨K Zi½ cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û MÖnY Ki‡Z mÿg n‡e| †Kvb

‡m‡K‡Ûi m~Pbvq Drm KZ…©K S Ae¯’vb n‡Z wbtm„Z Zi½wU D³ †m‡K‡Ûi †kl gyn~‡Z© B ch©šÍ †cŠQv‡e, KviY SB ‰`N©¨‡K
w¯’i gva¨‡g evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM aiv n‡q‡Q| H †m‡K‡Û cÖ_gwUi c‡i wbtm„Z kã-Zi½mg~n Gi wcQ‡b _vK‡e| wKš‘
DcwiD³ †m‡K‡Ûi g‡a¨ Drm S n‡Z S Ae¯’v‡b m‡i wM‡q‡Q| Kv‡RB Dr‡mi K¤úv¼ n n‡j n msL¨K kã-Zi½ eZ©gvb
†ÿ‡Î SB ˆ`‡N©¨i g‡a¨ A_©vr v-vs ‰`‡N©¨i g‡a¨ Ae¯’vb Ki‡e|
v  vs
Kv‡RB cwiewZ©Z Zi½-‰`N©¨  = ... ... (19-12 P)
n

87
GLb vL †e‡M MwZkxj †kÖvZvi K_v we‡ePbv aiv hvK| G †ÿ‡Î †kÖvZv Dr‡mi MwZi Kvi‡Y cwiewZ©Z Zi½-‰`‡N©¨i
Zi½¸”Q MÖnY Ki‡e| aiv hvK, L Ae¯’v‡b †_‡K †m †h-‡Kvb †m‡K‡Ûi cÖ_g Zi½wU MÖnY K‡i‡Q| H Zi½wU GK
†m‡K‡Û k‡ãi †e‡Mi mgvb `~iZ¡ LA AwZµg Ki‡e| wKš‘ †kÖvZv GK †m‡K‡Û L n‡Z L Ae¯’v‡b m‡i hvq| Kv‡RB H
†m‡K‡Û me©‡kl †h Zi½wU †kÖvZv MÖnY Ki‡e Zv †m L Ae¯’v‡b wM‡q MÖnY Ki‡e| myZivs, H †m‡K‡Ûi wbtm„Z kã-
Zi½¸‡jvi g‡a¨ LL = vL `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z Zi½¸‡jv nviv‡e Ges LA = v-vL‰`‡N©¨i g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z Zi½mg~n
MÖnY Ki‡Z mÿg n‡e|
GLb LA `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z Dr‡mi MwZi Kvi‡Y cwiewZ©Z Zi½-‰`‡N©¨i Zi‡½i msL¨v A_©vr kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ
K¤úv¼ A_©vr ZxÿèZv,
LA v  v L v  v L
n =   n (19-12 P bs mgxKiY e¨envi K‡i)
  v  vs

19-12 Q bs mgxKi‡Y,
n = kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ-ZxÿèZv A_©vr cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û †kÖvZv KZ…©K M„nxZ kã Zi½ msL¨v
n = Drm KZ…©K wbtm„Z k‡ãi cÖK…Z ZxÿèZv, A_©vr cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û cÖK…Zc‡ÿ wbtm„Z Zi½ msL¨v;
[G K_v Aek¨ ¯§iY ivL‡Z n‡e †h, k‡ãi Drm Ges †kÖvZvi g‡a¨ Av‡cwÿK MwZi Rb¨ kÖæZ k‡ãi ZxÿèZvi AvcvZ n«vm-
e„w× m¤^‡Ü Av‡jvPbvq me©‡ÿ‡ÎB evg n‡Z Wvb w`‡Ki MwZ‡eMmg~n‡K abvZ¥K aiv n‡q‡Q| Kv‡RB G m¤^‡Ü cÖvß
mgxKiY¸‡jv cÖ‡qvM Kivi mgq,
(1) Drm †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡j, Gi †eM abvZ¥K, wKš‘ `~‡i m‡i †Mj Gi †eM FYvZ¥K ai‡Z n‡e|
(2) †kÖvZv Drm n‡Z `~‡i †M‡j, Gi †eM abvZ¥K, wKš‘ Dr‡mi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡j Gi †eM FYvZ¥K ai‡Z n‡e|]
[wet`ªt GB Aby‡”Q‡`i me mgxKiY 19-12 Q bs mgxKiY n‡Z cvIqv hvq| Drm w¯’i _vK‡j vs = 0 ai‡Z n‡e, ‡kÖvZv
w¯’i _vK‡j vL = 0 ai‡Z n‡e]
evqy cÖev‡ni cÖfve
Drm n‡Z †kÖvZvi w`‡K w †e‡M evqy cÖevn _vK‡j, k‡ãi Kvh©Ki †eM n‡e 'v + w'; ‡kÖvZv n‡Z Dr‡mi w`‡K w †e‡M evqy
cÖevn _vK‡j, k‡ãi Kvh©Ki †eM n‡e 'v - w'|
wPwKrmv kv‡¯¿ Wcjvi wµqvi e¨envit Wcjvi wµqvi mvnv‡h¨ gvbe‡`‡ni i³ cÖev‡ni `ªæwZ wbY©q Kiv hvq, åæ‡bi
ü`¯ú›`b wbY©q Kiv hvq Ges i³ KwYKvi B‡gwRs-G Wcjvi wµqv e¨eüZ nq|

mvi ms‡ÿc
k‡ãi †eMt GK †m‡K‡Û kã-Zi‡½i AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡‡K k‡ãi †eM e‡j|
6| GKwU evuwk cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 200 Zi½ Drcbœ K‡i| GKRb †kÖvZv wK msL¨K Zi½ MÖnY Ki‡e-
(K) hw` k‡ãi †e‡M evuwkwU †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi nq,
(L) hw` evuwkwU k‡ãi †e‡M Zv‡K (†kÖvZv‡K) AwZµg K‡i P‡j hvq,
(M) hw` †m (‡kÖvZv) evuwki w`‡K k‡ãi †e‡M AMÖmi nq,
(N) hw` †m k‡ãi †e‡M evuwkwU‡K AwZµg K‡i P‡j hvq?
Avgiv Rvwb, Drm I †kÖvZv Df‡qB MwZkxj n‡j,

88
 v  vL
n = n
v  vs

(K) GLv‡b, n = 200 Hz

vs = + v [  Drm †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q]
vL = 0 [  ‡kÖvZv w¯’wZkxj]
n = ?
v0 v v
 n =  200   200   200 = 
vv vv 0

(L) GLv‡b, vs = v [ Drm †kÖvZv n‡Z `~‡i Mm‡i hv‡”Q]

vL = 0
v0 v
 n =  200 =  200 = 100 Hz
v   v  2v

(M) GLv‡b, vs = 0
vL = v [  †kÖvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q]
v   v 
 n =  200
v0
2v
=  200  400 Hz
v

(N) GLv‡b, vL = v [  †kÖvZv Drm n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Q]

vs = 0
vv 0
 n=  200   200  0
v0 v

Dt (K) Amxg, (L) 100 Hz, (M) 400 Hz, (N) 0

7| 1000 Hz K¤úb msL¨vwewkó GKwU k‡ãi Drm †Zvgvi wbKU n‡Z 10 ms-1 MwZ‡Z GKwU cvnv‡oi w`‡K Pj‡Q|
(K) Drm n‡Z AvMZ k‡ãi KZ K¤úb msL¨v Zzwg ïb‡e?
(L) cvnvo n‡Z cÖwZdwjZ k‡ãi KZ K¤úb msL¨v Zzwg ïb‡e Zv wbY©q Ki|
[‡`qv Av‡Qt evZv‡m k‡ãi MwZ = 320 ms-1]
G †ÿ‡Î †kÖvZv `ywU kã ïb‡Z cv‡e-GKwU Drm n‡Z mivmwi AvMZ kã Ges AciwU cvnv‡o cÖwZdjb ‡m†nZz AvMZ kã|
(K) aiv hvK, Dr‡mi cÖK…Z K¤úv¼ = n Ges wb‡b©q K¤úb msL¨v = n
Avgiv Rvwb, Drm MwZkxj Ges †kÖvZv w¯’i _vK‡j,
v
n = n
v  vs

GLv‡b, n = 1000 Hz
v = 330 ms-1
vs = 10 ms-1
[FYvZ¥K, KviY Drm †kÖvZv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Q]

89
 330
 n = × 1000
330   10

330
= × 1000
340

= 970 Hz (cÖvq)|
(L) aiv hvK, wb‡Y©q K¤úv¼ = n
GLv‡b, n = 1000 Hz
vs = + 10 ms-1
[abvZ¥K, KviY G †ÿ‡Î Avgiv g‡b Ki‡Z cvwi †h, Drm †kÖvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q|]
v 330
 n = n = × 1000
v  vs 300  10

330
= × 1000
320
= 1031 Hz
Dt (K) 970 Hz (L) 1031 Hz
8| GKwU †gvUiMvwo nb© Øviv 100 Hz K¤úv‡¼i kã Drcbœ Ki‡Z Ki‡Z GKwU w¯’i ch©‡eÿ‡Ki wbKU n‡Z GKwU w¯’i
†`qv‡ji w`‡K 36 km.hr-1 ‡e‡M Pj‡Q| ch©‡eÿKwU cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û KZ¸‡jv ¯^iK¤ú kyb‡Z cv‡e? †`qv Av‡Q, k‡ãi
†eM = 350 ms-1.
GLv‡b, v = 350 ms-1
vs = 36 km/hr = 10 ms-1
n = 100 Hz
aiv hvK, ch©‡eÿK MwZkxj Drm n‡Z mivmwi †h kã ïb‡Z cvq Zvi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ = n1 Ges †`qvj n‡Z cÖwZdj‡bi
ci †h kã ïb‡Z cvq Zvi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ = n2;
GLv‡b †kÖvZv w¯’i|
ZvÕKn‡j Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi,
 v 
n1 = n  
 v  vs 

GLv‡b, n = 100 Hz
vs = 10 ms-1
[ Drm †kÖvZv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Q]
v = 350 ms-1
 350 
 n1 = 100  
 350   10 

= 100  
350
 360 

= 97.23 Hz

90
 Ges n2 = 100 
350  -1
 [ G ‡ÿ‡Î vs = + 10 ms ]
 350 10 
350
= 100 ×
340
= 102.9 Hz
Kv‡RB cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û kÖæZ ¯^iK‡¤úi msL¨v
= 102.9  97.23
= 5.67
= 6 (  ¯^iK‡¤úi msL¨v fMœvsk n‡Z cv‡i bv)
Dt 6
9| GKwU mvB‡ib n‡Z D™¢zZ k‡ãi K¤úb msL¨v 100 Hz| †Zvgvi wbKU †Z mvB‡ibwU 10 ms-1 ‡e‡M m‡i †h‡Z _vK‡j
Zzwg †h kã ïb‡e Zvi K¤úb msL¨v KZ? [evZv‡m k‡ãi †eM 350 ms-1]
aiv hvK, wb‡Y©q K¤úb msL¨v = n
GLv‡b, v = 350 ms-1
vs =  10 ms-1
[ GLv‡b Drm †kÖvZv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Q]
n = 100 Hz
GLv‡b †kÖvZv w¯’i|
v
n = n
v  vs

 350 
 n =   .100
 350   10 
350
= × 100
360

= 97.2 Hz
10| GK e¨w³ evuwk evwR‡q 600 Hz K¤úvs‡Ki aŸwb Drcbœ Ki‡Q| NÈvq 16 km †e‡M GKRb mvB‡Kj Av‡ivnx Zv‡K
AwZµg K‡i †Mj| AwZµg Kivi c~‡e© I c‡i H aŸwbi AvcvZ K¤úvsK Zvi wbKU wKiƒc g‡b n‡e? [k‡ãi `ªæwZ = 300
ms-1]
‡kÖvZv I Drm DfqB MwZkxj n‡j, AvcvZ K¤úvsK,
v  v 
L
n =  n
 v  vs 

1g †ÿ‡Ît †kÖvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K AMÖmigvbt 1g †ÿ‡Î,

300  4.44  v = k‡ãi `ªæwZ = 300 ms-1
n =   × 600 = 608.9 Hz
 300 
vL = ‡kÖvZvi †eM
2q †ÿÎt †kÖvZv Drm n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Qt
= 16 kmh-1 = 4.44 ms-1

91
 300  4.44 
n =   × 600 = 591.12 Hz
vs = Dr‡mi †eM = 0
 300 
n = Dr‡mi K¤úvsK = 600 Hz
2q †ÿ‡Î,
v = k‡ãi `ªæwZ = 300 ms-1
vL = †kÖvZvi †eM = + 16 kmh-1
= + 4.44 ms-1
vs = Dr‡mi †eM = 0
n = Dr‡mi K¤úvsK = 600 Hz

Dt c~‡e© 608.9 Hz; c‡i 591.12 Hz

Av‡jvi cÖwZdjb
`„wói ÎæwUmg~n Ges Zv‡`i cÖwZKvi
Defects of vision ando their remedy
Avgiv Rvwb my¯’ Ges ¯^vfvweK †Pv‡Li wbKU we›`y (Near point) †PvL n‡Z cÖvq 0.25 `~‡i Ges `~i we›`y (Far Point)
†PvL n‡Z Amxg `~i‡Z¡ Ae¯’vb K‡i| GB my`xN© `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ e¯‘ †hLv‡bB _vKzK bv †Kb †PvL wbR ÿgZvq Zv‡K wbwe©‡Nœ
†`L‡e| GwUB nj †Pv‡Li ¯^vfvweK `„wó| ¯^vfvweK `„wókw³ e¨vnZ n‡jB Zv‡K `„wói ÎæwU ejv nq| bvbv Kvi‡Y GB ÎæwU
†`Lv w`‡Z cv‡i|
`„wói ÎæwU †gvU PviwU, h_vt
(1) n«¯^ `„wó ev ÿxY `„wó (Myopia or short sight)
(2) `xN© `„wó ev `~i `„wó (Hyper metropia or long sight)
(3) eva©¨ `„wó ev Pvj‡k (Presbyopia) Ges
(4) welk `„wó ev bKzjvÜZv (Astigmatism)
G‡`i g‡a¨ cÖ_g `ywU‡K `„wói cÖavb ÎæwU ejv nq| Gme ÎæwU Ges Zv‡`i cÖwZKvi wb‡¤œ Av‡jvPbv Kiv nj|
(1) n«m ev ÿxY `„wó: hLb †Kvb †PvL Kv‡Qi e¯‘ ‡`L‡Z cvq wKš‘ `~‡ii e¯‘ †`L‡Z cvq bv ZLb †Pv‡Li GB ÎæwU‡K n«¯^ ev
ÿxY `„wó e‡j|
wb¤œwjwLZ `ywU Kvi‡Y GB ÎæwU n‡q _v‡K|

92
(i) Pÿz †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ n«vm ev Awfmvix ÿgZv e„w× †c‡j|

(ii) ‡Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y Awÿ †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva© e„w× †c‡j| Giƒc †Pv‡Li `~i
we›`y Amxg `~i‡Z¡i cwie‡Z© A‡bK Kg nq, Ggb wK GK wgUvi ev Zvi †P‡qI Kg
`~‡i T we›`y‡Z Ae¯’vb K‡i Ges wbKU we›`y ¯^vfvweK my¯’ †Pv‡Li wbKU we›`y n‡Z
Av‡iv wbK‡U Ae¯’vb K‡i| d‡j `~‡ii e¯‘ n‡Z wbM©Z Av‡jvK iwk¥ ‡Pv‡Li †j‡Ýi
ga¨ w`‡q cÖwZmi‡Yi ci †iwUbvi mvg‡b F we›`y‡Z cÖwZwe¤^ MVb K‡i [wPÎ 10.2 (K)]| myZivs †PvL `~‡ii e¯‘ †`L‡Z
cv‡i bv| Gi cÖwZKvi `iKvi|
cÖwZKvi: GB ÎæwU `~i Kivi Rb¨ AeZj A_©vr Acmvix †j‡Ýi GKwU Pkgv e¨envi Kiv nq, hvi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ n«¯^ `„wói
n«¯^ `„wói `xN©Zg `~i‡Z¡i mgvb|
GB †j‡Ýi Acmvix wµqv †Pv‡Li DËj †j‡Ýi Awfmvix wµqvi wecixZ w`‡K wµqv K‡i| d‡j Amxg `~‡ii e¯‘ n‡Z wbM©Z
mgvšÍivj Av‡jvK iwk¥ GB mvnvh¨Kvix AeZj †jÝ L-Gi ga¨ w`‡q [wPÎ 10.2 (M)] cÖwZmi‡Yi ci cÖ‡qvRbgZ
AcmvwiZ n‡q †Pv‡L AvcwZZ nq Ges Pÿz †j‡Ý cÖwZm„Z n‡q †iwUbvi Dci cÖwZwe¤^ MVb K‡i| d‡j e¯‘‡K †`Lv hvq|
AeZj †jÝ Øviv Acm„Z iwk¥‡K wcQ‡bi w`‡K ewa©Z Ki‡j Giv T we›`y‡Z wgwjZ n‡e| AZGe †PvL e¯‘wU‡K T we›`y‡Z
†`L‡e Ges T we›`yB nj n«¯^ `„wói `xN©Zg `~iZ¡ hvi gvb AeZj †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i mgvb A_©vr n«m`„wó `~i Kivi Rb¨
Ggb GKwU AeZj‡jÝ e¨envi Kiv nq hvi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ n«¯^ `„wói `xN©Zg `~i‡Z¡i gvb|
‡dvKvm `~iZ¡ wbY©q:
g‡b Kwi, n«¯^ `„wói ÎæwUc~Y© †Pv‡Li `~iwe›`yi `~iZ¡ d, myZivs ÎæwU ms‡kva‡bi Rb¨ Ggb GKwU †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e
hv‡Z Amxg `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z jÿ¨e¯‘i Aev¯Íe we¤^ d `~i‡Z¡ m„wó nq|
G‡ÿ‡Î, jÿe¯‘i `~iZ¡, u = 
Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe‡¤^i `~iZ¡,  = d [cÖwZwe¤^ Aev¯Íe e‡j FYvZ¥K wPý e¨eüZ n‡q‡Q]
mnvqK †jÝ Z_v Pkgvi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ = f
1 1
GLb, †j‡Ýi mvaviY mgxKiY  n‡Z Avgiv cvB,
f 
1 1 1
 
f d 

ev, f = d ... ... ... (1)

‡dvKvm `~iZ¡ FYvZ¥K nIqvq †jÝwU AeZj n‡e| AZGe, AeZj †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ = ÎæwUc~Y© †Pv‡Li `~iwe›`yi `yiZ¡|
Pÿz we‡klÁiv Pkgvi e¨e¯’vcÎ †`Iqvq mgq †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ D‡jøL bv K‡i †j‡Ýi cÖwZm„Z ÿgZv P D‡jøL K‡ib|
†j‡Ýi ÿgZv P Ges †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ wb¤œiƒc m¤úK© i‡q‡Q-
1
‡j‡Ýi ÿgZv P (Diopter) = ... .. ... (2)
f meters 

93
myZivs 1 WvqÞvi = 1 wgUvi-1 (1m-1)
1
DØvniY¯^iƒc, awi GKwU AeZj †j‡b&im †dvKvm `~iZ¡ f = 0.50 m myZivs †j‡Ýi cÖwZmi‡Yi ÿgZv P = 
0.50m
= 2 WvqÞvi| †j‡Ýi ÿgZv †ewk n‡j †dvKvm `~iZ¡ Kg n‡e|
(2) `xN© `„wó ev `~i `„wó: hLb †PvL `~‡ii e¯‘ †`‡L wKš‘ Kv‡Qi e¯‘ †`L‡Z cv‡i bv, ZLb †Pv‡Li GB ÎæwU‡K `xN© `„wó
e‡j| mvaviYZ eq¯‹ e¨w³‡`i †ÿ‡Î GB ÎæwU `„ó nq| wb¤œwjwLZ `ywU Kvi‡Y G ÎæwU N‡Ut
(K) Pÿz †j‡Ýi Awfmvix ÿgZv n«vm †c‡j A_ev †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ e„w× †c‡j|
(L) †Kvb Kvi‡Y Awÿ †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva© n«vm †c‡j|
Giƒc †Pv‡Li wbKU we›`y. N1-Gi `~iZ¡ ¯^vfvweK I my¯’ †Pv‡Li wbKU we›`y Gi †P‡q A‡bK †ewk nq [wPÎ 10.3 (L)]| d‡j
¯^vfvweK wbKU we›`y N n‡Z AvMZ iwk¥ Pÿz †j‡Ýi ga¨ w`‡q cÖwZmi‡Yi ci †iwUbvi

‡cQ‡b F we›`y‡Z wgwjZ nq [wPÎ 10.3 (K)] Ges †PvL Kv‡Qi H e¯‘ †`L‡Z cvq bv|
cÖwZKvi: GB ÎæwU `~i Kivi Rb¨ †Pv‡L myweavgZ †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i GKwU Awfmvix ev DËj †j‡Ýi Pkgv e¨envi Ki‡Z
n‡e| d‡j †Pv‡Li ¯úó `„wói wbKUZg we›`y N [wPÎ 10.3 (M)] n‡Z AvMZ Av‡jvK iwk¥ GB mnvqK †j‡Ý GKevi
cÖwZm„Z nevi ci cÖ‡qvRbgZ AwfmvwiZ n‡q ‡iwUbv R-Gi Dc‡i co‡e| mnvqK †j‡Ý cÖwZm„Z iwk¥¸‡jv‡K †cQ‡bi
w`‡K ewa©Z Ki‡j Zviv N1 we›`y‡Z wgwjZ n‡e| AZGe †PvL e¯‘wU‡K N1 we›`y‡Z †`L‡e Ges N1 we›`yB n‡e `xN© `„wói
wbKUZg `~iZ¡|
‡dvKvm `~iZ¡ wbY©qt
g‡b Kwi `xN© `„wó ÎywUc~Y© †Pv‡Li wbKUZg `~iZ¡ d Ges ¯^vfvweK ev my¯’ †Pv‡Li ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ D| ÎæwU `~i
Kivi R‡b¨ †Pv‡L Ggb GKwU DËj †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z D we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z jÿ¨e¯‘i Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ d `~i‡Z¡
m„wó nq| G‡ÿ‡Î,
jÿ¨e¯‘i `~iZ¡ = D
Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe‡¤^i `~iZ¡ = d [cÖwZwe¤^ Aev¯Íe e‡j FYvZ&K wPý e¨eüZ n‡q‡Q]
‡jÝ ev Pkgvi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ = f
GLb †j‡Ýi mvaviY mgxKiY
1 1 1
  n‡Z cvIqv hvq
f  u
1 1 1 D  d
  
f d D dD

94
 dD
=
dD
dD
f= ... ... ... (3)
dD
GB mgxKiY e¨envi K‡i †dvKvm `~iZ¡ wbY©q Kiv hvq|
`xN©`„wó ÎæwUc~Y© e¨w³i wbKU we›`y `~‡i m‡i hvq e‡j d > D|
myZivs Dc‡ii mgxKiY e¨envi K‡i †dvKvm `~iZ¡ wbb©q Kiv hvq|
1
DËj †j‡Ýi ÿgZv, P (WvqÞvi) = |
f wgUvi 

1 1
‡Kvb GK e¨w³i Pkgvi ÿgZv +2D| myZivs wZwb f(m) =  = 0.5 m ‡dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i DËj †jÝ e¨envi
D 2

K‡ib| Gi A_© nj wZwb 0.5 m Kg `~i‡Z¡i e¯‘ ¯úófv‡e †`L‡Z cv‡ib bv|

(3) eva©K¨ `„wó ev Pvj‡k: eqm e„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ gvby‡li †Pv‡Li Dc‡hvRb ev cÖwZwe¤^ ¯’vcb ÿgZv n«vm cvq| d‡j gvbyl
Ggb GKwU ch©v‡q wM‡q DcbxZ nq hLb †m Kv‡Qi I `~‡ii Dfq e¯‘B ‡`L‡Z cvq bv| `~‡ii e¯‘i cÖwZwe¤^ †iwUbvi
mvg‡b Ges Kv‡Qi e¯‘i cÖwZwe¤^ †iwUbvi cðv‡Z MwVZ nq| GB ÎæwU‡K eva©K¨ `„wó e‡j| mvaviYZ Pwjøk eQi eq‡m `„wói
GB ÎæwU Avi¤¢ nq e‡j G‡K Pvj‡k ejv nq| G‡K cÖK…Zc‡ÿ †Pv‡Li ÎæwU bv e‡j eva©K¨ ÎæwU ejv DwPZ|
cÖwZKvi: GB ÎæwU `~i Kivi Rb¨ Pkgvi GKB †d«‡gi Dciv‡a© GKwU AeZj †jÝ I Aciv‡a© GKwU DËj †jÝ e¨envi
Ki‡Z n‡e| AeZj †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ †ewk Ges DËj †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ Kg n‡Z n‡e| †ewk †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i
AeZj †jÝ-Gi mvnv‡h¨ `~ieZ©x e¯‘ Ges Kg †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i DËj †jÝ-Gi mvnv‡h¨ wbKUeZ©x e¯‘ †`Lv hv‡e| †jÝ
`ywU‡K GKB KvVv‡gvi Dci ¯’vcb K‡i Pkgv ˆZwi Kiv nq| Giƒc Pkgvi †j݇K wØ-‡dvKvm (Bi-focal) ‡jÝ ejv nq|
(4) welg `„wó ev bKzjvÜZv: hLb †Kvb †PvL GKB mg‡q GKB `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z wewfbœ Z‡ji e¯‘‡K mgvb ¯úó †`L‡Z bv
cvq, ZLb †Pv‡Li GB ÎæwU‡K welg `„wó e‡j| †Pv‡Li KwYqvi Abyf‚wgK I Lvov †Q‡`i Amg eµZvi Rb¨ GB ÎæwUi D™¢e
nq| mvaviYZ Abf~wgK †Q` A‡cÿv Lvov †Q‡`i eµZv †ewk nq Ges †Pv‡L GKwU Lvov †iLv GKwU Abyf‚wgK †iLv
A‡cÿv †ewk evuKv g‡b nq| GB †Pv‡L gvbwPÎ, wm‡bgv, Zv‡ii Rvj, ‡ccvi cÖf…wZ †`L‡Z myweav nq|
cÖwZKvi: GB ÎæwU `~i Kivi Rb¨ ÔwmwjÛviÕ ev †PvOvK…wZ †j‡Ýi Pk&gv e¨envi Ki‡Z nq| GB cÖKv‡ii †j݇K UwiK †jÝ
(Toric lens) e‡j|

`ywU Pÿz _vKvi myweav

Advantages of having two eyes

95
 `ywU †PvL ci¯úi wKQzUv `~i‡Z¡ Ae¯’vb K‡i e‡j GKwU e¯‘‡K Avgiv `ywU w`K †_‡K †`wL Ges mgvb cv_©K¨hy³ `ywU
cÖwZwe¤^ m„wó nq| gw¯Í‡®‹ GB `ywU cÖwZwe‡¤^ Abyf‚wZ wg‡j e¯‘wUi wÎgvwÎK AvK…wZ ¯úó nq G‡Z e¯‘i `~iZ¡, ˆ`N©¨, cÖ¯’,
†ea, iO cÖf…wZ Ges `ywU e¯‘i cÖK…Z Aew¯’wZ I Zv‡`i ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡ m¤^‡Ü GKwU mwVK aviYv R‡b¥|
`„wó †KvY I †KŠwYK weea©b
Visual angle and angular magnification
GKwU e¯Í †Pv‡L †h †KvY Drcbœ K‡i Zv‡K `„wó †KvY ev exÿY †KvY e‡j| †Pv‡L GKwU e¯‘ eo bv †QvU ‡`Lv‡e Zv wbf©i
K‡i e¯‘ KZ…©K Drcbœ `„wó †Kv‡Yi Dci|
e¨vL¨v: wPÎ 10.6 G A I B GKB e¯‘ `ywU wfbœ Ae¯’v‡b i‡q‡Q| B Ae¯’v‡b e¯‘wU _vKvq G‡K A Ae¯’v‡bi †P‡q eo
†`Lvq|
hw`I e¯‘ `ywU GKB ˆ`‡N©¨i; wKš‘ exÿY †KvY ev `„wó †KvY 2 > 1 nIqvq Kv‡Qi e¯‘ eo g‡b n‡”Q| myZivs, †`Lv hv‡”Q
†h we‡¤^i D”PZv ev ˆ`N©¨ `„wó †Kv‡Yi mgvbycvwZK| GKB Ae¯’v‡b A I A _vK‡jI 3 > 1 nIqvq A > A| `„wó
†KvY hZ eo e¯‘ e¯‘ ZZ eo †`Lvq|
`c©Y Ges †jÝ Av‡jvPbvq we‡¤^i AvKvi e¯‘i AvKv‡ii †P‡q KZ eo ev †QvU Zv ˆiwLK weea©b m~PK (Index) Øviv cÖKvk
Kiv n‡q‡Q| wKš‘ A‡bK `„wó mnvqK h‡š¿ †h we¤^-m„wó nq Zv jÿ¨e¯‘i Zzjbvq LyeB †QvU| †m‡ÿ‡Î we‡¤^i AvK…wZ wbY©‡qi
Rb¨ ˆiwLK weea©b myweavRbK m~PK bq| ZvB H mKj h‡š¿i †ÿ‡Î ˆiwLK weea©‡bi cwie‡Z© †KŠwYK weea©b ev ms‡ÿ‡c
weea©b e‡j| G‡K m Øviv wPwýZ Kiv nq| m-‡K A‡bK mgq weea©b ÿgZvI ejv nq|
e¨vL¨v: `„wó mnvqK exÿY h‡š¿ MwVZ †Kvb jÿ¨e¯‘i cÖwZwe¤^ Pÿz †j‡Ýi mv‡c‡ÿ e¯‘ wn‡m‡e wµqv K‡i| wKš‘ †Pv‡L GB
cÖwZwe¤^ I cÖK…Z e¯‘ mgvb †KvY Drcbœ K‡i bv| G Kvi‡Y Awÿc‡U e¯‘i AvKvi n‡Z wfbœ AvKv‡ii cÖwZwe¤^ MwVZ nq|
†Pv‡L e¯‘i AvcvZ AvKvi wbf©i K‡i cÖK…Z e¯‘ I Zvi cÖwZwe‡¤^i `„wó‡Kv‡Yi Dci| G Kvi‡Y exÿY h‡š¿ e¯‘ Ges cÖwZwe¤^
†Pv‡L †h †KvY Drcbœ K‡i Zv‡`i AbycvZ Øviv weea©b wbw`©ó nq|

(†Pv‡L) cÖwZwe¤^ KZ…©K m„ó `„wó‡KvY

 weea©b, m = (‡Pv‡L) e¯‘ KZ…©K m„ó `„wó‡KvY


hw` e¯‘ I cÖwZwe¤^ †Pv‡L h_vµ‡g  I  `„wó‡KvY Drcbœ K‡i| Z‡e m = ... ... (4)

exÿY hš¿vewj
Visual Instruments
GKwU e¯‘ AvKv‡i Lye †QvU n‡j A_ev Lye `~‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡j Zv‡K Lvwj †Pv‡L fvj †`Lv hvq bv| G Kvi‡Y Dc‡hvMx
h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ Kv‡Qi AwZ ÿz`ª e¯‘i eo cÖwZwe¤^ MVb K‡i A_ev `~‡ii e¯‘i cÖwZwe¤^ wbK‡U Drcbœ K‡i `k©b Dc‡hvMx
Kiv nq| Gme hš¿¸‡jv‡K `„wó mnvqK exÿY hš¿ e‡j| †hgb AYyexÿY hš¿, `~iexÿY hš¿, evB‡bvKjvi, †cwi‡¯‹vc
BZ¨vw`| Gme h‡š¿ Ggb ai‡bi †jÝ e¨envi Kiv nq hv‡Z †Pv‡L †ewk g‡bi `„wó †KvY Drcbœ K‡i|
1| GKRb QvÎ Zvi †PvL †_‡K gvÎ 8 cm `~‡i eB †i‡L fvjfv‡e co‡Z cv‡i| Zv‡K ¯^vfvweK †Pv‡Li ¯úó `k©‡bi
wbKUZg `~i‡Z¡ eB †i‡L covi Rb¨ KZ ÿgZvq †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e?
g‡b Kwi, ÿgZv = P GLv‡b, u = 25 cm

96
 Avgiv cvB,  = Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ `~iZ¡

P=
1
... ... (1) = 8 cm
fm

1 1 1
cybt,   ... ... (2)
f  u
1 1 1
  
f 8 25
25  8 17
 
200 200
200 217
f=  cm 
17 m
1
1 1 17
P= =  = 8.5 D
fm 2

2| GKRb n«¯^ `„wóm¤úbœ e¨w³i me‡P‡q †ewk `„wói cvjøv 0.10 m n‡j Zvi ¯^vfvweK †Pv‡Li Rb¨ ms‡kvab Ki‡Z KZ
ÿgZvi †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e? ¯^vfvweK †Pv‡Li Rb¨ ¯úó `„wói b~¨bZg `~iZ¡ = 0.25 m
g‡b Kwi ÿgZv = P GLv‡b, u = 0.25 m
 Avgiv cvB,  = 0.10 m
1 Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ `~iZ¡
P= D ... ... (1)
fm

cybt
1 1 1
cybt,   ... ... (2)
f  u
1 1 1 6
   =
f 0.10 0.25 1
1
f= m
6

GLb mgxKiY (1) n‡Z cvB,

1
P=  6D
 1/ 6

3| GK e¨w³ ÎæwUc~Y© †Pv‡L 5m- Gi AwaK `~‡ii e¯‘ Ges 0.50 m ev 50 cm-Gi AwaK wbK‡Ui e¯‘ ¯úó †`‡L bv|
`~‡ii e¯‘ †`Lvq Ges †jLvcovi Rb¨ Zv‡K KZ ÿgZvi Pkgv e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e?
`~‡ii e¯‘ †`Lvi Rb¨, GLv‡b,  = 5m
1 1 1
  u=
f  u
P=?
1 1 1
ev,  
f 5 

97
 1 1
ev, 
f 5

ev, f = 5m
1 1
 ÿgZv, P =   0.2D
f 5
‡jLvcovi Rb¨, GLv‡b,
1 1 1
  u = 0.25 m (¯úó `k©‡bi b~¨bZg
f  u
`~iZ¡)
1 1
= 
 0.50 0.25  = 50 cm
1 2 1 = 0.50 m
= =
0.50 0.50

 f = 0.5 m
1 1
P= 
f m  0.5

 P = 2D

4| `xN© `„wóm¤úbœ GK e¨w³i ¯úó `k©‡bi b~¨bZg `~iZ¡ 0.50 m| covi Rb¨ Zv‡K wK ÿgZvi †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e?
A_ev, `xN© `„wóm¤úbœ GK e¨w³ 0.5 m ev Zvi †P‡q AwaK `~‡ii Me¯‘ fv‡jvfv‡e †`L‡Z cvq| ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg
`~i‡Z¡ we›`y †i‡L †`L‡Z n‡j Zv‡K KZ ÿgZvi Pkgv e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e?
A_ev, †Kvb e¨w³ 0.5 m Kg `~i‡Z¡i e¯‘ ¯úófv‡e †`L‡Z cv‡i bv| hw` H e¨w³ 0.25 m `~‡ii e¯‘ ¯úófv‡e †`L‡Z
Pvq Z‡e †m KZ ·gZvi †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
1 1 1
   = 0.5 m
f  u
¯^vfvweK ‡Pv‡Li ¯úó
1 1 1
  
f 0.25  0.50 `k©‡bi b~¨bZg `~iZ¡ = 0.25 m = u
2 1 1 P=?
= 
0.50 0.50

 f = 0.50 m
1
GLb, P =
f m 

1
=  2D
0.5

5| GKRb `xN© `„wóm¤úbœ e¨w³i ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ 50 cm| wZwb + 2.5 D ÿgZvi Pkgv e¨envi K‡ib| G‡Z
Zvi ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ KZZUzKz n«vm cv‡e?

98
‡jÝ e¨env‡i `xN© `„wóm¤úbœ e¨w³i ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ 50 cm-G Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ m„wó nq, †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡
f n‡j,

P=
1 GLv‡b,
f
P = 2.5 D
1
ev, f =  = 50 cm
P
1 = 0.5 m
= = 0.4 m
2 .5

jÿ¨e¯‘i `~iZ¡ u n‡j,

1 1 1
 
f  u
1 1 1 1 1
ev,   = 
u f  0.4  0.5

0.5  0.4
=
0.4  0.5
0 .9
=
0 .2

= 4.5
1
u= = 0.222 m
4 .5
AZGe ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~i‡Z¡i
n«vm = (0.5  0.22) m = 0.28 m

6| GKRb `xN© `„wóm¤úbœ e¨w³i ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ 0.5 wgUvi Ges wZwb 0.3 wgUvi †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡ DËj †jÝ
e¨envi K‡ib| G‡Z ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ KZ n«vm n‡e?
Pkgv e¨env‡i `xN© `„wóm¤úbœ e¨w³i ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~i‡Z¡ [A_©vr 0.5m `~i‡Z¡] Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ m„wó nq|
jÿe¯‘i `~iZ¡ u n‡j, GLv‡b,
1 1 1
   = 0.5 m
f  u
f = 0.3 m
1 1 1
 = 
0 .3  0.5 u
1 1 1 0.5  0.3 0.80
ev,    
u 0.3 0.5 0.15 0.15
15
u= = 0.1875 m
80

myZivs ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~i‡Z¡i n«vm = 0.5 m  0.1875 m = 0.3125 m = 0.31 m

7| ÿxY `„wóm¤úbœ †Kvb e¨w³ 0.25 wgUvi A‡cÿv †ewk `~‡ii e¯‘ †`L‡Z cvq bv| KZ ÿgZvm¤úbœ Pkgv e¨envi Ki‡j
0.35 wgUvi `~‡ii e¯‘ ¯úófv‡e †`L‡Z cv‡e?

99
g‡b Kwi, Pkgvi †dvKvm `~iZ¡, GLv‡b,
jÿ¨e¯‘i `~iZ¡ u n‡j, f  =  0.25 m
1 1 1 u = + 0.35 m
 
f  u
1 1 1
ev  
f 0.25 0.35

= 4 + 2.857
= 1.125
1
f= = 0.88 m
1.125
1 1
Avgiv Rvwb, ÿgZv, P =   1.13D
f m 0.88

8| GKwU ÿxY `„wóm¤úbœ †Pv‡Li `~i we›`yi `~iZ¡ 75 cm| KZ ÿgZvi Pkgv e¨envi Ki‡j GB ÎæwU `~i nq?

Avgiv Rvwb, P =
1 GLv‡b,
f
u=
1 1 1
Avevi,  
f  u  = 75 cm

ev, P = 
1

1 =  0.75 m
0.75 
P=?
1
ev, P =  +0
0.75

 P =  1.33 D

9| n«¯^ `„wóm¤úbœ e¨w³ 200 cm Gi AwaK `~‡ii e¯‘ ¯úófv‡e †`L‡Z cvq bv| KZ ÿgZvi †jÝ e¨envi Ki‡j †m
`~‡ii e¯‘ ¯úó †`L‡Z mg_© nZ?
g‡b Kwi, ÿgZv = P GLv‡b,

Avgiv cvB, P =
1  =  200 cm =  2m
f
u=
1 1 1
Avevi,  
f  u P=?
1 1
ev, P = 
2 
1 1
= 0 =  D
2 2

 P = 0.5 D

10| GK e¨w³i wbKU we›`y 0.40 m Ges `~i we›`y 5m-G Aew¯’Z| eB co‡Z I `~‡ii e¯‘ †`L‡Z Zvi KZ ÿgZvi
†j‡Ýi cÖ‡qvRb? [¯úó `k©‡bi wbKUZg `~iZ¡ 0.25m]

100
Avgiv Rvwb, P =
1
D ... ... (1) GLv‡b
f m 
eB co‡Z
1 1 1
Avevi,   ... ... (2) u = 0.25 m
 u f
eB co‡Z,  =  0.4 m

¯úó `k©‡bi wbU we›`y 0.25 m `~i‡Z¡ `~‡ii wRwbm †`L‡Z

1 1 1 u=
AZGe,  
 0.4 0.25 f
=5m
1
ev, 2.5 + 4 =
f
1
1.5 =
f
1
f= = 0.67 m
1 .5
1
P= = 1.5 D
0.67
1 1 1
Ges `~‡ii e¯‘ †`L‡Z,   
5  f

ev, f = 5m
1 1
P=    0.2D
f 5

11| †Kvb GK e¨w³i wbKU we›`y Ges `~i we›`y h_vµ‡g 0.4 m Ges 6 m| cwÎKv covi Rb¨ Ges `~‡ii e¯‘ †`Lvi Rb¨
Zvi KZ ÿgZvi †jÝ cÖ‡qvRb n‡e? [¯úó `k©‡bi b~¨bZg `~iZ¡ 25 cm]
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

P=
1 cwÎKv covi Rb¨
f
u = 25 cm = 0.25 m
1 1 1
Ges  =  =  0.4 m
 u f

cwÎKv covi Rb¨ ¯úó `k©‡bi wbKU we›`y 0.25 m `~i‡Z¡ `~‡ii e¯‘ †`Lvi Rb¨
1 1 u=
  f
 0.4 0.25
 = 6 m
1
ev,  2.5  4
f

ev, P = 1.5 D
Avevi, `~‡ii e¯‘i †`Lvi Rb¨
1 1 1
  
6  f
1 1
ev,   0
f 6

101
 1
ev, P = 
6

P = 0.166 D

12| GKwU †hŠwMK AY~exÿY h‡š¿i Awfjÿ¨ I Awf‡b‡Îi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ h_vµ‡g 4 × 10-3 m Ges 5 × 10-2 m|
Awfjÿ¨ Øviv MwVZ †Kvb e¯‘i ev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ GwU n‡Z 22 × 10-2 m `~‡i Aew¯’Z| Awf‡bÎ n‡Z †kl Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^
25 × 10-2 m `~‡i Aew¯’Z| weea©b †ei Ki| GB h‡š¿i ˆ`N©¨ KZ?
Avgiv cvB,
1 1 1
 = ... ... ... (1)
 u f

Ges m = ... ... .... (2)
u

Av‡jvi cÖwZmiY

‡jÝ cÖ¯‘ZKvi‡Ki m~Î ev †jÝ ˆZwii mgxKiY

Lens maker's formula or equation of lens formation
g‡b Kwi AB GKwU miæ †j‡Ýi cÖab †Q` [wPÎ 8.1]| Gi cÖavb Aÿ OP-Gi Dci P GKwU we›`y-e¯‘ Ges O Gi
Av‡jvK †K›`ª| aiv hvK P n‡Z evqyi ga¨ w`‡q AvMZ PM Av‡jvK iwk¥wU †j‡Ýi cÖ_g c„‡ô Av‡jvK †K›`ª n‡Z mvgvb¨
`~‡i M we›`y‡Z AvcwZZ nIqvq iwk¥wU cÖ_g c„‡ô MN eivei
Ges wØZxq c„‡ô N we›`y n‡Z NR eivei cÖwZm„Z n‡jv| Avevi
P n‡Z †j‡Ýi Dci AvcwZZ cÖavb Aÿ eivei PO iwk¥wU
GKB †iLvq †jÝ n‡Z evqy‡Z wbM©Z n‡jv| Kv‡RB Dc‡iv³
wbM©Z iwk¥Ø‡qi †Q` we›`y p-B e¯‘ P-Gi AjxK ev Aev¯Íe
cÖwZwe¤^ n‡e| †Kbbv †j‡Ýi Aci cvk¦© n‡Z †`L‡j IB iwk¥
`ywU D³ we›` n‡Z wbM©Z n‡”Q g‡b n‡e|
aiv hvK NM-‡K cðvr w`‡K ewa©Z Kivq Zv PO-‡K p we›`y‡Z †Q` Kij| Zv n‡j cÖ_g ‡MvjKxq c„‡ô cÖwZmi‡Yi Rb¨
p-B P-Gi Aev¯Íe cÖwZwe¤^ n‡e Ges wØZxq c„‡ôi mv‡c‡ÿ p Aev¯Íe e¯‘ wn‡m‡e wµqv Ki‡e| myZivs wØZxq c„‡ô
cÖwZmi‡Yi Rb¨ p-B p-Gi cÖwZwe¤^ n‡e|
aiv hvK e¯‘i `~iZ¡ OP = u, cÖwZwe‡¤^i `~iZ¡ Op =  Ges Op = , cÖ_g I wØZxq †MvjKxq c„‡ôi eµZvi e¨vmva©
h_vµ‡g r1 I r2 Ges evqyi mv‡c‡ÿ †j‡Ýi Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ = µ
wP‡ýi ev¯Íe abvZ¥K cÖ_v Abyhvqx:
cÖ_g †MvjKxq Z‡j P-Gi m„ó cÖwZwe¤^ p-Gi †ÿ‡Î †jLv hvq,
 1  1
  ... ... ... (8.1)
 u r1

102
wØZxq Z‡j p -Gi m„ó cÖwZwe¤^ p-Gi †ÿ‡Î †jLv hvq,
1 1
1

= 
1
+ [jÿ¨e¯‘ Aev¯Íe †nZz  FY ivwk|]
    r2

Dfq cÿ¨‡K µ Øviv ¸Y‡b cvIqv hvq,

1   1
  ... ... ... (8.2)
  r2

mgxKiY (8.1) I (8.2) ‡hv‡M cvIqv hvq,

1 1
    1  
1 1
... .... ... (8.3)
   r1 r2 
mgxKiY (8.3) ‡j‡Ý e¯‘ `~iZ¡, cÖwZwe¤^ `~iZ¡ I eµZvi e¨vmv‡a©i ga¨Kvi m¤úK© wb‡`©kK mgxKiY|

87
‡j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i mgxKiY:
jÿe¯‘i Amxg `~i‡Z¡ Ae¯’vb Ki‡j MZvi McÖwZwe¤^ †j‡Ýi wØZxq cÖavb †dvKv‡m MwVZ n‡e| G‡ÿ‡Î u =  Ges  = f
 mgxKiY (8.3) n‡Z cvB,
1 1
    1  
1 1
f   r1 r2 
1 1
 0    1  
1
ev,
f  r1 r2 
1 1
   1  
1
ev, ... ... ... (8.4)
f  r1 r2 
BnvB †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡ mvaviY mgxKiY| †jÝ ˆZwii Kv‡R GB mgxKiY e¨envi Kiv nq e‡j G‡K †jÝ ˆZwii
mgxKiY ev †jÝ cÖ¯‘ZKi‡Yi mgxKiYI e‡j|
2
‡eóbKvix gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv¼ µ1 Ges †j‡Ýi Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ µ2 n‡j mgxKiY (8.4) -G µ-Gi ¯’‡j ewm‡q
1
†jLv hvq,
1  2  1 1 
   1  
f  1  r1 r2 
G‡K ‡jÝ cÖ¯‘ZKvi‡Ki m~Î ejv nq| G‡K †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡i m~ÎI ejv nq| GwU †j‡Ýi gva¨g †eóbKvix gva¨g
Ges †j‡Ýi `ywU Z‡ji eµZvi e¨vmva© Øviv wba©vwiZ|
KvR: ‡j‡Ýi Pvicv‡ki gva¨g cwieZ©b Ki‡j Zvi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ cwieZ©b nq †Kb?
‡j‡Ýi Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ hw` Zvi Pvicv‡ki gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv‡¼i ‡P‡q †ewk nq Zvn‡j AvcwZZ iwk¥¸”Q cÖwZmi‡Yi
ci Awfmvix iwk¥¸”Q cwiYZ n‡e| wKš‘ hw` †j‡Ýi Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ Pvicv‡ki gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv‡¼i †P‡q Kg nq
Zvn‡j DËj †j‡Ý AvcwZZ iwk¥¸”Q‡K cÖwZmi‡Yi ci Acmvix iwk¥¸”Q cwiYZ Ki‡e| AeZj †j‡Ýi †ÿ‡Î wecixZ
NUbv NU‡e| Gfv‡e †dvKvm `~iZ¡ cwieZ©b nq|

103
 R¨vwgwZK Av‡jvKweÁv‡b †Kv‡bv Z‡j, `c©‡Y, †j‡Ý ev Av‡jvK h‡š¿ Av‡jvK cÖwZdjb ev cÖwZmi‡Y †dvKvm `~iZ¡,
cÖwZwe‡¤^i `~iZ¡ abvZ¥K Ges mKj Aev¯Íe `~iZ¡ FYvZ¥K| ev¯Íe `~iZ¡ ej‡Z Av‡jvK iwk¥ cÖK…Z j‡ÿ¨ †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg
K‡i Zv †evSvq| Ab¨w`‡K Aev¯Íe `~iZ¡ n‡jv Av‡jvK iwk¥ †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i bv|

‡Mvjxq Z‡j Av‡jvi cÖwZmi‡Yi wbqg

Rules of refraction in spherical surface
I. ‡Mvjxq DËj ev AeZj c„‡ô Av‡jvi cÖwZmi‡Yi Rb¨ Ges we¤^ ev¯Íe, Aev¯Íe, †mvRv I Dëvi †ÿ‡Î:
 1  1
 =
  r
II. Av‡jv µ cÖwZmiv‡¼i Nb gva¨g †_‡K evqy‡Z cÖwZmi‡Yi †ÿ‡Î:
  1 
 =
 u r
II. µ1 cÖwZmiv‡¼i †Kv‡bv gva¨g †_‡K †Mvjxq c„‡ô AvcwZZ n‡q µ2 cÖwZmiv‡¼i †Kv‡bv gva¨‡g cÖwZmi‡Yi †ÿ‡Î:
 2 1  2  1
 
 u r
4 3
1| evqy mv‡c‡ÿ cvwb Ges Kv‡Pi cÖwZmiv¼ h_vµ‡g Ges | †`LvI †h, cvwb‡Z GKwU KvP †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡
3 2
evqy‡Z †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡ Pvi ¸Y| hw` †j‡Ýi †dvKvm 60 cm nq Zvn‡j cvwb‡Z †dvKvm `~iZ¡ KZ n‡e?
‡j‡Ýi `yB c„‡ôi eµZvi e¨vmva© r1 I r2 n‡j Avgiv Rvwb,
1  2  1 1  GLv‡b,
   1   ... (i)
f  1  r1 r2  3
‡j‡Ýi Kv‡Pi cÖwZmiv¼, µ2 =
2
evZv‡mi †ÿ‡Î,
awi,
1  3  1 1 
   1   hLb, µ1 = 1 (evZv‡m)
f1  2  r1 r2 
ZLb †dvKvm `~iZ¡ = f1 = 60 cm
1 11 1 
ev,     ... (ii) 4
f1 2  r1 r2  hLb µ1 = (cvwb‡Z)
3
cvwbi †ÿ‡Î,
ZLb †dvKvm `~iZ¡ = f2
 3 
1   [g‡b ivL‡e: µ2  †j‡Ýi Dcv`v‡bi
 2  1 1  1    9  1 1  1 
f2  4  r1 r2   8  r1 r2  cÖwZmiv¼ m~‡Îi j‡e (numerator)
 
 3 
em‡e| Avi µ1  gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv¼
1 1 1 
=    ... ... (iii) m~‡Îi n‡i (denominator) em‡e|]
8  r1 r2 

(ii) bs mgxKiY‡K (iii) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB,

f2
4
f1

ev, f2 = 4f1 (cÖgvwYZ)

 cvwb‡Z GKwU KvP †j‡Ýi †dvKvm `~iZ¡ evqy‡Z †dvKvm
`~i‡Z¡i 4 ¸Y|
GLb f1 = 60 cm|  f2 = 4f1 = 4 × 60 cm = 240 cm

104
 2| GKwU D‡fvËj †j‡Ýi `yB c„‡ôi eµZvi e¨vmva© 15 cm Ges 30 cm| †jÝwUi †dvKvm `~i‡Z¡ 20 cm n‡j Gi
Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
1 1 DËj †j‡Ýi cÖ_g c„‡ôi eµZvi
   1  
1
f  r1 r2  e¨vmva©, r1 = +15 cm
DËj †j‡Ýi wØZxq c„‡ôi eµZvi
=   1  
1 1 1 
ev, 
20  15  30 
e¨vmva©, r2 = 30 cm
=   1  2  1  DËj †jÝwUi †dvKvm `~iZ¡, f = ± 20 cm
 30 
cÖwZmiv¼, µ = ?
ev,   1 =
30
 0.5
3  20 [g‡b ivL‡e: DfveZj †j‡Ýi †ÿ‡Î r1 
 µ = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5 FYvZ¥K, r2  abvZ¥K Ges D‡fvËj †j‡Ýi
†ÿ‡Î r1  abvZ¥K, r2  FYvZ¥K nq|]
3| 30 cm ‡dvKvm `~iZ¡wewkó GKwU m‡gvËj †jÝ-Gi Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ 1.52 n‡j Gi c„ô؇qi eµZvi e¨vmva©
wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, cÖ‡Z¨K c„‡ôi eµZvi e¨vmva© =
1 1 1 1 r
   1   =   1  
1
f  1 2
r r r r DËj †j‡Ýi 1g c„‡ôi eµZvi
2 e¨vmva©, r1 = r2
   1 
1
ev,
f r 2q c„‡ôi e¨vmva©, r2 = r
2
 1.52  1 
1
ev, cÖwZmiv¼, µ = 1.52
30 r
‡dvKvm `~iZ¡, f = 30 cm
 r = 31.2 cm

wcÖR‡g Av‡jvi cÖwZmiY I we”QziY

Refraction and dispersion of light in a prism
wcÖRg
Prism
wcÖR‡gi msÁv m¤ú‡K© wewfbœ c`v_©we` wewfbœ aviYv †cvlY K‡ib| G me aviYvi †cÖwÿ‡Z wcÖR‡gi wb¤œwjwLZ †h †Kv‡bv
GKwU msÁv †`qv †h‡Z cv‡i-
(1) wZbwU ci¯úi‡”Q`x mgZj c„ô Øviv mxgve× GKwU ¯^”Q mgmË¡ gva¨g‡K wcÖRg e‡j|
(2) `ywU ci¯úi †njv‡bv mgZj c„ô Øviv mxgve× †Kv‡bv ¯^”Q mgmË¡ cÖwZmviK gva¨g‡K wcÖRg e‡j|
(3) wZbwU AvqZ‡ÿÎvKvi Ges `ywU wÎfzRvKvi mgZj c„ô Øviv mxgve× †Kv‡bv ¯^”Q mgmË¡ cÖwZmviK gva¨g‡K wcÖRg
e‡j| wcÖR‡gi †gvU cvuPwU Zj _v‡K|
(4) GKwU ¯^”Q e¯‘‡K hw` QqwU AvqZ‡ÿwÎK Zj Øviv Ggbfv‡e mxgve× Kiv nq †h, †h †Kv‡bv `yB †Rvov wecixZ Zj
mgvšÍivj, wKš‘ Aci `ywU Zj mgvšÍivj bv n‡q ci¯úi AvbZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K, Zv n‡j Zv‡K wcÖRg e‡j|
wcÖR‡gi †h Zj w`‡q Av‡jvK iwk¥ cÖ‡ek K‡i Ges †h Zj w`‡q Av‡jvK iwk¥ †ei n‡q hvq Zv‡`i‡K wcÖR‡gi cÖwZmiY
Zj (Refracting surface) e‡j| cÖwZmiY ZjØq †h †iLvq
†Q` K‡i Zv‡K wcÖR‡gi kxl© (edge) e‡j Ges Zv‡i ga¨eZ©x
†KvY‡K wcÖRg †KvY (Angle of the prism) ev cÖwZmiY †KvY

105
(Refracting angle) e‡j| wcÖRg †Kv‡Yi wecixZ Zj‡K wcÖR‡gi f‚wg (Base) e‡j| wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q cÖwZmiY
Zj؇qi mv‡_ j¤^ nq Ggb †h ‡Kv‡bv GKwU KwíZ mgZj‡K wcÖR‡gi †Q` (Section) e‡j|
8.2 bs wP‡Î AB Ges AC wcÖR‡gi cÖwZmiY Zj, A wcÖRg †KvY, BC wcÖR‡gi f‚wg Ges ABC wcÖR‡gi †Q`|
c~Y© cÖwZdjK wcÖRg (Total reflecting prism)
gm„Y Zjwewkó ¯^”Q Kv‡Pi mgwØevû mg‡KvYx wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q Av‡jvi
cÖwZdjb N‡U [wPÎ 8.3] ZvB G ai‡bi wcÖRg‡K c~Y© cÖwZdjK wcÖRg e‡j|

Rvbvi welq: c~Y© cÖwZdjK wcÖRg e¨envi K‡i Aekxl© cÖwZwe¤^‡K mgkxl© Kiv hvq e‡j
Gfv‡e e¨eüZ wcÖRg‡K mgkxl©Kvix wcÖRg e‡j [wPÎ 8.4]|

wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q Av‡jv‡Ki cÖwZmiY

Refraction of light through prism
g‡b Kwi, ABC GKwU wcÖR‡gi cÖavb †Q`| AB Ges AC cÖwZmiY Zj, A wcÖRg †KvY Ges BC wcÖR‡gi f‚wg [wPÎ
8.5]|
g‡b Kwi PQ ‡Kv‡bv AvcwZZ iwk¥ evqy n‡Z wcÖR‡gi AB Z‡ji Q we›`y‡Z wZh©Kfv‡e AvcwZZ n‡jv| G‡ÿ‡Î Av‡jvK
iwk¥ jNyZi gva¨g n‡Z NbZi gva¨‡g cÖ‡ek Kivi d‡j cÖwZm„Z iwk¥ Q we›`y‡Z AB Z‡ji Dci Aw¼Z Awfj¤^ NQO-
Gi Awfgy‡L m‡i wM‡q QR c‡_ cÖwZm„Z n‡e| Gi ci H iwk¥ AC Z‡ji R we›`y‡Z AvcwZZ n‡e Ges Avevi evqy
gva¨‡g RS c‡_ wbM©Z n‡e| Zv n‡j Avevi ivwkwUi cÖwZmiY
NU‡e Ges KvP n‡Z evqy‡Z hvevi d‡j cÖwZm„Z iwk¥ AC Z‡ji
R we›`y‡Z Aw¼Z Awfj¤^ NR n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hv‡e| GLv‡b
PQRS Av‡jvK iwk¥i c_ wb‡`©k K‡i| hw` Av‡jv‡Ki c‡_
wcÖRgwU bv _vKZ Zv n‡j AvcwZZ iwk¥ PQ †mvRvc‡_ P‡j
†hZ| wcÖR‡gi Dcw¯’wZi d‡j Av‡jvK iwk¥i c_ cwiewZ©Z n‡q‡Q
A_©vr Av‡jvK iwk¥i wePz¨wZ N‡U‡Q| GLb AvcwZZ iwk¥ PQ-‡K
mvg‡bi w`‡K L ch©šÍ Ges wbM©Z iwk¥ RS-‡K wcQ‡bi w`‡K ewa©Z
Ki‡j Giv O we›`y‡Z wgwjZ n‡e| GLv‡b H iwk¥i Rb¨ SQL we`y¨wZ †KvY wb‡`©k K‡i | GwU‡K  ev D Øviv m~wPZ
Kiv nq|
 SOL =  ev D
wePz¨wZ †Kv‡Yi msÁv: wcÖR‡g AvcwZZ iwk¥‡K mvg‡bi w`‡K Ges wbM©Z iwk¥‡K wcQ‡bi w`‡K ewa©Z Ki‡j G‡`i AšÍfz©³
†KvY‡K wePz¨wZ †KvY ev wePz¨wZ e‡j| GK K_vq ejv hvq, AvcwZZ iwk¥ Ges wbM©Z iwk¥i AšÍf³
z© †KvY‡K wePz¨wZ †KvY
e‡j| G‡K  ev D Øviv m~wPZ Kiv nq|
A¼b: awi NR-‡K wcQ‡bi w`‡K ewa©Z Kivq Zv NQO -Gi mv‡_ O we›`y‡Z wgwjZ n‡jv|
wePz¨wZi wnmve: g‡b Kwi PQN = i1, OQR = r1, SRN = i2 Ges ORQ = r2|
Zv n‡j †gvU wePz¨wZ,  = Q we›`y‡Z weP~¨wZ + R we›`y‡Z wePz¨wZ
ev,  = x + x = (i1  r1) + (i2  r2)

106
ev,  = (i1 + i2)  (r1 + r2) ... ... ... (8.5)
GLb, OQR wÎfz‡R, r1 + r2 = `yB mg‡KvY ... (8.6)
cybivq AQOR PZzfy‡© R, AQO = ARO = GK mg‡KvY
A + O = `yB mg‡KvY .... ... ... (8.7)
 mgxKiY (8.5) Ges (8.6) n‡Z Avgiv cvB,
A + O = O + r1 + r2
 A = r1 + r2 ... ... ... (8.8)
GLb mgxKiY (6.51) -G (r1 + r2) -Gi gvb ewm‡q Avgiv cvB
wePz¨wZ,  = i1 + i2  A ... .. ... (8.9)
GKwU n‡jv wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q Av‡jvK iwk¥i wePz¨wZi cwigvY wb‡`©kK ivwkgvjv|
AZGe, cÖ_g AvcZb †KvY, wØZxq cÖwZmiY †KvY Ges wcÖRg †Kv‡Yi gvb †R‡b wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q AwZµgkxj iwk¥i
wePz¨wZ wbY©q Kiv hvq|
b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †KvY, m (Angle of minimum deviation, m)
Avgiv Rvwb, †Kv‡bv GKwU wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q Av‡jvK iwk¥ Mgb Ki‡j cÖwZmiYRwbZ Kvi‡Y Zvi wePz¨wZ N‡U Ges
AvcwZZ I wbM©Z iwk¥i ga¨eZ©x †KvYB wePz¨wZi cwigvY wb‡`©k K‡i| GB
wePz¨wZi gvb AvcZb †Kv‡Yi Ici wbf©i K‡i| wb¤œgvb n‡Z ïiæ K‡i
AvcZb †Kv‡Yi gvb µgvMZ evov‡Z _vK‡j wePz¨wZi gvb Kg‡Z _v‡K Ges
AvcZb †Kv‡Yi GK wbw`©ó gv‡bi Rb¨ wePz¨wZ me©v‡cÿv Kg nq [wPÎ 8.6]|
Gi ci AvcZb †KvY evov‡j wePz¨wZ evo‡Z _v‡K| wePy¨wZi G me©wb¤œ
gvb‡K b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †KvY e‡j Ges G‡K m ev Dm Øviv e¨³ Kiv nq|
msÁv: wcÖR‡g AvcwZZ iwk¥i AvcZb ‡Kv‡Yi GKwU wbw`©ó gv‡bi Rb¨
wePz¨wZ †Kv‡Yi gvb me©wb¤œ nq| wePz¨wZ †Kv‡Yi GB me©wb¤œ gvb‡KB b~¨bZg
wePz¨wZ †KvY e‡j|
wcÖR‡gi †h Ae¯’v‡b b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ nq, †mB Ae¯’vb‡K wcÖR‡gi b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi Ae¯’vb (Position of minimum
deviation) e‡j|
AvcZb †KvY i1 -‡K X-A‡ÿ Ges wePz¨wZ †KvY -‡K Y -A‡ÿ ¯’vcb K‡i GKwU †jLwPÎ A¼b Ki‡j †h AvcZb
†Kv‡Yi Rb¨ wePz¨wZ †Kv‡Yi gvb me‡P‡q Kg, IB wePz¨wZ †KvYB b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †KvY| [8.6 -G m b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †KvY|
cixÿvjä djvdj n‡Z †`Lv hvq †h, b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi †ÿ‡Î i1 = i2 I r1 = r2| Kv‡RB b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ‡K Av‡jvK iwk¥
wb‡¤œi K‡qKwU kZ© †g‡b Pj‡e|
b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi kZ© (Conditions for minimum deviation)
A  m
(1) b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi †ÿ‡Î, i1 = i2 =  n‡e ... ... ... (8.10)
2
A
(2) b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi †ÿ‡Î, r1 = r2 =  n‡e ... ... ... (8.11)
2
(3) b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi †ÿ‡Î Av‡jvK iwk¥ wcÖR‡gi ga¨ w`‡q cÖwZmgfv‡e (symmetrically) Mgb K‡i A_©vr wcÖR‡gi kxl©
n‡Z cÖ_g I wØZxq cÖwZmiY c„‡ô Av‡jvK iwk¥i AvcZb we›`yi `~iZ¡ mgvb n‡e [wPÎ 8.5 AQ = AR]| G Ae¯’vq
cÖwZm„Z iwk¥ mgwØevny ev mgevû wcÖR‡gi f‚wgi mgvšÍivj n‡e|

107
 wcÖRg c`v‡_©i cÖwZmiv¼ Ges b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †Kv‡Yi g‡a¨ m¤úZK©
Relation between the refractive index of the material of the prism and angle of minimum
deviation
g‡b Kwi, Pvicv‡ki gva¨‡gi mv‡c‡ÿ wcÖRg c`v‡_©i cÖwZmiv¼ = µ
sin i1 sin i 2
 Avgiv cvB, µ = = ... ... ... (8.12)
sin r1 sin r2

Avgiv Rvwb,  = i1 + i2  A Ges A = r1 + r2

 m = i1 + i2  A = 2i1  A
A  m
 2i1 = A + m ev, i1 = Ges A = r1 + r2 = 2r1
2
A
 r1 =
2
GLb mgxKiY (8.12) -G i1 Ges r1 Gi gvb ewm‡q Avgiv cvB,
A  m
sin
 2 ... ... ... (8.13)
A
sin
2
Dc‡ii mgxKiY wcÖRg c`v‡_©i cÖwZmiv¼ Ges b~¨bZg wePz¨wZi g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb K‡i|
‡Kv‡bv wcÖR‡gi b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ 36° ej‡Z eySvq wcÖR‡gi AvcwZZ Av‡jvK iwk¥i AvcZb †Kv‡Yi GKwU wbw`©ó gv‡bi Rb¨
wePz¨wZ †Kv‡Yi me©wb¤œ gvb 36° nq| 36° ‡K b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †KvYI e‡j|
GLv‡b D‡jøL Kiv hvq †h,
(i) b~¨bZg wePy¨wZi gvb wcÖR‡gi Dcv`vb, Pvicvk¦©¯’ gva¨g, wcÖR‡gi †KvY I AvcwZZ Av‡jv‡Ki e‡Y©i Ici wbf©i K‡i|
(ii) ‡e¸wb e‡Y©i Av‡jv‡Ki †P‡q jvj e‡Y©i Av‡jv‡Ki Rb¨ b~¨bZg wePz¨wZ †KvY Kg|
KvR: GKB Dcv`v‡bi ˆZwi GKwU †QvU wcÖRg I GKwU eo wcÖRg Df‡qi cÖwZmiv¼ mgvb n‡e Kx?
gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv¼ GK †Rvov wbw`©ó gva¨g I GKB e‡Y©i Av‡jvi Ici wbf©ikxj| ZvB wcÖRg `ywU †h‡nZz GKB Dcv`v‡bi
ˆZwi ZvB wcÖRg †QvU ev eo Gi Dci cÖwZmiv¼ wbf©i K‡i bv| G‡ÿ‡Î ZvB Dfq wcÖR‡gi cÖwZmiv¼ GKB n‡e|
wb‡R Ki: jvj Av‡jv Ges †e¸wb Av‡jvi Rb¨ cÖwZmiv‡¼i gv‡bi †Kv‡bv ZviZg¨ n‡e Kx?
gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv¼ Av‡jvi Zi½‰`‡N©¨i Ici wbf©ikxj| Zi½‰`‡N©¨i gvb †ewk n‡j cÖwZmiv‡¼i gvb K‡g hvq| Avevi
Zi½‰`‡N©¨i gvb K‡g †M‡j cÖwZmiv‡¼i gvb †e‡o hvq| ZvB jvj Av‡jvi Zi½‰`N©¨ †ewk nIqvq GB Av‡jvi Rb¨
gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv¼ Kg n‡e| Ab¨w`‡K †e¸wb Av‡jvi Zi½‰`N©¨ Zg nIqvq †e¸wb Av‡jvi Rb¨ gva¨‡gi cÖwZmiv¼ †ewk
n‡e|
Rvbv `iKvi: hw` wcÖRg c`v‡_©i cÖwZmiv¼ cvwicvwk¦©K gva¨‡g cÖwZmiv¼ A‡cÿv Kg nq, Z‡e wcÖRg †_‡K wbM©Z Av‡jvK
iwk¥ f‚wgi w`‡K bv †eu‡K kxl© †Kv‡Yi w`‡K †eu‡K hv‡e|
1| 1.5 cÖwZmiv‡¼i †Kv‡bv KvP wcÖR‡gi GK c„‡ôi Ici Av‡jvK iwk¥ j¤^fv‡e AvcwZZ nq Ges wcÖR‡gi wØZxq c„‡ôi
Mv †Nu‡l wbM©Z nq| wcÖRg †KvY wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
r1 + r2 = A ... ... (i) µ = 1.5
Ges µ =
1
... ... (ii) r2 = r
sin  r
i1 = 0°
1
mgxKiY (ii) ‡_‡K cvB, 1.5 =
sin  r

108
 1
sinr =
1 .5

 r = 41.81° = r2
GLb, i1 = 0
 r1 = 0
mgxKiY (i) †_‡K cvB,
0 + 41.81° = A
 A = 41.81°
2| GKwU wcÖRg‡K b~b¨Zg wePz¨wZ Ae¯’v‡b ¯’vcb K‡i AvcZb †Kv‡Yi gvb 40° cvIqv hvq| wcÖRgwUi Dcv`v‡bi
cÖwZmiv¼ 1.5 n‡j wcÖRg †KvY KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
A  m i1 = i2 = 40°
sin
µ= 2 µ = 1.5
A
sin
2 A=?
A  i1  i 2  A
sin
ev, 1.5 = 2
A
sin
2
A  i1  i 2  A
sin
ev, 1.5 = 2
A
sin
2
i1  i 2
sin
ev, 1.5 = 2 [by¨bZg wePz¨wZ m = i1 + i2  A
A
sin
2
Ges i1 = i2]
sin i1
ev, 1.5 =
A
sin
2
A sin 40 0.642
ev, sin = = = 0.4285
2 1.5 1.5
A
ev, = sin-1 0.4284 = 25.37°
2
 A = 2 × 25.37° = 50.74° = 50°44
3| GKwU wcÖR‡g †Kv‡bv GKwU iwk¥i wbM©gb †KvY wcÖRg †Kv‡Yi mgvb wKš‘ IB Z‡ji AvcZb †Kv‡Yi mgvb| wcÖRg
Dcv`v‡bi cÖwZmiv¼ 3 n‡j †`LvI †h, wcÖRg †KvY 60°|
Avgiv Rvwb, Av‡jvK iwk¥wU KvP †_‡K evqy‡Z †M‡j, GLv‡b, i2 = A = r
sin i r2 A
gµa = AvcZb †KvY, i1 =  i
sin r 2 2

aµ g = 3

109
 A 1
1
sin gµa =
 = 2 3
3 sin A
A=?
A
sin
= 2
A A
2 sin cos
2 2
2 1
= =
3 A
cos
2
A 3
 cos =
2 2
 A = 60° (cÖgvwYZ)

w¯’i we`¨yr
Zwor †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ ev Zwor cÖvej¨
Electric field intensity or electric intensity
Zwor †ÿ‡Îi me©Î Gi cÖfve mgvb bq| PvwR©Z ev AvwnZ e¯‘i KvQvKvwQ Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z GKwU ciL PvR©
hZUzKz ej Abyfe Ki‡e `~‡i Zvi †P‡q Kg ej Abyfe Ki‡e| Avevi PvwR©Z e¯‘i Pv‡R©i cwigvY †ewk n‡j IB GKB
we›`y‡Z Kg Pv‡R©i e¯‘ A‡cÿv †ewk ej Abyf‚Z n‡e| Zwor †ÿ‡Îi GB mejZv ev `ye©jZv GKwU Zwor ivwk Øviv cÖKvk
Kiv nq| G‡K Zwor ‡ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ ev ZxÿèZv ms‡ÿ‡c Zwor cÖvej¨ (electric intensity)e‡j| Zwor †ÿ‡Îi GKB
Ae¯’vb we›`y‡Z ¯’vwcZ ciL PvR© I we›`y Pv‡R©i g‡a¨ wµqvkxj e‡ji gvb e‡ji gvb ciL Pv‡R©i cwigvY Abymv‡i wfbœ wfbœ
gv‡bi nq; wKš‘ GKK ciL Pv‡R©i Dci wµqvkxj ej GKB gv‡bi nq| myZivs Zwor cÖve‡j¨i wb¤œiƒc msÁv †`qv hvq|
msÁv: †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z GKK Avavb ev Pv‡R©i Ici wµqvkxj
ej‡K Zwor †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ ejv nq| G‡K ‡ÿÎ cÖvej¨I (field
intensity) ejv nq| Zwor cÖve‡j¨i GKK wbDUb/Kzj¤^|

Zwor †ÿÎ E Øviv cÖKvk Kiv hvq| GwU †f±i ivwk| Zwor †ÿÎ
†h‡nZz †f±i ivwk, AZGe Gi w`K I gvb i‡q‡Q| E-Gi w`K n‡jv GKwU
 
abvZ¥K ciL Pv‡R©i Ici wµqvkxj e‡ji w`K [wPÎ 9.1(K)], FYvZ¥K Pv‡R©i †ÿ‡Î E - Gi w`K F -Gi wecixZgyLx nq|
[wPÎ 9.1(L)]

Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z ¯’vwcZ ciL PvR© q0 Gi Ici wµqvkxj ej F n‡j, IB we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ n‡e,

 F
E = ... ... ... (9.1)
q0
 
 F = q0 E ... ... ... (9.2)
mgxKiY (9.2) Zwor cÖvej¨ Ges Zwor e‡ji g‡a¨ m¤úK© wb‡`©k K‡i|
Zwor †ÿ‡Î e‡ji gvb‡K Pv‡R©i gvb Øviv fvM Ki‡j fvMdjB n‡e Zwor †ÿ‡Îi cÖve‡j¨i ev Zwor †ÿ‡Îi gvb|
Avavb NbZ¡ ev Avav‡bi ZjgvwÎK NbZ¡
Charge density or surface charge density

110
 msÁv: cwievnxi c„‡ôi †Kv‡bv we›`yi Pviw`‡K cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎd‡ji Dcwiw¯’Z Pv‡R©i ev Avav‡bi cwigvY‡K IB we›`yi
Avavb NbZ¡ e‡j| G‡K ZjgvwÎK NbZ¡I e‡j| †Kv‡bv Z‡ji †ÿÎdj A Ges IB Z‡j Pv‡R©i †gvU cwigvY Q n‡j
Q
Avavb NbZ¡,  = |
A
GKK: Avavb Nb‡Z¡i GKK Kzj¤^/wgUvi2 (Cm-2)|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

=
Q
=
Q Q=9C
A 4R 2 R = 30 cm = 0.3 m
9 9
= = =?
40.3 2
4  3.14  0.09

100
=  7.96 Cm-2
12.56

we›`y Avav‡bi Rb¨ Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖve‡j¨i ivwkgvjv
Expression for the electric field intensity at a point in an electric field due to a point
charge
g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv gva¨‡g GKwU abvZ¥K Avavb +q i‡q‡Q| IB Avavb n‡Z r `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z P we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ wbY©q
Ki‡Z n‡e|
aiv hvK P we›`y‡Z GKwU ciL PvR© q0 ¯’vcb Kiv
n‡q‡Q [wPÎ 9.2]| GLb, q0 ciL Pv‡R©i Ici wµqvkxj ej,

 1 qq 0
F û ... ... ... (9.3)
4 0 k r 2

GLv‡b k n‡jv IB gva¨‡gi civ‰e`y¨wZK aªæeK Ges û n‡jv F eivei GKK †f±i|
GLb, Zwor cÖve‡j¨i msÁv n‡Z Avgiv Rvwb, Zwor cÖvej¨ n‡”Q GKK abvZ¥K Pv‡R©i Dci wµqvkxj ej| A_©vr,

 F
E ... ... ... (9.4)
q0

mgxKiY (9.3) e¨envi K‡i Avgiv cvB,

 1 qq 0 1
E n̂ ... ... ... (9.5)
4 0 k r 2 q 0
1 q
Zwor cÖve‡j¨i gvb n‡e, E = ... ... ... (9.6)
4 0 k r 2

evqy ev k~b¨ gva¨‡g, k = 1. myZivs k~b¨ ev evqy gva¨‡g +q abvZ¥K PvR© ¯’vcb Ki‡j, r `~i‡Z¡ Zwor cÖvej¨ n‡e
 1 q
E n̂ ... ... ... (9.7)
4 0 r 2
1 q
Zwor cÖve‡j¨i gvb n‡e, E = ... ... ... (9.8)
4 0 r 2

we.`ª. ciL Pv‡R©i Av‡kcv‡k GK ev GKvwaK PvR©B n‡jv Zwor †ÿ‡Îi Drm| g‡b ivLv `iKvi †h mgxKiY (9.2) -G
ciL Pv‡R©i Av‡kcv‡ki Pv‡R©i Rb¨ m„ó †ÿÎ eySvq, ciL Pv‡R©i Rb¨ bq| ciL PvR© GZ ÿz`ª †h Gi Dcw¯’wZ IB Zwor
†ÿ·K cÖfvweZ ev weK…Z K‡i bv|

111
 AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: `ywU we›`y Avavb wKQz `~i‡Z¡ i‡q‡Q| G‡`i ga¨eZ©x †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z hw` Zwor cÖve‡j¨i gvb k~b¨ nq
Z‡e Zv‡`i jwä KLbI k~b¨ n‡e bv|

1| 1.6 × 10-9 C (ev, 1.6 × 10-3 µC) Pv‡R© PvwR©Z GKwU ÿz`ª †MvjK evqy‡Z ¯’vcb Kiv n‡jv| PvwR©Z †Mvj‡Ki †K›`ª
n‡Z 0.15 m (ev, 15 cm) `~‡i †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z ˆe`y¨wZK cÖvej¨ †ei Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, evqy‡Z ˆe`y¨wZK cÖvej¨, GLv‡b,

E=
1 q
. 2
q = 1.6 × 10-9
4 0 r r = 0.15
1.6  10 9 1
= 9 × 109 × = 9 × 109 N-m2/C2
0.15 2 4 0

= 640 NC-1 E=?

2| GKwU mgevû wÎfz‡Ri A, B Ges C wZbwU †KŠwYK we›`y Ges wÎfz‡Ri cÖ‡Z¨K evûi ˆ`N©¨ 0.1 m| wÎfz‡Ri A I B
we›`y‡Z + 100 C Ges 100 C PvR© ¯’vcb Kiv n‡jv| C we›`y‡Z
cÖve‡j¨i gvb I w`K wbY©q Ki|
awi, ga¨g evqy, kZ©vbymv‡i + 100 C Pv‡R©i `iæb C we›`y‡Z ACD
Gi w`‡K cÖvej¨,
9  10 9  100
E1 = = 9 × 1013 N/C
0.1 2

cybt 100 C Pv‡R©i `iæb wÎfz‡Ri C we›`y‡Z CB-Gi w`‡K cÖvej¨,

9  10 9  100
E2 = = 9 × 1013 N/C|
0.1 2

cybt 100C Pv‡R©i `iæb wÎfz‡Ri C we›`y‡Z CB-Gi w`‡K cÖvej¨

9  10 9  100
E2 = = 9 × 1013 N/C| cÖvej¨ `ywUi gvb mgvb e‡j
0.1 2

C we›`y‡Z G‡`i jwä cÖvej¨ BCD-‡K mgwØLwÐZ Ki‡e| wKš‘ BCD = 120°| myZivs C we›`y‡Z jwä cÖvej¨
AB-Gi mgvšÍivj n‡e|
 jwä cÖvej¨,
R= E12  E 22  2E1E 2 cos 

= 9 10   9 10   2  9 10

13 2 13 2 13
 9  1013 cos 1200

= 9 10   9 10 
13 2 13 2  1
 2  9  1013  9  1013  
 2

= 811026  811026  81 1026

= 162 1026  811026
= 81 1026 = 9 × 1013 wbDUb/Kzj¤^ (N/C)

112
 3| `ywU we›`y Avav‡bi gvb h_vµ‡g +90 µC I 10µC| Zviv ci¯úi †_‡K 10 cm `~‡i Aew¯’Z| Zv‡`i
ms‡hMKvix †iLvi Ici †Kvb we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ k~b¨ n‡e?
Avavb `ywU wecixZ cÖK…wZi nIqvq Q1 I Q2 Gi ga¨eZ©x GLv‡b,
†Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b Zwor cÖvej¨ k~b¨ n‡Z cv‡i bv| A we›`yi Q1 = 90 µC = 90 × 10-6 C
B we›`yi Q2 =  10 µC = 10 × 10-6 C
Q1 I Q2 Gi ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡, r = 20 cm = 0.1 m

aiv hvK, B we›`y n‡Z x m `~‡i C we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ k~b¨|

90  10 6
GLb, A we›`yi Avav‡bi Rb¨ C we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ = ; Gi AwfgyL AC eivei|
0.2  x 2
10`10 6
Avevi, B we›`yi Avav‡bi Rb¨ C we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ = ; Gi AwfgyL CB eivei|
x2
‡h‡nZz, C we›`y‡Z cÖvej¨ k~b¨, AZGe
90  10 6 1

0.2  x 2
x2
9 1
ev, 
0.2  x  2
9
2
ev, 
x  1
 
 0.2  x  9
x 1
ev, 
0.2  x 3
ev, x = 0.1 m ev, x = 0.05 m
GLv‡b e gvb m¤¢e bq|
AZGe, B we›`y n‡Z 0.1 m ev 10 cm `~‡i ZworcÖvej¨ k~b¨ n‡e|
4| 1.6 × 10-20 g fi Ges 1.6 × 10-19 C Avavbhy³ GKwU abvZ¥K Avavb‡K k~b¨ ¯’v‡b 100 Vm-1 Zwor †ÿ‡Î
w¯’ive¯’v †_‡K †Q‡o ‡`Iqv n‡jv| 50 cm `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi ci AvavbwUi MwZ‡eM I Z¡iY KZ n‡e?
AvavbwUi Ici Zwor †ÿÎ KZ…©K cÖhy³ ej, GLv‡b,
F = E × q = 100 × 1.6 × 10-19 N m = 1.6 × 10-20 g = 1.6 × 10-23
F 100  1.6  10 19 kg
 AvavbwUi Z¡iY, a = 
m 1.6  10  23 E = 100 Vm-1
= 1 × 106 ms-2 s = 50 cm = 0.5 m
50 cm `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi ci AvavbwUi MwZ‡eM q = 1.6 × 10-19 C
 n‡j, Avgiv cvB,
2 = u2 + 2as
ev, 2 = 0 + 2 × 1 × 106 × 0.5 = 1 × 106
  = 1 × 103 ms-1

113
5| GKwU we›`y Pv‡R©i Rb¨ m„ó Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv GKwU we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ I Zwor wef‡ei gvb h_vµ‡g 40 NC-1 Ges
25 JC-1| we›`y PvR©wUi PvR© wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

E=
1 q
... ... (i) Zwor cÖvej¨, E = 40 NC-1
4 0 r 2
Zwor wefe, V = 25 JC-1
1 q
Ges V = ... (ii) PvR©, q = ?
4 0 r

q2
ev, V2 =
4 0 r 2
V2 q2 4 0 r 2 q
  × =
E 4 0 r 2
q 4 0

ev,
252 
q
= q × 9 × 109
40 4 0
15.625
q=
9  109
= 1.736 × 10-9 C

6| w¯’i Ae¯’v †_‡K GKwU B‡jKUªb 50 kV wefe cv_©‡K¨i ga¨ w`‡q cvVv‡bv n‡j B‡jKUªb 1.5 × 108 ms-1 MwZ‡eM
AR©b K‡i| B‡jKUª‡bi Avavb I f‡ii AbycvZ (e/m) wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
1
m2  eV  = 1.5 × 108 ms-1
2
V = 50 kV = 5 × 104 volt

e

2


1.5  10 
8 2

m 2V 2  5  10 4
= 0.225 × 1012 C/kg

Zwor wefe
Electric potential
Zwor weÁv‡b Zwor wefe GKwU we‡kl cÖ‡qvRbxq I ¸iæZ¡c~Y© ivwk| `ywU PvwR©Z ev AvwnZ e¯‘‡K GKwU Zwor cwievnx Zvi
Øviv ms‡hvM ¯’vcb Ki‡j e¯‘ `ywUi g‡a¨ Pv‡R©i Av`vb-cÖ`vb NU‡Z cv‡i, Avevi bvI NU‡Z cv‡i| Pv‡R©i Av`vb-cÖ`vb
e¯‘ `ywUi g‡a¨ Pv‡R©i cwigv‡Yi Ici wbf©i Ki‡e bv, e¯‘ `ywUi g‡a¨ we‡kl GK Zwor Ae¯’vi Ici wbf©i K‡i| G
Ae¯’v‡K ejv nq Zwor wefe| Zwor wef‡ei cv_©K¨ _vK‡jB †Kej Pv‡R©i Av`vb-cÖ`vb n‡e, Ab¨_vq bq| Zwor eZ©bx‡Z
`ywU we›`yi g‡a¨ wefe cv_©K¨ _vKvi Kvi‡YB Zwor cÖevn m„wó nq|
`ywU cv‡Îi g‡a¨ cvwbi cÖevn wKsev `ywU e¯‘i g‡a¨ Zv‡ci Av`vb-cÖ`v‡bi m‡½ Zwor wef‡ei mv`„k¨ i‡q‡Q| GKwU eo I
Ab¨ GKwU †QvU cv‡Îi g‡a¨ cvwb †i‡L GKwU cvBc Øviv cvwbi cvÎ `ywUi g‡a¨ ms‡hvM ¯’vcb Ki‡j †`Lv hv‡e †h cvwbi
D”PZvi cv_©K¨ _vK‡jB ïaygvÎ cvwbi cÖevn NU‡e Ges cvwb GKB D”PZvq bv †cuŠQv ch©šÍ cÖevn Pj‡Z _vK‡e| Abyiƒc,
`ywU e¯‘i g‡a¨ Zvcxq ms‡hvM w`‡j G‡`i g‡a¨ Zv‡ci Av`vb-cÖ`vb NU‡e hZÿY ch©šÍ e¯‘ `ywUi ZvcgvÎv mgvb bv nq ev
Zvc mvg¨ve¯’vq bv Av‡m| Dfq †ÿ‡Î cv‡Î cvwbi cwigvY ev e¯‘i g‡a¨ Zv‡ci cwigv‡Yi Ici cÖevn wbf©i K‡i bv|
Zwo‡Zi †ÿ‡ÎI GKB Ae¯’v N‡U| PvwR©Z ev AvwnZ e¯‘ `ywUi wefe cv_©K¨ _vK‡jB ïaygvÎ Pv‡R©i cÖevn NU‡e| D”P

114
wefewewkó PvwR©Z e¯‘ n‡Z wb¤œ wef‡ei PvwR©Z e¯‘‡Z Pv‡R©i cÖevn m„wó n‡e| myZivs Zwor wef‡ei wb‡¤œv³ msÁv †`qv
‡h‡Z cv‡i|
msÁv: `ywU PvwR©Z e¯‘i g‡a¨ ZPv‡R©i Av`vb-cÖ`vb †h Zwor Ae¯’vi Øviv wba©vwiZ nq, Zv‡K Zwor wefe e‡j| A_©vr wefe
n‡”Q PvwR©Z cwievn‡Ki ˆe`y¨wZK Ae¯’v hv Ab¨ †K‡bv PvwR©Z cwievn‡Ki mv‡_ ZworMZ-fv‡e mshy³ Ki‡j cwievnK
PvR© †`‡e bv †b‡e Zv wba©viY K‡i|
GLb Avgiv Zwor wefe kw³ Ges G kw³i mvnv‡h¨ Zwor wefe e¨vL¨v Kie Ges MvwYwZK ivwkgvjv cÖKvk Kie|

Zwor wefe kw³ (Electric potential energy): aiv hvK, wecixZ

Pv‡R© AvwnZ `ywU cv‡Zi g‡a¨ GKwU ciL PvR© +q0| w¯’wZ Ae¯’vq ivLv n‡q‡Q [wPÎ
9.3]| †h‡nZz cvZ `ywU AvwnZ d‡j ciL PvR©wU Zwor ej Øiv wb‡Pi cv‡Zi w`‡K
AvK…ó n‡e| GB e‡ji weiæ‡× †Kv‡bv GK c×wZ‡Z (aiv hvK nvZ Øviv) cÖ‡qvRbxq
ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i ciL PvR©‡K A Ae¯’v‡b w¯’i ivLv n‡q‡Q| GLb, aiv hvK ciL
PvR©wU‡K A Ae¯’vb n‡Z B Ae¯’v‡b wb‡Z wb¤œgyLx Zwor e‡ji weiæ‡× nvZ evwn¨K
ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i B Ae¯’v‡b wb‡q‡Q| ciL PvR©wU‡K A Ae¯’vb n‡Z IB Ae¯’v‡b
wb‡Z evwn¨K e‡ji Øviv KvR Ki‡Z n‡q‡Q| KvR-kw³ bxwZ Abymv‡i, K…Z KvR
e¯‘i †gvU kw³i cwieZ©‡bi mgvb n‡e| A I B we›`y‡Z e¯‘wU w¯’i Ae¯’v‡b _vKvq
Gi MwZkw³i †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b NU‡e bv; ïagvÎ w¯’wZ ev wefe kw³i cwieZ©b n‡e| wµqvwU ‰e`y¨wZK nIqvq mswkøó w¯’wZ
ev wefe kw³‡K ejv nq Zwor wefe kx³| KvR-kw³ bxwZ Abyhvqx GB m¤úvw`Z KvR WAB Zwor wefe kw³i
cwieZ©‡bi mgvb n‡e|
A_©vr WAB = EB  EA ... ... ... ... (9.9)
GLv‡b EB I EA h_vµ‡g B I A we›`y‡Z Zwor wefe kw³ (electric potential energy)| GLb Zwor ej
msiÿYkxj nIqvq, ciL PvR©‡K A n‡Z B we›`y‡Z †h c‡_B †bqv †nvK bv †Kb m¤úvw`Z KvR WAB mKj c‡_i Rb¨
GKB n‡e| PvR©wU A we›`y n‡Z B we›`y‡Z wb‡Z K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY Pv‡R©i cwigv‡Yi Ici wbf©ikxj: †Kbbv ciL Pv‡R©i
MwZ evav`vbKvix Zwor e‡ji gvb Pv‡R©i cwigv‡Yi Ici wbf©i K‡i †h‡nZz F = Eq0]| myZivs GKK Pv‡R©i Ici
m¤úvw`Z KvR wnmve KivB †kÖq| AZGe GKK Pv‡R©i Ici K…Z KvR
WAB E B  E A E B E A
   ... ... ... (9.10)
q0 q0 q0 q0
GB GKK Pv‡R©i wefe kw³‡K Zwor wefe ev ms‡ÿ‡c wefe e‡j|
WAB
 = VB  VA ... .... ... (9.11)
q0

GLv‡b VB I VA h_vµ‡g B I A we›`y‡Z Zwor wefe|

myZivs Avgiv Zwor wef‡ei wb‡¤œv³ MvwYwZK msÁv w`‡Z cvwi|
msÁv: Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kvb we›`y‡Z ¯’vwcZ PvR© q0-Gi wefe kw³‡K PvR© q0 Øviv fvM Ki‡j †h gvb cvIqv hvq Zv‡K IB
we›`yi Zwor wefe e‡j|
GLb aiv hvK A we›`y Amxg `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z| Amxg `~i‡Z¡ wefe VA = 0 aiv nq| myZivs Ic‡ii mgxKi‡Y VA = 0
ewm‡q Ges DcwPý¸‡jv Zz‡j wb‡j cvIqv hvq,
W
V
q0

115
 W
ev, V = .... .... ... .... (9.12)
q0

AZGe, mgxKiY (9.12) ‡_‡K wef‡ei Avi GKwU MvwYwZK msÁv †`qv hvq|
msÁv: Amxg `~i n‡Z GKwU GKK ab PvR©‡K Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Avb‡Z †h cwigvY KvR mvwaZ nq Zv‡K D³
†ÿ‡Îi `iæb IB we›`yi wefe ev Zwor wefe e‡j| G‡K V Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Zwor wefe = V| AZGe eû `~i n‡Z GKK ab PvR©‡K D³ we›`y‡Z Avb‡Z V cwigvY KvR
mvwaZ n‡e| GLb hw` eû `~i n‡Z q cwigvY PvR©‡K IB we›`y‡Z Avbv nq, Z‡e Kv‡Ri cwigvY n‡e,
KvR = wefe × PvR©
A_©vr, W = V × q

KvR
W
ev, V = =
q PvR©

‡h‡nZz GKK ab PvR© ¯’vbvšÍ‡i K…Z KvR Øviv wefe cwigvc

Kiv nq, Kv‡RB Kv‡Ri b¨vq wef‡eiI AwfgyL †bB, †Kej cwigvY Av‡Q| ZvB Zwor wefe GKwU †¯‹jvi ivwk| FY PvR©
I GKK ab Pv‡R©i ga¨Kvi AvKl©YB KvR Ki‡e| myZivs FY Pv‡R©i Rb¨ wefe FY ivwk n‡e|
GKK: Gm.AvB. (S.I.) c×wZ‡Z wefe kw³i GKK Ryj, Pv‡R©i GKK Kzj¤^| myZivs Zwor wef‡ei GKK V = Ryj Kzj¤^
GKK‡K †fvë e‡j|
1 †fvë wefe: Amxg `‚iZ¡ n‡Z 1 Kzj¤^ abvZ¥K PvR©‡K Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Avb‡Z hw` 1 Ryj KvR Ki‡Z nq
Z‡e IB we›`yi wefe‡K 1 †fvë e‡j|
wb‡R Ki: Zwor †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Zwor cÖvej¨ k~b¨ n‡j IB we›`y‡Z Zwor wefe Kx k~b¨ n‡e?
dV dV
Zwor cÖvej¨ I wef‡ei g‡a¨ m¤úK© n‡jv, E =  | GLb V aªæe n‡j = 0, A_©vr, E = 0
dr dx
myZivs E k~b¨ n‡j V aªæe n‡e| †hgb dvucv PvwR©Z cwievnxi Af¨šÍ‡i me©Î V aªæe; wKš‘ E k~b¨| Z‡e IB cwievnx
APvwR©Z n‡j V-I k~b¨ n‡e| AZGe, Zwor cÖvej¨ k~b¨ n‡j Zwor wefe k~b¨ n‡ZI cv‡i, Avevi bvI n‡Z cv‡i|

1| 20 µC wewkó GKwU PvR© ˆe`y¨wZK †ÿÎ ˆZwi K‡i| PvR©wU †_‡K 10 cm Ges 5 cm `~i‡Z¡ `ywU we›`yi Ae¯’vb| GKwU
we›`y n‡Z Aci we›`y‡Z GKwU B‡jKUªb wb‡Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY †ei Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Q  1 1 Q = 20 µC = 20 × 10-6 C
h = q(V2  V1) = q   
4 0  r2 r1  r1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m

 W = 20 × 109-6 × 1.6 × 10-19 × 9 × 109 

1 1  r2 = 5 cm = 0.05 m
 
 0.05 0.1  W=?
W = 2.88 × 10-13 J

PvR©MÖ¯Í †Mvj‡Ki wefe

Potential of a charged sphere
g‡b Kwi A GKwU †MvjK [wPÎ 9.4 (K)] Gi e¨vmva© r| †Mvj‡K +q cwigvY PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡j Zv †Mvj‡Ki Z‡j mgfv‡e
Qwo‡q co‡e| †Mvj‡Ki Zj n‡Z ej‡iLvg~n j¤¢fv‡e me w`‡K mij‡iLvq Mgb Ki‡e| G †iLv¸‡jv‡K wcQ‡bi w`‡K
ewa©Z Ki‡j Zviv †Mvj‡Ki †K‡›`ª wgwjZ n‡e| GLb hw` a‡i †bB †h, +q cwigvY PvR© †Mvj‡Ki †K‡›`ª Aew¯’Z Av‡Q,

116
 Z‡e GKB iKg ej‡iLv †Mvj‡Ki †K›`ª w`‡q Pviw`‡K †ei n‡q hv‡e [wPÎ 9.4 (L)]| AZGe †h-‡Kv‡bv w`K n‡ZB
we‡ePbv Kiv ‡nvK bv †Kb +q cwigvY PvR© †Mvj‡Ki †K‡›`ª †K›`ªxf‚Z aiv hvq| myZivs †Mvj‡Ki c„‡ô P GKwU we›`y wb‡j
IB we›`y‡Z Zvi wefe n‡e,
1 q
evqy gva¨‡g V =  Ges cÖvej¨,
4 0 r
1 q
E= 
4 0 r 2
q q
wKš‘ †Mvj‡Ki c„‡ôi Pv‡R©i Zj NbZ¡,  =  ; GLv‡b, A = ‡Mvj‡Ki †ÿÎdj
A 4r 2
1 q q q
 cÖvej¨, E =  2 = =
4 0 r 4r 0
2
0


ev, cÖvej¨, E =
0

‡Mvj‡Ki Af¨šÍ‡i me©Î wefe Gi c„‡ôi wef‡ei mgvb| †Kbbv †Mvj‡Ki c„‡ô wefe V Ges Af¨šÍ‡i †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z wefe
V0 n‡j, V  V0 = cÖvej¨ × `~iZ¡ = 0, ‡h‡nZz = 0, ‡h‡nZz †Mvj‡Ki Af¨¯Í‡i cÖvej¨ k~b¨|
1 q
 V = V0 | AZGe †Mvj‡Ki c„‡ô civ‰e`y¨wZK ev WvB-B‡jKwUªK aªæeK k n‡j, V = 
4 0 k r
AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: GKB e¨vmv‡a©i dvucv avZe MvjK I wb‡iU avZe †MvjK Dfq‡K GKB Zwor wef‡e PvwR©Z Ki‡j
†KvbwU †ewk PvR© aviY Ki‡e?
‡Kv‡bv avZe †Mvj‡K PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡j Zv evB‡ii c„‡ô Qwo‡q c‡o| ZvB avZe †Mvj‡Ki PvR© aviKZ¡ Gi dvucv ev wb‡iU
nIqvi Ici wbf©i K‡i bv| GB Kvi‡Y GKB e¨vmv‡a©i dvucv avZe †MvjK I wb‡iU avZe †MvjK Dfq‡K GKB Zwor
wef‡e PvwR©Z Ki‡j Df‡q mgv‡b PvR© aviY Ki‡e|
KvR: †Kv‡bv †Mvj‡Ki Af¨šÍ‡I ‡Kv‡bv ej‡iLv Ges Zwor cÖvej¨ _v‡K bv| ZvB Amxg n‡Z †Mvj‡Ki c„ô ch©šÍ abvZ¥K
PvR©‡K Avb‡Z †h cwigvY KvR Ki‡Z nq, Amxg n‡Z †Mvj‡Ki Af¨šÍ‡i †h †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Zwb‡Z GKB cwigvY KvR
Ki‡Z nq| GB Kvi‡YB Zwor wef‡ei msÁvbymv‡i, †Kv‡bv †Mvj‡Ki Af¨šÍ‡i †h †Kv‡bv we›`yi wefe c„‡ôi wef‡ei
mgvb|
Rvbvi welq: I. ‡fZ‡i †h †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b wefe wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡j †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva© wbY©q Ki‡Z nq|
II. †Mvj‡Ki †fZi cÖvej¨ k~b¨| c„‡ô cÖvej¨ _v‡K|
MvwYwZK D`vniY 2.5
1. 10 cm e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU †Mvj‡Ki cwiwa‡Z 10& gv‡bi `ywU PvR© ¯’vcb Kiv n‡jv| †Mvj‡Ki †K›`ª n‡Z 8 cm I 12
cm `~‡i Zwor wef‡ei gvb wbY©q Ki|
cÖ_g we›`yi ‡ÿ‡Î, GLv‡b, †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva©, R = 10 cm = 0.1 m
x1 < R ‡gvU PvR©, q = 2 × 10 C = 20 C
 cÖ_g we›`ywU †Mvj‡Ki †fZ‡i Aew¯’Z| ‡Mvj‡Ki †K›`ª n‡Z `~iZ¡ h_vµ‡g,
myZivs GB we›`y‡Z wefe n‡e c„‡ôi wef‡ei mgvb| x1 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
 cÖ_g we›`yi †ÿ‡Î wefe, Ges x2 = 12 cm = 0.12 m
1 q 20 1
V1 = .  9 109  = 9 × 109 N-m2/C2
4 0 r 0.1 4 0

= 1.8 × 1012 V wefe, V1 = ? Ges V2 = ?

Avevi, wØZxq we›`yi †ÿ‡Î, x2 > R

117
 wØZxq we›`y‡Z wefe,
1 q
V2 = . m~Îvbymv‡i,
4 0 x 2
20
= 9 × 109 × = 1.5 × 1012 V
0.12
2| `ywU ÿz`ª †MvjK A Ges B-‡Z h_vµ‡g 9C Ges 16C PvR© cÖ`vb Kiv n‡jv| hw` e¯‘ `zwUi ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡ 0.28 m
nq, Z‡e Zv‡`i ms‡hvRK mij‡iLvi †Kvb we›`y‡Z Dfq Pv‡R©i Rb¨ cÖve‡j¨i gvb mgvb n‡e?

g‡b Kwi A we›`y n‡Z x m `~‡i Dfq Pv‡R©i Rb¨ cÖvej¨ mgvb n‡e|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
1 q q q1 = 9 C
cÖvej¨, E =  2 = 9 × 109 × 2
4 0 r r q2 = 16 C
9 r = 0.28
+9C Pv‡R©i Rb¨ cÖvej¨, E = 9 × 109 ×
x2
9  109  16
Avevi, + 16 C Pv‡R©i Rb¨ cÖvej¨, E =
0.28  x 2
 kZv©bymv‡i Avgiv cvB,
9 9  109  16
9 × 109 × =
x 2
0.28  x 2
9 16
ev, 
x 2
0.28  x 2
2 2
0.28  x  16  4  0.28  x 4
ev,       
 x  9 3 x 3

ev, 4x = 0.84  3x
ev, 4x + 3x = 0.84
ev, 7x = 0.84
0.84
x= = 0.12 m
7
AZGe A we›`y n‡Z 0.12 Ges B we›`y n‡Z (0.28 
0.12) m = 0.16 m `~i‡Z¡ Dfq Pv‡R©i Rb¨ cÖve‡j¨i
mgvb n‡e|
3| cÖwZwU 220V PvwR©Z mg AvKv‡ii AvvUwU †QvU ‡dvuUv‡K wgwjZ K‡i GKwU eo †dvuUvq cwiYZ Kiv n‡jv| eo †dvuUvi
wefe KZ?
GLv‡b,
4 3 4
R  8  r 3
3 3
R3 = 8r3 = (2r3)

118
 R = 2r
Avevi, Q = 8q

V × C = 8 × V1C1  C  
Q
 V

V × 40R = 8 × 220 × 4r

8  220  r
V=
R
8  220  r
= = 880 V
2r
mgvšÍivj cvZ avi‡Ki aviKZ¡
Capacitance of a parallel plate condenser
eY©bv: mgvšÍivj cvZ avi‡K `ywU mgvšÍivj avZe cvZ Av‡Q| Giv h_vµ‡g M I N [wPÎ 2.22]| ycvZ `ywU ci¯úi n‡Z
mvgvb¨ `~‡i _v‡K Ges G‡`i g‡a¨ evqy A_ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv civ‰e`y¨wZK gva¨g †hgb c¨vivwdb, MÜK, KvP, B‡evbvBU, Aå
cÖf…wZ e¨envi Kiv nq| G Qvov cvZ M Kzcwievnx `Ð Øviv f‚wg n‡Z AšÍixZ Ae¯’vq Ges cvZ N f‚-mshy³ Ae¯’vq
_v‡K|
Kvh©bxwZ: g‡b Kwi cvZ `ywUi cÖ‡Z¨KwUi †ÿÎdj A, Zv‡`i ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡ d Ges ga¨eZ©x gva¨g evqy| GLb M cv‡Z +
Q cwigvY PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡j, IM n‡Z wbM©Z ej‡iLv¸‡jv wbKUeZ©x f‚-mshy³ cwievnx N cv‡Zi Ici co‡e| Gi d‡j
ˆe`y¨wZK Av‡ek Pig n‡e Ges N cv‡Zi †fZ‡ii c„‡ôi
Avweó FY PvR©, M cv‡Zi Av‡ekx ab Pv‡R©i mgvb n‡e|
cvZ `ywU ci¯ú‡ii AwZ wbK‡U e‡j M cvZ n‡Z
Awfj¤^fv‡e ej‡iLv¸‡jv †ei n‡q †gvUvgywU ci¯ú‡i
mgvšÍiv‡j †h‡q N cv‡Zi Ici co‡e Ges cvZ `ywUi g‡`¨
Zwor cÖvej¨ me©Î cÖvq mgvb n‡e| Avevi †h‡nZz f‚-mshy³
cvZ N-Gi wefe k~b¨, Kv‡RB M cv‡Zi wefe‡K M I N-
Gi gaªKvi wefe ˆelg¨ MY¨ Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i|
aviK‡Z¡i wnmve: mgvšÍivj cvZ؇qi c„‡ôi Zwor cÖvej¨ Ges cvZ؇qi ga¨eZ©x ¯’v‡bi Zwor cÖvej¨ GKB n‡e| Avgiv
 Q
Rvwb, †Kv‡bv cv‡Îi c„‡ô Zwor cÖvej¨ E =  ; GLv‡b,  = PvR© NbZ¡,  = gva¨‡gi †f`b‡hvM¨Zv|
 A
A
Avgiv Rvwb, aviKZ¡, C =
Q

Q
=  V  Ed
V Qd / A  d
A
mgvšÍivj cvZ avi‡Ki aviKZ¡, C = .... .... ... [9.13 (a)]
d
0 A
Ges evqy ev k~b¨ gva¨‡gi Rb¨ aviKZ¡, C = .... ... ... [9.13 (b)]
d
KvR: GKwU mgvšÍivj cvZ avi‡Ki cvZ `ywU e„ËvKvi| cÖwZwU cv‡Zi e¨vm 2 cm Ges Zv‡`i gvSLv‡b 1 cm evqy ¯Í‡ii
e¨eavb Av‡Q| hw` aviKwU‡Z 9 × 10-7 coulomb PvR© cÖ`vb Kiv nq Z‡e cvZ؇qi g‡a¨ wefe cv_©K¨ KZ n‡e?
0 A 0 r 2 4 0 r 2 GLv‡b,
C=  
d d 4d d 2
r=   1cm  110 2 m
=
110 
2 2 2 2

9 109  4 110 2 d = 1 cm = 1 × 10-2 m

119
= 2.8 × 10-13 1
= 9 × 109 Nm2C-2
Ges 4 0

Q 9 107 Q = 9 × 10-7 C
V= =
C 2.8 1013
= 3.2 × 106 volt

avi‡Ki †kÖwY I mgvšÍivj ms‡hvM Ges Zzj¨ aviKZ¡

Combination of Series, parallel condensers and equivalent capacitance
myweavg‡Zv aviKZ¡ cvIqvi Rb¨ GKvwaK aviK hy³ Kiv nq| G‡K avi‡Ki m¾v e‡j| GwU `yB cÖKv‡i Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i;
h_v- (1) †kÖwY ev wmwiR mgevq (Grouping in series) I (2) mgvšÍivj mgevq (Grouping in parallel)|
Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ (Equivalent capacitance): avi‡Ki †Kv‡bv mgev‡qi cwie‡Z© GKwU gvÎ aviK e¨envi Ki‡j hw`
avi‡Ki cv‡Z PvR© Ges wefe cv_©K¨ mgev‡qi PvR© I wefe cv_©‡K¨i mgvb _v‡K, Z‡e IB avi‡Ki aviKZ¡‡K mgev‡qi
Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ e‡j|
avi‡Ki †kÖwY ev wmwiR web¨vm
Combination of series capacitors
hLb KZK¸‡jv aviK‡K Ggbfv‡e hy³ Kiv nq hv‡Z cÖ_g avi‡Ki wØZxq cvZ wØZxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Zi mv‡_, wØZxq
avi‡Ki wØZxq cvZ Z…Zxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Zi mv‡_ BZ¨vw` G‡Ki ci GK hy³ _v‡K Ges me©‡kl avi‡Ki †kl cvZ f‚-
mshy³ _v‡K ZLb G‡K †kÖwYweb¨vm e‡j| †kÖwYweb¨v‡m AšÍfz©³ †kl avi‡Ki †kl cvZ Qvov Ab¨ cvZ¸‡jv c„w_ex n‡Z
AšÍixZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K| 2.23 bs wP‡Î C1, C2 I C3 aviK‡Z¡i wZbwU aviK AB, CD, EF ‡kÖwYweb¨v‡m Av‡Q ‡`Lv‡bv
n‡q‡Q|
cÖ_g avi‡Ki cÖ_g cvZ A-‡Z Q cwigvY ab PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡j Zwor Av‡e‡ki `iæb Gi wØZxq cvZ B-‡Z Q cwigvY
PvR© Ges wØZxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cvZ C-‡Z Q cwigvY avb PvR© Avweó n‡e| wØZxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Zi ab Pv‡R©i `iæb
Zvi wØZxq cv‡Z Q cwigvY ab PvR© Ges wØZxq cvZ Q cwigvY FY PvR© cÖvß n‡e| cÖ_g avi‡Ki wØZxq cvZ wØZxq
avi‡Ki wØZxq cvZ wØZxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Zi mv‡_ mshy³ e‡j Zv‡`i wefe mgvb n‡e| GKB Kvi‡Y wØZxq avi‡Ki
wØZxq cvZ I Z…Zxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Zi wefe mgvb n‡e| aiv hvK cÖ_g, wØZxq I Z…Zxq Kvi‡Y wØZxq avi‡Ki wØZxq
cvZ I Z…Zxq avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Zi wefe mgvb n‡e| aiv hvK, cÖ_g, wØZxq I Z…Zxq avi‡Ki cvZ؇qi g‡a¨ wefe ˆelg¨

h_vµ‡g V1, V2 I V3 Ges ms‡hvR‡bi AšÍM©Z cÖ_g cvZ A Ges †kl cvZ F-Gi g‡a¨ wefe ˆelg¨ V, Zv n‡j, V =
V1 + V2 + V3 |
Q Q Q
GLb, V1 = , V2 = I V3 =
C1 C2 C3

Q Q Q  1 1 1 
V= + + =Q   
C C  C  ... ... ... (9.14)
C1 C2 C3  1 2 3

120
wKš‘ hw` mgMÖ ms‡hvR‡bi cwie‡Z© Cs aviK‡Z¡i ‡Kv‡bv GKwU avi‡Ki cÖ_g cv‡Z Q cwigvY ab PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡j Zvi
AšÍixZ I f‚-mshy³ cvZ `ywUi g‡a¨ wefe ˆelg¨ V nq, Zvn‡j
Q
V= ... .... .... (9.15)
Cs

Q  1 1 1 
mgxKiY (2.47) I I(2.48) Abymv‡i, = Q     .... ... ... (9.16)
Cs  C1 C2 C3 
Cs-B n‡”Q Zzj¨ aviKZ¡|
Abyiƒcfv‡e †`Lv‡bv hvq †h, †kÖwY ms‡hvR‡bi AšÍM©Z C1, C2, C3, ....., Cn aviK‡Z¡i n wU avi‡Ki Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ CS
n‡j,

C
1 1 1 1 1 1
=   + ... ... + =
Cs C1 C2 C3 Cn
myZivs †kÖwY ms‡hvR‡bi AšÍfz©³ aviK¸‡jvi aviK‡Z¡i wecixZ gv‡bi mgwó Zzj¨ aviK‡Z¡i wecixZ gv‡bi mgvb|
avi‡Ki mgvšÍivj ms‡hvM
Combination of parallel capacitors
hLb KZ¸‡jv aviK‡K Ggbfv‡e hy³ Kiv nq hv‡Z cÖ‡Z¨K avi‡Ki cÖ_g cvZ GK we›`y‡Z Ges wØZxq cvZ Aci GK
we›`y‡Z hy³ _v‡K ZLb G‡K avi‡Ki mgvšÍivj ms‡hvM
e‡j|
9.5 bs wP‡Î gvšÍivj ms‡hv‡Mi AšÍfz©³ C1, C2 I C3
aviK‡Z¡i wZbwU avi‡Ki cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki cÖ_g cvZ M we›`y‡Z
Ges wØZxq cvZ f‚-mshy³ Ae¯’vq N we›`y‡Z hy³ Av‡Q
†`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| GB Ae¯’vq M we›`y‡Z Q cwigvY ab
PvR© cÖ`vb Ki‡j cÖ‡Z¨K avi‡Ki cvZ `ywUi g‡a¨ wefe
ˆelg¨ mgvb n‡e Ges Q PvR© aviKZ¡ Abyhvqx aviK¸‡jv‡Z Qwo‡q co‡e|
aiv hvK, C1, C2 C3 aviK‡Z¡i aviK wZbwU‡Z mwÂZ Pv‡R©i cwigvY h_vµ‡g Q1, Q2 I Q3 Ges M I N-Gi g‡a¨
wefe ˆelg¨ V|
Zvn‡j, Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V, Q3 = C3V Ges Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
 Q = C1 V + C2 V + C3 V
= C1 + C2+ C3 ... ... ... (2.52)
Cp n‡”Q Zzj¨ aviKZ¡|
GKBfv‡e †`Lv‡bv hvq †h, C1, C2, C3,........., Cn aviK‡Z¡i nwU avi‡Ki mgvšÍivj ms‡hv‡Mi mgZzj¨ Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ Cp
n‡j,
Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ..... + Cn = C
myZivs, mgvšÍivj ms‡hv‡Mi AšÍfz©³ aviK¸‡jvi aviK‡Z¡i mgwó ms‡hvR‡bi Zzj¨ aviK‡Z¡i mgvb|
hvPvB Ki: †`LvI †h, mgvb aviK‡Z¡i `ywU avi‡Ki mgvšÍivj mgev‡q _vKvKvjxb aviKZ¡ †kÖwYe× mgev‡q _vKvKvjxb
mgZzj aviK‡Z¡i 4 ¸Y|
aiv hvK, cÖ‡Z¨KwU avi‡Ki aviKZ¡ = C
G‡`i gvšÍivj mgev‡q Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ Cp = C + C = 2C ... ... (i)
1 1 1 2 C
Avevi †kÖwY mgev‡q Zzj¨ aviKZ¡    ; Cs = ... ... (ii)
Cs C C C 2

121
 Cp 2
(i)  (ii) n‡Z cvB,  2C   4 Cp= 4Cs
Cs C

1| cÖgvY Ki †h, gvb aviK‡Z¡i 4wU aviK‡Z¡i 4wU avi‡Ki †kÖwY mgev‡q _vKvKvjxb mgZzj aviKZ¡ Zv‡`i mgvšÍivj
1
mgev‡q _vKvKvjxb mgZzj aviK‡Z¡i ¸Y|
16

g‡b Kwi cÖwZwU avi‡Ki aviKZ¡ C Ges mgvšÍivj mgev‡q mvRv‡j Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ n‡e Cp|
 Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 = C + C + C + C = 4C
Cp
C= .... .... (i)
4
wmwiR mgev‡qi Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ Cs n‡j
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
        
Cs C1 C2 C3 C4 C C C C C

C Cp
 Cs =  [(i) bs Øviv]
4 4 4
1
= Cp (cÖgvwYZ)
16
2| wZbwU avi‡Ki aviKZ¡ h_vµ‡g 3, 2 Ges 1 µF| G‡`i wØZxq Ges Z…ZxqwU‡K ‡kÖwY mgev‡q mvwR‡q cÖ_gwUi mv‡_
mgvšÍivj mgev‡q hy³ Kiv n‡jv| eZ©bxi Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ wbY©q Ki|
g‡b Kwi †kÖwY mgev‡q Zyj¨ aviKZ¡ = Cs
1 1 1 1 1
 Avgiv cvB,    
Cs C2 C3 2 1
1 1 2 3
ev,  
Cs 2 2
2
 Cs = µF
3
‡klwU mgvšÍivj ms‡hvRbx; g‡b Kwi G‡ÿ‡Î Zzj¨ aviKZ¡ = Cp
 Avgiv cvB,
2
Cp = Cs + C1 = 3
3
29 11
ev Cp = =
3 3
 Cp = 3.66 µF
avi‡Ki w¯’wZ ev mwÂZ kw³
Potential energy of a condenser or a capacitor

122
g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv avi‡Ki GKwU cvZ‡K f‚-msjMœ K‡i Aci cvZwU V wef‡e PvwR©Z K‡i aviKwU‡K PvwR©Z Kiv n‡jv|
aviKwU‡K PvwR©Z Ki‡Z †h cwigvY KvR m¤úbœ Ki‡Z nq Zv-B avi‡K w¯’wZkw³iƒ‡c mwÂZ _v‡K| G‡ÿ‡Î GKwU cvZ‡K
V wef‡e PvwR©Z Ki‡Z †h KvR Ki‡Z nq Zv-B aviK‡K PvwR©Z Kivi R‡b¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq KvR Ges GwUB n‡jv avi‡Ki
w¯’wZkw³| g‡b Kwi V wef‡e PvwR©Z Kivi wbwg‡Ë hLb cvZwU‡K GKUz GKUz K‡i PvR©hy³ Kiv n‡qwQj ZLb †Kv‡bv mgq
cvZwUi wefe n‡qwQj V| IB mgq cvZwU‡K Av‡iv dq cwigvY PvR© mieivn Ki‡Z mvwaZ Kv‡Ri cwigvY dW = Vdq
q
= dq Ges cvZwU‡Z hw` †gvU Q PvR© mieivn Kiv nq, Z‡e †gvU mvwaZ Kv‡Ri cwigvY
C
Q q
W =  dW   dq , GLv‡b C n‡jv avi‡Ki aviKZ¡
0 C
Q
1  q2  1  Q2 
=   =  
C  2  C  2 
0

2
1 Q
= . ... ... ... (9.17)
2 C

Pj we`¨yr
we`y¨r †Kv‡li mgevq
Combination of cells
‡Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †ÿ‡Î eZ©bx‡Z we`y¨r cÖevn gvÎv ev wefe ˆelg¨ cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ KZK¸‡jv we`y¨r †Kvl‡K GK‡Î hy³ Kiv
nq| G‡K we`y¨r †Kv‡li mgevq e‡j| Ges Giƒc `je× we`y¨r †Kvl¸‡jv‡K GK‡Î e¨vUvwi e‡j| we`y¨r †Kv‡li mgevq
wZb cÖKvi; h_v-
(K) ‡kÖwY ev wmwiR mgevq (Series combination)
(L) mgvšÍivj mgevq (Parallel combination) I
(M) wgkÖ mgevq (Mixed combination)|
‡kÖwY mgevq
Series combination
hw` KZK¸‡jv we`y¨r †Kvl‡K Ggbfv‡e hy³ Kiv nq hv‡Z cÖ_gwUi FY cv‡Zi mv‡_ wØZxqwUi ab cvZ, wØZxqwUi FY
cv‡Zi mv‡_ Z…ZxqwUi ab cvZ ci ci Gfv‡e hy³ _v‡K Z‡e we`y¨r †Kvl¸‡jvi GB mgevq‡K †kÖwY mgevq e‡j|
aiv hvK R gv‡bi GKwU †iv‡ai `yB
cÖv‡šÍi mv‡_ nwU we`y¨r ‡Kvl †kÖwY mgev‡q hy³
Av‡Q [wPÎ 10.1]| cÖ‡Z¨K we`y¨r †Kv‡li
we`y¨rPvjK kw³ A_ev eZ©bxi wefe ˆelg¨ nE

123
Gs mgZzj¨ Af¨šÍixY †iva nr| †Kbbv †iva¸‡jv †kÖwY mgev‡q hy³| †Kvl¸‡jvi Af¨šÍixY ‡iva Avevi R-Gi mv‡_ †kÖwY
mgev‡q hy³| Kv‡RB eZ©bxi ‡gvU †iva = nr + R|
I‡gi m~Î Abymv‡i eZ©bxi we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv,
‡ gvU we`y¨”PvjK kw³ nE
i3 = = ... ... ... (10.1)
‡ gvU † iva nr  R
(1) hw` nr-Gi Zzjbvq R A‡bK eo nq A_©vr nr << R, Z‡e nr AMÖvn¨ Kiv hvq|
nE nE
GB Ae¯’vq is = = n × GKwU †Kv‡li m„ó we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv > |
R nr  R
myZivs D”P we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv m„wói Rb¨ †Kvl¸‡jv‡K Ggbfv‡e hy³ Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z nr-Gi Zzjbvq R A‡bK eo nq|
(2) hw` nr-Gi Zzjbvq R A‡bK †QvU nq Z‡e R D‡cÿv K‡i cvIqv hvq,
nE E
is =   GKwU †Kv‡li m„ó we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv|
nr r
G Ae¯’vq e¨vUvwii Kvh© ÿgZv e„w× cvq bv|
mgvšÍivj mgevq
Parallel combination
hw` KZK¸‡jv we`y¨r †Kv‡li ab cvZ¸‡jv GK we›`y‡Z Ges FY cvZ¸‡jv Aci GK we›`y‡Z hy³ _v‡K Z‡e we`y¨r
†Kvl¸‡jvi GB mgevq‡K mgvšÍivj mgevq e‡j|
aiv hvK R gv‡bi GKwU †iv‡ai mv‡_ n msL¨K we`y¨t †Kvl mgvšÍivj
mgev‡q hy³ Av‡Q| cÖ‡Z¨K we`y¨r †Kv‡li we`y¨rPvjK kw³ E Ges Af¨šÍixY †iva
r| †h‡nZz †Kvl¸‡jvi ab cvZ¸‡jv GK we›`y A- ‡Z Ges FY cvZ¸‡jv Aci
GK we›`y B-‡Z hy³ [wPÎ 10.2], Kv‡RB mgev‡qi ev e¨vUvwii we`y¨rPvjK kw³
†h †Kv‡bv GKwU we`y¨r †Kv‡li we`y¨rPvjK kw³i mgvb n‡e| Avevi †h‡nZz
†Kvl¸‡jv mgvšÍivj mgev‡q _vK‡e| myZivs mgev‡qi ev e¨vUvwii Af¨šÍixY †iva
Rp n‡j,

1 1 1 n
   .........n c` =
Rp r r r

r
 Rp =
n
r
myZivs eZ©bxi †gvU †iva = R + Rp = R + | eZ©bx w`‡q ip gvÎvi we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡j IÕ‡gi m~Îvbymv‡i,
n
† gvU we`y¨”PvjK kw³
ip =
‡ gvU † iva
E nE
=  ... ... ... (10.2)
r nR  r
R
n
nE E
(1) hw` r-Gi Zzjbvq nR A‡bK eo nq, Z‡e r AMÖvn¨ K‡i cvIqv hvq, ip =  = GKwU †Kv‡li m„ó we`y¨r
nR R
cÖevngvÎv|
G Ae¯’vq e¨vUvwii Kvh© ÿgZv e„w× cvq bv|
nE
(2) hw` r-Gi Zzjbvq nR A‡bK †QvU nq, Z‡e ip = = n × GKwU †Kv‡li m„ó we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv|
r

124
G Ae¯’vq e¨vUvwii Kvh©ÿgZv h‡_ó e„w× cvq|
Kg© Abykxjb: Kx k‡Z© †Kv‡li †kÖwY I mgvšÍivj mgev‡q cÖevngvÎv e„w× cvq?
nE E
I.(a) hLb R>>nr ZLb I = A_©vr eZ©bx‡Z †h cÖevngvÎv n‡e Dnv GKwU ‡Kvl cÖ`Ë cÖevngvÎvi n ¸Y| n‡jv
R R
GKwU †Kv‡li cÖevngvÎv|
nE E
(b) hLb nr>>R, ZLb I =  , A_©vr eZ©bx‡Z †h cÖevngvÎv n‡e Dnv GKwU †Kvl cÖ`Ë cÖevngvÎvi mgvb|
nr r
(c) Kv‡RB hLb ewnteZ©bxi †iva e¨vUvwii †gvU Af¨šÍixY †iva A‡cÿv Lye †ewk ZLb †kÖwY mgev‡qi d‡j cÖevngvÎv
e„w× cvq|
nE E
II. (a) hLb nR>>r, ZLb I =  , A_©vr eZ©bx‡Z †h cÖevngvÎv n‡e Dnv GKwU †Kvl cÖ`Ë cÖevngvÎvi mgvb|
nR R
nE
(b) hLb r>>nR, ZLb I = , A_©vr eZ©bx‡Z †h cÖevngvÎv n‡e Dnv GKwU †Kvl cÖ`Ë cÖevngvÎvi n ¸Y| Kv‡RB
r
hLb e¨vUvwii Af¨šÍixY †iva ewnteZ©bxi †iva A‡cÿv Lye †ewk nq ZLb mgvšÍivj mgev‡qi d‡j cÖevngvÎv e„w× cvq|
m¤úªmvwiZ Kg©KvÐ: mgvb msL¨K Awfbœ †Kvl †kÖwY mgev‡q Ges mgvšÍivj mgev‡q hy³ Kiv n‡jv| Kx k‡Z© eZ©bxi m‡½n
hy³ GKwU †iv‡ai g‡a¨ cÖev‡ni gvb Dfq †ÿ‡Î mgvb n‡e?
ai, cÖ‡Z¨KwU Zwo”PvjK ej E I r Af¨šÍixY †ivahy³ n-msL¨K †Kvl †bIqv n‡jv| †Kvl¸wj †kÖwY mgev‡q hy³ n‡j,
nE
ewnt‡ivaK R Gi g‡a¨ cÖevn, i1 = Ges †Kvl¸wj mgvšÍivj mgev‡q hy³ Ki‡j
R  nr
nE
R Gi g‡a¨ cÖevn, i2 =
nR  r
cÖ`Ë kZ©vbyhvqx i1= i2 n‡e hLb R = r nq|
Kg© Abykxjb: †Kvb Ae¯’v‡Z †Kv‡li cÖvšÍxq wefe cv_©K¨ †Kv‡li Zwo”PvjK ej A‡cÿv †ewk nq?
mvaviYfv‡e †Kv‡li Zwo”PvjK ej †Kv‡li cÖvšÍxq wefe cv_©K¨ A‡cÿv †ewk nq|
‡Kv‡li Zwo”PvjK ej = cÖvšÍxq wefe cv_©K¨ + †Kv‡li Af¨šÍixY wefe cZb|
wKš‘ `ywU wfbœ Zwo”PvjK e‡ji †Kvl hw` weiæ× mgev‡q (in
opposition) hy³ Kiv nq Z‡e †ewk Zwo”PvjK e‡ji †KvlwU Aci †Kvl‡K PvR©
Ki‡e A_©vt Kg Zwo”PvjK e‡ji †KvlwU wbR n‡Z eZ©bx‡Z †h Awfgy‡L ZwoZvavb
cvVvZ, †ewk Zwo”PvjK e‡ji †KvlwU AciwUi †fZi w`‡q wecixZgyLx ZwoZvavb
cvVv‡bvi d‡j Kg Zwo”PvjK e‡ji †Kv‡li cÖvšÍxq wefe cv_©K¨ Zvi Zwo”PvjK
A‡cÿv †ewk n‡e| 10.3 wPÎvbyhvqx e1 ZworPvjK ejhy³ GKwU †Kvl‡K e2 ZworPvjK e‡ji †Kv‡li m‡½ weiæ× mgev‡q
hy³ Kiv n‡q‡Q (e2 > e1)| G‡ÿ‡Î B ‡Kvl Af¨šÍixY †iva ewn¯’ †iva A‡cÿv Kg †Kb?
g‡b Kwi, E Zwo”PvjK ej Ges r Af¨šÍixY †iv‡ai n msL¨K Zwor †Kvl‡K †kÖwY‡Z hy³ K‡i R gv‡bi ewn¯’ †iv‡ai
nE nE E E
mv‡_ hy³ Ki‡j Zwor cÖev‡ni gvb I = , R >> r Ges R >> nr n‡j, I =  n | wKš‘ n‡jv GKwU
R  nr R R R
†Kv‡li †ÿ‡Î Zwor cÖevn, KviY r = 0| myZivs G‡ÿ‡Î n msL¨K †Kvl e¨envi Kivq n ¸Y Zwor cÖevn cvIqv hvq|
myZivs kw³kvjx cÖevn cvIqvi Rb¨ GKB gv‡bi †Kv‡li †kÖwY mgev‡qi †ÿ‡Î Af¨šÍixY †iva ewn¯’ †iva A‡cÿv Kg|
R2 I
Rvbvi welq: `ywU †iva (R1 I R2) mgvšÍiv‡j hy³ _vK‡j cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki ga¨ w`‡q cÖevwnZ we`y¨r, I1 = Ges I2 =
R1  R 2
R1  I
, I = †gvU cÖevn|
R1  R 2

125
1| cÖwZwU 2V Ges Af¨šÍixY †iva 1.5- Gi wZbwU we`y¨r †Kvl †bqv n‡jv| †kÖwY mgev‡q mvwR‡q G‡`i cÖvšÍ¸‡jv‡K
150 ‡iv‡ai cwievnx Øviv hy³ Ki‡j KZ gvÎvi we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡e?

 Avgiv cvB, i =
nE
... ... (i) GLv‡b,
R  nr
n=3
3 2
i= E = 2V
150  3  1.5
6 6 R = 150 
= = = 0.0388 A
150  3  1.5 154.5 r = 1.5 

wKk©‡di m~Î
Concept of the laws
IÕ‡gi m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ mij eZ©bxi we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv I †iva wbY©q Kiv hvq| wKš‘ RwUj eZ©bxi †ÿ‡Î IÕ‡gi m~Î h‡_ó bq|
G Kvi‡Y RwUj eZ©bxi †iva I we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv BZ¨vw` wbY©‡qi Rb¨ wKk©‡di `ywU m~Î cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq| Aek¨ mij
eZ©bx‡ZI m~Î `ywU cÖ‡qvM Kiv hvq| wKk©‡di m~Î `ywU wb¤œwjwLZfv‡e cÖKvk Kiv hvq|
cÖ_g m~Î: we`y¨r eZ©bxi †Kv‡bv ms‡hvM we›`y‡Z wgwjZ cÖevngvÎv¸‡jvi exRMvwYwZK †hvMdj k~b¨ nq|
e¨vL¨v: aiv hvK GKwU eZ©bxi O we›`y‡Z i1, i2, i3, i4 I i5 gvÎvi
5wU wewfbœgyLx we`y¨r cÖevn wgwjZ n‡q‡Q [wPÎ 10.4]| mvaviY wbqg
Abymv‡i ms‡hvM we›`ygyLx we`yr cÖevngvÎv¸‡jv FY ivwk aiv nq| myZivs O
we›`y‡Z wgwjZ we`y¨r cÖevn¸‡jvi Ici wKk©‡di cÖ_g m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i
cvIqv hvq,
i1 + i3 + i4  i2  i5 = 0
ev, i1 + i3 + i4 + (i2) + (i5) = 0 ... ...
(10.3)
Avgiv Rvwb, cÖevngvÎv n‡jv Pv‡R©i cÖevn| GLb ms‡hvM we›`y‡Z cÖevn¸‡jvi ‡hvMdj k~b¨ bv nIqvi A_© `vuovq IB
we›`y‡Z Pv‡R©i m„wó ev aŸsm nIqv hv Pv‡R©i wbZ¨Zv m~‡Îi m¤ú~Y© cwicš’x| myZivs, eZ©bxi †Kv_vI PvR© mwÂZ n‡Z cv‡i
bv| ms‡K‡Zi mvnv‡h¨ m~ÎwU‡K Giƒcfv‡e cÖKvk Kiv hvq, i = 0|
wØZxq m~Î: †Kv‡bv e× eZ©bxi AšÍM©Z †gvU we`y¨rPvjK kw³ (e.m.f.) IB eZ©bxi wewfbœ kvLv¸‡jvi †iva Ges Zv‡`i ga¨
w`‡q cÖevwnZ mswkøó we`y¨r cÖevngvÎvi ¸Ydjmg~‡ni exRMvwYwZK †hvMd‡ji mgvb|
A_ev, cwievnx eZ©bxi g‡a¨ †h †Kv‡bv e× eZ©bxi wewfbœ As‡k †iva Ges G‡`i ga¨ w`‡q cÖevwnZ we`y¨r cÖevngvÎvi
¸Yd‡ji exRMvwYwZK †hvMdj IB e× eZ©bxi †gvU we`y¨rPvjK kw³i gvb nq|
A_©vr, iR = E
e¨vL¨v: GKwU e× eZ©bxi †Kv‡bv As‡k we`y¨r cÖevngvÎvi
¸Yd‡ji wnmv‡e `wÿYveZ©x cÖev‡ni †ÿ‡Î ¸Yd‡ji wnmv‡e `wÿYveZ©x
cÖevn cvVvevi †Póv K‡i Z‡e IB we`y¨r †Kv‡li we`y¨rPvjK kw³ ab ivwk
Ges hw` evgveZ©x we`y¨r cÖevn cvVvevi †Póv K‡i Z‡e IB we`y¨r †Kv‡li
we`y¨rPvjK kw³ ab ivwk ai‡Z n‡e| GB wnmv‡e eZ©bx‡Z †Kv‡bv we`y¨r
†Kvl hw` `wÿYveZ©x cÖevn cvVvevi †Póv K‡i Z‡e IB we`y¨r †Kv‡li
we`y¨rPvjK kw³ ab ivwk Ges hw` evgveZ©x we`y¨r cÖevn cvVvevi ‡Póv
K‡i Z‡e Zvi we`y¨rPvjK kw³‡K FY ivwk ai‡Z n‡e| 10.5 bs wP‡Î

126
ABDA GKwU e× eZ©bx wb‡`©k Ki‡Q| Gi AB, BD I DA As‡ki †iva h_vµ‡g R1, R2 I R3; AB I BD As‡k
we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv i3 evgveZ©x| G Qvov E1 we`y¨”PvjK kw³wewkó AB As‡ki we`y¨r †Kvl `wÿYveZ©x Ges E2 weÏy¨”PvjK
kw³wewkó BD As‡ki we`y¨r †Kvl evgveZ©x we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv‡K ab ivwk Ges evgveZ©x we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv‡K FY ivwk a‡i G
eZ©bx‡Z wKk©‡di wØZxq m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i †jLv hvq,
i1R1 + i2R2  i3R3 = E1  E2
ev, i1R1 + i2R2 + (i3R3) = E1 + (E2)
mgxKiYwU‡K ms‡KZ Øviv wb¤œwjwLZfv‡e cÖKvk Kiv hvq, ir =  E ... (10.4)
eZ©bx‡Z we`y¨rPvjK kw³i Drm bv _vK‡j, ir = 0
[we.`ª. `wÿYveZ©x cÖev‡ni †ÿ‡Î †iva I cÖevngvÎvi ¸Ydj FYivwk ai‡j evgveZ©x cÖev‡ni †ÿ‡Î ¸Ydj abivwk ai‡Z
n‡e| G †ÿ‡Î we`y¨rPvjK kw³‡K GKBfv‡e wPwýZ Ki‡Z n‡e|]
wKk©‡di m~‡Îi wewfbœ cÖ‡qvM i‡q‡Q| GLv‡b Avgiv ûBU‡÷vb eªx‡R wKk©‡di m~‡Îi cÖ‡qvM Av‡jvPbv Kie|
wnmve Ki: 2V Zwo”PvjK kw³ Ges 1 Af¨šÍixY †iv‡ai GKwU †Kvl mgvšÍivj mgev‡q 5 Ges 15 †ivawewkó `ywU
†iva‡Ki mv‡_ mshy³| wKk©‡di m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i †Kvl Øviv †cÖwiZ cÖevngvÎv Ges cÖ‡Z¨K †iv‡ai g‡a¨ cÖevngvÎv wbY©q
Ki|
Zwor eZ©bx‡Z wKk©‡di m~‡Îi e¨envi (we`y¨r cÖevn I wefe cv_©K¨ wbY©q)
Application of Kirchhoff's laws in electric circuit (Determination of current and potential
difference)
(i) ûBU‡÷vb eªx‡R wKk©‡di m~‡Îi e¨envi
Use of Kirchhoff's laws in Wheatstone bridge
PviwU †iva †kÖwYe×fv‡e mw¾Z K‡i GKwU Ave× jyc ˆZwi Ki‡j †h PviwU ms‡hvM¯’j ˆZwi nq, Zvi †h †Kv‡bv `ywU
wecixZ ms‡hvM¯’‡ji gv‡S GKwU we`y¨r †Kvl Ges Aci `ywU ms‡hvM¯’‡ji gv‡S
M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi ms‡hv‡M †h eZ©bx ˆZwi nq Zv‡K ûBU‡÷vb eªxR e‡j|
aiv hvK, PviwU †iva P, Q, R I S Øviv MwVZ GKwU PZzf©yR
ACDF-Gi b¨vq hy³ K‡i ms‡hvM we›`y A I D we›`y‡K GKwU e¨vUvwi ev we`y¨r
Drm B. GKwU cøvM Pvwe K I GKwU cwieZ©bkxj †iva X Øviv Ges ms‡hvM
we›`y C ‰Zwi Kiv n‡jv [wPÎ 10.6]|
G Ae¯’vq g~j we`y¨r cÖevn A we›`y‡Z †cŠQvi ci wewfbœ †iv‡ai †fZi
w`‡q wM‡q D we›`y‡Z cybivq wgwjZ n‡e| M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡i we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡e
wK n‡e bv Zv wbf©i Ki‡e C I F we›`yi wef‡ei Dci| hw` †iva¸‡jvi Rb¨ C
I F we›`yi wefe mgvb bv nq Z‡e M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ
n‡e Ges M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi Kg-‡ewk wewÿß n‡e| G Ae¯’v‡K Amg Ae¯’v
(Unbalanced condition) ejv nq| wKš‘ C I F we›`y؇qi wefe mgvb n‡j M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡i †Kv‡bv we`y¨r cÖevwnZ
nq bv Ges M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡i †Kv‡bv we‡ÿcI nq bv| G Ae¯’v‡K mvg¨ve¯’v (Balanced condition) ev wb¯ú›` Ae¯’v
(Null condition) ejv nq| eZ©bxi wewfbœ †iv‡ai gvb¸‡jv wbqwš¿Z K‡i mvg¨ve¯’v ˆZwi Kiv nq|
wKk©‡di m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Zwor cÖevn I wefe cv_©K¨ wbY©q Ges ûBU‡÷vb eªxR bxwZ cÖwZôv
Determination of electric current and potential difference using Kirchoff's laws and
establishment of Wheatstone bridge principle

127
aiv hvK M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii †iva G Ges †iva P, R, Q, S I G-Gi †fZi w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv h_vµ‡g i1, i2, i3, i4 I
ig|
GLb wKk©‡di cÖ_g m~ÎwU C I F we›`y‡Z cÖ‡qvM K‡i h_vµ‡g cvIqv hvq,
i1  i3  ig = 0 A_©vr i1= i3 + ig ... ... ... (10.5)
Ges i2 + ig  i4 = 0 A_©vr i4 = i2 + ig ... ... ... (10.6)
Avevi wKk©‡di wØZxq m~ÎwU e× eZ©bx ACFA I CDFC-G cÖ‡qvM K‡i h_vµ‡g cvIqv hvq,
i1P + igG  i2R = 0 ... ... ... (10.7)
Ges i3Q + i4S  igG = 0 ... ... ... (10.8)
wKš‘ eªx‡Ri mvg¨ve¯’vq, ig = 0
Kv‡RB G Ae¯’vq mgxKiY (10.5) I (10.6) Abymv‡i, i1 = i3 Ges i4 = i2
mgxKiY (10.7) I (10.8) Abymv‡i, i1P = i2R .... ... (10.9)
Ges i3Q = i4S ... ... (10.10)
i1 P i 2 R
GLb mgxKiY (10.9)-‡K (10.10) Øviv fvM K‡i cvIqv hvq,  ; wKš‘ i1 = i3 I i4 = i2
i 3 Q i 4S
P R
  ... ... (10.11)
Q S
mgxKiY (10.11) Abymv‡i ûBU‡÷vb eªx‡Ri mvg¨ve¯’vq PviwU †iv‡ai ‡h †Kv‡bv wZbwU Rvbv _vK‡j, PZz_© †ivawU wbY©q
Kiv hv‡e| G‡K †iva cwigv‡ci ûBU‡÷vb eªx‡Ri bxwZ e‡j|
mvg¨ve¯’vq-
(i) M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii `yB cÖv‡šÍi wefe ˆelg¨ k~b¨ n‡e A_©vr M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q †Kv‡bv we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n†e bv|
GgZve¯’vq,
(VA  VD) = (P + Q)i2 = (R + S)i2
(ii) GKBµ‡g M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii Dfq cÖv‡šÍi `yB cv‡k¦© hy³ †iva `ywUi AbycvZ mgvb n‡e|
P R
A_©vr 
Q S
we. `ª. 10.6 bs wP‡Î AC, CD, AF I FD evû‡K h_vµ‡g ûBU‡÷vb eªx‡Ri cÖ_g, wØZxq, Z…Zxq I PZz_© evû e‡j|
wb‡R Ki: M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii we‡ÿc k~b¨ nIqvi kZ© Kx?
M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii `yB cÖv‡šÍi wefe k~b¨ n‡j we‡ÿc k~b¨ n‡j we‡ÿc k~b¨ nq|
AbymÜvb: mvaviYZ wb¤œ gv‡bi †iva ev D”P gv‡bi †iva cwigvc Kivi Rb¨ ûBU‡÷vb eªxR e¨envi Kiv nq bv †Kb e¨vL¨v
Ki|
‡Kv‡bv wb¤œ gv‡bi †iva‡K S-Gi ¯’v‡b ivLv n‡j ms‡hvMKvix Zvi¸‡jvi ‡iva S-Gi gv‡bi KvQvKvwQ nq| d‡j S-Gi
mwVK gvb cvIqv hvq bv| ZvB cwigvc¨ gvb ÎæwUc~Y© nq| Avevi S-Gi ¯’‡j D”P gv‡bi †iva ivLv n‡j, IB †iv‡ai g†a¨
w`‡q Lye †ewk gv‡bi Zwor cÖevwnZ nq bv| d‡j eªx‡Ri my‡ew`Zv (sensitivity) K‡g hvq, ZvB wb¯ú›` Ae¯’v kbv³ Kiv
KwVb nq| G Kvi‡Y Kg gv‡bi †iva ev D”P gv‡bi †iva cwigv‡c ûBU‡÷vb eªxR e¨envi Kiv nq bv|

128
 we`¨y‡Zi †PŠ¤^K wµqv
ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU© m~Î ev j¨vcøvm-Gi m~Î
Biot-Savert Law or Laplace's Law
weÁvbx I‡qi‡÷W Avwe®‹vi K‡ib †h we`y¨revnx cwievnxi Pvicv‡k GKwU †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ m„wó nq| GB †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi
†PŠ¤^Kxq Av‡ek ev †PŠ¤^K cÖvej¨ wbY©‡qi Rb¨ weÁvbx j¨vcøvm GKwU Dccv` ¨ev m~Î cÖ`vb K‡ib| G‡K j¨vcøv‡mi Dccv`¨
ev j¨vcøv‡mi m~Î e‡j| cieZ©x‡Z 1820 wLª÷v‡ã weÁvbx ev‡qvU Ges m¨vfvU© m~ÎwUi GKwU cixÿvg~jK cÖgvY †`b| ZvB
G m~ÎwU‡K ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU©-Gi m~Î ejv nq| ‡h †Kv‡bv AvKv‡ii cwievnx I wewfbœ Zwor eȇbi Rb¨ m„ó †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ
wbY©‡q GB m~Î cÖ‡qvM Kiv hvq| m~ÎwU wb‡¤œ wee„Z Kiv n‡jv|

m~Î: ÿz`ª ˆ`‡N©¨i †Kv‡bv cwievnxi g‡a¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡j Gi Pvicv‡k †h †PŠ¤^K ‡ÿÎ m„wó nq Zvi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z
‡PŠ¤^Kxq Av‡e‡ki gvb-

(i) we`y¨r cÖevngvÎvi

mgvbycvwZK
(ii) cwievnxi ˆ`‡N©¨i
mgvbycvwZK,
(iii) cwievnxi ga¨ we›`y n‡Z
IB we›`yi ms‡hvM †iLv Ges cwievnxi AšÍfz©³ †Kv‡Yi mvB‡bi
mgvbycvwZK,
(iv) cwievnxi ga¨ we›`y n‡Z
IB we›`yi `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK|
e¨vL¨v: g‡b Kwi CD we`y¨revnx cwievnxi GKwU AwZ ÿz`ª Ask Gi ˆ`N©¨ dl| GB As‡k we`y¨r cÖev‡ni `iæb Gi ga¨ we›`y
O n‡Z r `~‡i Aew¯’Z P we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek ev †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e|

wPÎ 10.7 Abyhvqx awi DC cwievnxi ga¨ w`‡q I Zwor cÖev‡ni d‡j P we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^Kxq Av‡ek dB nq Ges O we›`y‡Z
we`y¨r cÖev‡ni AwfgyL I OP †iLvi g‡a¨ †KŠwYK e¨eavb  nq, Z‡e ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU© m~Îvbymv‡i †PŠ¤^Kxq Av‡ek-
(i) we`y¨r cÖevngvÎvi mgvbycvwZK A_©vr dB  i, hLb dl, Ir Ges  aªæe,
(ii) cwievnxi ˆ`‡N©¨i mgvbycvwZK A_©vr dB  dl, hLb i, r Ges  aªæe,
(iii) sin -Gi mgvbycvwZK, A_©vr dB  sin , hLb i, I, dl Ges r aªæe Ges
1
(iv) `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK A_©vt dB  , hLb i, dl Ges  aªæe|
r2
idl sin 
 dB  , hLb i, dl,  Ges r cwiewZ©Z nq|
r2
idl sin 
ev, dB = aªæeK ×
r2
idl sin 
ev dB = K × ... ... ... (10.12)
r2

129
GLv‡b K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK hvi gvb wbf©i K‡i gva¨‡gi cÖK…wZ Ges ivwk¸‡jvi GK‡Ki Dci| S.I. c×wZ‡Z evqy
ev k~b¨ gva¨‡gi Rb¨
0
K= , µ0 n‡”Q k~b¨ ¯’v‡bi †PŠ¤^K cÖ‡ek¨Zv (magnetic permeability)
4
µ0 = 4 × 10-7 Wbm-1A-1 ev, Tm A-1
0 idl sin 
GLb mgxKiY (10.12)-G K-Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB, dB = × ... (10.13)
4 r
AZGe, (K) evqy ev k~b¨ gva¨‡g ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU© Gi m~Î n‡jv-
 0 idl sin 
dB =  ... ... (10.14)
4 r2
 idl sin 
Ges (L) Ab¨ gva¨‡g dB =  ... ... (10.15)
4 r2

GLv‡b, µ n‡”Q IB gva¨‡gi †PŠ¤^K cÖ‡ek¨Zv|

GLb mgMÖ cwievnxi `iæb P we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek wbY©‡qi †ÿ‡Î cwievnxwU‡K Abyiƒc ÿ‚‚`ª ÿz`ª As‡k wef³ K‡i cÖ‡Z¨K
As‡ki `iæb IB we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek wbY©q K‡i Zv‡`i mgwó wb‡Z n‡e| Kv‡RB MvwYwZKfv‡e mgMÖ cwievnxi Rb¨ †jLv
hvq|
0 idl sin  0 idl sin 
B=  dB = 4  r 2
=
4  r2
(k~b¨ gva¨‡g) ... (10.16)

 idl sin 
Ges B =
4 
r2
(Ab¨ gva¨‡g) ... (10.17)

m~ÎwUi †f±i iƒc: ‡PŠ¤^K Av‡e‡ki gvb Ges AwfgyL `ywUB Av‡Q| AZGe GwU GKwU †f±i ivwk| AZGe m~ÎwUi †f±i
iƒc n‡jv-

  id l `r̂
B 0
4  r2
(k~b¨ gva¨‡g) ... ... (10.18)

  id l `r̂
B
4  r2
(Ab¨ gva¨‡g) ... ... (10.18)

GLv‡b †f±i d l cwievnxi ÿz`ª As‡ki gvb I w`K wb‡`©k K‡i| Gi w`K n‡jv IB As‡ki ¯úk©K eivei we`y¨r cÖev‡ni
 
Awfgy‡L| i d l †K cÖevn Dcv`vb ev cÖevnvsk (current element) e‡j| r̂ n‡”Q r Gi Awfgy‡L GKK †f±i|

AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: Zworevnx cwievnxi PZzw`©‡K m„ó †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ cos Gi
mgvbycvwZK bv n‡q sin Gi mgvbycvwZK nq †Kb?
ev‡qvU-m¨vfv‡U©i m~Î Abyhvqx Zworevnx cwievnxi PZzw`©‡K †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z m„ó †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi gvb dB = idl sin| †`Lv
hvq †h, cwievnxi j¤^ eivei †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi gvb me †_‡K †ewk Ges ¯úk©K eivei †Kv‡bv †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ m„wó nq bv|
cwievnxi ga¨we›`y I IB we›`yi ms‡hvRK mij‡iLv Ges cwievnxi ga¨we›`y‡Z ¯úk©‡Ki ga¨eZ©x †KvY k~b¨ n‡j †PŠ¤^K
†ÿ‡Îi gvb k~b¨ Ges 90° n‡j m‡e©v”P nq hv †Kv‡Yi sine dvsk‡bi gv‡bi mv‡_ msMwZc~Y©- ZvB †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi gvb
sin Gi mgvbycvwZK|

130
KvR: GKwU l ‰`N©¨wewkó aveZ cwievnx B cÖve‡j¨i mylg †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi mg‡Kv‡Y _vK‡j  = 90° Ges sin = 1 nq|
AZGe G‡ÿ‡Î ÿz`ª Ask dl-Gi Ici wµqviZ ej n‡jv Bidl Ges m¤ú~Y© cwievnxi Ici wµqviZ ej F = Bidl =
Bil.
(ii) cwievnx †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi mgvšÍiv‡j _vK‡j  = 0° Ges sin = 0 nq| Kv‡RB G‡ÿ‡Î cwievnxi Ici cÖhy³ ej k~b¨
n‡e|
ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU© m~‡Îi cÖ‡qvM
Application of Biot-Savart law
we`y¨r Pz¤^K‡Z¡ ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU© m~‡Îi wewfbœ cÖ‡qvM †`L‡Z cvIqv hvq| wb‡¤œ `ywU cÖ‡qvM Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv:
(K) we`y¨revnx j¤^v mij Zv‡ii R‡b¨ †Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek ev †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ: g‡b Kwi PQ GKwU j¤^v mij ev
†mvRv Zvi| Gi ga¨ w`‡q i A¨vw¤úqvi we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡”Q| IB cÖev‡ni `iæb Zvi n‡Z a wgUvi `~‡i Aew¯’Z X we›`y‡Z
†PŠ¤^K Av‡ek ev †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e [wPÎ 10.8]|
D³ cwievnxi GKwU AwZ
ÿz`ª Ask AB jB| awi Gi ˆ`N©¨ = dl| g‡b Kwi IB AskwUi
ga¨we›`y O n‡Z X we›`yi `~iZ¡ r Ges XOQ = | AZGe

X we›`y‡Z i dl cÖevngvÎv ev cÖevnvs‡ki Rb¨ ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU© m~Î

n‡Z †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi gvb cvB,
 0 idl sin 
dB = ...
4 r 2

... ...
(10.19)
`wÿY n¯Í wbqg-2 Abymv‡i
dB-Gi AwfgyL n‡e KvMR Z‡ji j¤^ eivei wfZ‡ii w`‡K|
GLb mg‡KvYx wÎfzR
OXQ n‡Z cvB,
r
cosec  = ; a = cwievnxi ga¨we›`y n‡Z X we›`yi `~iZ¡|
a

 r = a cosec
Avevi, awi OQ = l
 OQ l 
 l = a cot  cot   
 QX a 

e¨eKjb K‡i cvB,

dl = a cosec2 d ... ... ... (10.20)
GLb (4.11) mgxKi‡Y Ges dl-Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,

131
  0 ia cos ec 2  sin d  i
dB = I  = 0 sin d
4 a cos ec 
2 2 4 a

mgMÖ cwievnxi Rb¨ X we›`y‡Z †gvU ‡ÿÎ cÖvej¨ n‡e,

2  0i  i 2
B =  dB    sin d = 0   sin d
1 4a 4 a 1

 0i
= cos 12 =  0i cos 2  cos 1 
4a 4a

GLb ZviwU hw` Amxg ˆ`‡N©¨i nq, Z‡e 1 =  Ges 2 = 0 n‡e

‡m †ÿ‡Î,
 0i
B= cos 0  cos 
4a
 0i  i
B= (1 + 1) = 0 ... ... ... (10.21)
4a 2a

mgxKiY (4.14) n‡Z †evSv hv‡”Q B Gi gvb ïaygvÎ we`y¨r cÖevn i Ges ZviwU n‡Z mswkøó we›`yi j¤^ `~i‡Z¡i Dci wbf©i
 0i
K‡i| A_©vr Amxg ˆ`‡N©¨i mij Zworevnx Zv‡ii Rb¨ †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi gvb, B = |
4a
w`K: †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi w`K cvIqv hvq †d¬wgs Gi Wvb n¯Í m~Î Abyhvqx | GB w`K n‡e we‡ewPZ we›`y‡Z cwievnxi ˆ`‡N©¨i
mv‡_ j¤^ eivei|
AbymÜvb Ki: Zworevnx Zv‡i we`y¨r cÖev‡ni `iæb cÖvej¨ Ges †PŠ¤^K †giæi Rb¨ m„ó cÖvej¨ †Kvb ivwki Ici wbf©ikxj?
Zworevnx Zv‡ii `iæb Drcbœ †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi cÖvej¨ cvwicvwk¦©K gva¨‡gi cÖK…wZi Ici wbf©i K‡i| Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei †h
†Kv‡bv we›`y‡Z Drcbœ †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ cÖve‡j¨i gvb k~b¨ n‡e|
(L) we`y¨revnx e„ËvKvi KzÛjxi †K‡›`ª †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek ev †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ: g‡b Kwi †Kv‡bv GKwU cwievnxi dl wgUvi ˆ`‡N©¨i
AwZ ÿz`ª Ask w`‡q i A¨vw¤úqvi gvÎvq we`y¨r cÖevn Pjvi d‡j cwievnxi Pvicv‡k GKwU †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ m„wó n‡q‡Q| g‡b
Kwi cwievnxi GB As‡ki ga¨we›`y n‡Z D³ †PŠ¤^K ‡ÿ‡Îi †Kv‡bv we›`yi `~iZ¡ r wgUvi| hw` GB `~iZ¡ we`y¨r cÖev‡ni
w`‡Ki mv‡_  ‡KvY Drcbœ K‡i, Z‡e ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU©-Gi m~Î Abymv‡i IB we›`y‡Z †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek ev †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ
 0 idl
dB = sin ... ... ... (10.22)
4 r 2

GLb g‡b Kwi r wgUvi e¨vmva©wewkó GK cv‡Ki GKwU e„ËvKvi Zv‡ii †fZi w`‡q i A¨vw¤úqvi gvÎvi we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡”Q
[wPÎ 10.9]| GB we`y¨r cÖev‡ni `iæb KzÛjxi †K‡›`ª †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e|
ev‡qvU-m¨vfvU©-Gi m~Îvbymv‡i e„ËvKvi cwievnxi dl ˆ`‡N©¨i GKwU AwZ ÿz`ª Ask w`‡q we`y¨r cÖev‡ni Rb¨ Zv‡ii †K‡›`ª m„ó
†PŠ¤^K Av‡ek-
 0idl sin  idl sin 90
dB = = µ0
4r 2
4r 2
idl
= µ0 ... ... ... (10.23)
4r 2

132
 ‡h‡nZz KzÛjxi mKj we›`y †_‡K
e„‡Ëi †K›`ª O Gi `~iZ¡ r gvb Ges KzÛjxi †h †Kv‡bv Ask dl Ges
Gi AšÍfz©³ †KvY me©`v  = 90°, ‡m‡nZz e„ËvKvi cwievn‡Ki ˆ`N©¨
n‡”Q KzÐjxi cwiwai ˆ`N©¨ A_©vr 2r| myZivs l = 0 †_‡K l = 2r
mxgvi g‡a¨ mgxKiY (10.23) mgvKjb K‡i cvB,

l2 r
 0i
dB = 
l 0
4r 2
dl

 B =
2 r
0 i  0 .i
 dl  4r 2
l02r
4 r 2
0

0 i  0i
= × 2r = ... ... (10.24)
4 r 2 2r

GKwU cv‡Ki cwie‡Z© hw` r wgUvi e¨vmva©wewkó n cv‡Ki GKwU e„ËvKvi KzÐjxi ga¨ w`‡q i A¨vw¤úqvi gvÎvi we`y¨r
cÖevwnZ Kiv nq Z‡e e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ª †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek ev †ÿÎ n ¸Y e„w× cv‡e| Kv‡RB G¯’‡j †PŠ¤^K Av‡ek,

 0 ni
B= Wbm-2
2r

w`K: e„ËvKvi KzÛjxi †K‡›`ª †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi AwfgyL KzÐjx Z‡ji mv‡_ j¤^ eivei| hw` KzÐjxi w`‡K ZvKv‡j cÖev‡ni
AwfgyL Nwoi KvuUvi w`‡K nq Z‡e †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi w`K n‡e KzÐjx Z‡jii j¤^ eivei †fZ‡ii w`‡K Avi cÖev‡ni AwfgyL
Nwoi KvUvi wecixZ w`‡K _vK‡j †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi w`K n‡e KzÐjx Z‡ji j¤^ eivei evB‡ii w`‡K|

1| GKwU e„ËvKvi KzÐjxi e¨vm 31.4×10-2 m Ges cvK msL¨v 400| KzÐjxi ga¨ w`‡q KZ Zwor cÖevn Pj‡j KzÐjxi
†K‡›`ª Gi †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ 4 × 10-10 Wbm-2 m„wó nq|?

Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, n = 400

 0 ni
B= 31.4 10 2
2r r= m = 15.7 ×10-2 m
2
2Br
ev, i =
2r B = 4 × 10-10 Wbm-2
2  4 15.7 10 12 107` 10 2
i= µ0 = 4 × 10-7 WbA-1m-1
4  3.14  4

= 2.5 × 10-7 A i=?

133
 2| 1 wgUvi j¤^v GKwU cwievnx Zv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q 5A Zwor cÖevwnZ n‡”Q| Zvi †_‡K 5 cm `~‡i ‡PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi gvb †ei
Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, i = 5A
a = j¤^ `~iZ¡ = 5 cm= 0.05 m
 i
B= 0 µ0 = 4 × 10-7 WbA-1m1
2a
B=?
4 10 7  5
B= = 2 × 10-5 Wbm-2
2  0.05

cwievnx Zvi I †PŠ¤^K ‡ÿ‡Îi ej

Conducting wire and force in magnetic field
Avgiv Rvwb, GKwU Zv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡j †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi m„wó nq| A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi ˆZwi AvqZvKvi AvqZ‡bi
KvVv‡gvi Ic‡i GKwU m~² AšÍixZ Zvgvi Zvi‡K eûmsL¨K cv‡K Rwo‡q Giƒc GKwU KzÐjx ˆZwi K‡i ¯’vqx Ak¦vK…wZ
Pz¤^‡Ki NS Gi g‡a¨ ¯’vcb K‡i Zv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ Kiv nq| GB †KŠkj Pj KzÐjx M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡i e¨eüZ
nq|
wb‡¤œ †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Î iwÿZ Giƒc GKwU KzÐjx‡Z we`y¨r cÖev‡ni d‡j m„ó ej I UK© Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|

cÖevnx jy‡ci Ici ‡PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi wµqvkxj UK©

Torque on a current carrying coil in magnetic field
Avgiv Rvwb †h we`y¨r cÖevnevnx Zvi †Kv‡bv ‡PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi g‡a¨ ¯’vcb Ki‡j A_ev cÖevnevnx Zv‡ii Ici †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ
cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j Gi Ici †PŠ¤^K ej wµqvkxj nq| G e‡ji gvb nq
F = IlB sin ... ... ... (10.25)
Ges †f±i iƒc,
  
F  Il  B

l miY †f±i hvi w`K we`y¨revnx mij Zv‡ii †ÿ‡Î cÖev‡ni w`‡K|
hw` GKwU we`y¨revnx Zv‡ii jyc (loop) mylg †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi g‡a¨ h‡_vchy³fv‡e Szwj‡q †`Iqv nq, Z‡e †PŠ¤^K ej
jy‡ci Dci UK© ev e¨eZ©b ej m„wó K‡i hv jycwU‡K †gvPo ev Nyiv‡bv †Póv K‡i| GB UK© ev e¨eZ©b ej A‡bK ai‡bi
wWfvBm (device) ev hš¿ †hgb M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi, ˆe`y¨wZK †gvUi, †Rbv‡iUi BZ¨vw` cwiPvjbvi Kv‡R e¨eüZ nq| GLb
GKwU AvqZvKvi Zv‡iii jy‡c U‡K©i ivwkgvjv †ei Kie|
awi ABCD GKwU ÿz`ª AvqZvKvi we`y¨revnx jyc ev KzÛjx GKwU mylg †PŠ¤^K †ÿÎ B-Gi g‡a¨ ¯’vcb Kiv n‡q‡Q| KzÐjx
Zj †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi mgvšÍiv‡j i‡q‡Q| cªwZ GKwU m¨vdU ev `‡Ði mv‡_ Ggbfv‡e mshy³ Kiv n‡q‡Q hv‡Z GwU gy³fv‡e
Nyi‡Z cv‡i [wPÎ 10.10]| †evSvi myweav‡_© wPÎwU mnR K‡i 10.11 wP‡Î †`Lv‡bv n‡jv| jycwUi PviwU evû AB, BC,
CD Ges DA-Gi Ici wµqvkxj ejmg~‡ni jwä jycwUi Ici wbU ej wn‡m‡e KvR Ki‡e| jycwU AvqZvKvi e‡j|
AB = DC = b (jycwUi cÖ¯’)

134
Ges AD = BC = l (jycwUi ˆ`N©¨)

awi, Nwoi KvuUvi w`‡K we`y¨r I cÖevwnZ n‡”Q| GLb AB evûi Ici cÖhy³ †PŠ¤^K ej|
 
F = lb B sin = 0 [  b Ges B -Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY,  = 0]
Avevi, CD- Gi Dci wµqvkxj ej,
F = lbB sin = 0 [   = 180°]
AB I CD Gi Ici wµqvkxj ej mgvb I wecixZgyLx nIqvq †Kv‡bv miY n‡e bv Ges ej؇qi wµqvgyL GKB
mij‡iLvq nIqvq †Kv‡bv Ø›Ø m„wó n‡e bv| AD evûi Ici wµqvkxj ej,
 
F = I/B sin  = IlB [  l I B Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY  = 90°]
Ges BC-Gi Ici wµqvkxj ej,
F = IlBsin  = IlB [   = 90°]
e‡ji w`K wbY©‡qi Wvb n¯Í wbqg Abymv‡i AD I BC Gi Ici wµqvkxj ej wecixZgyLx n‡e Ges G‡`i wµqvgyL GKB
mij‡iLvq bv nIqvq jycwU GKwU wbU UK© ev e¨eZ©b ej Abyfe Ki‡e hvi d‡j jycwU `‡Ûi mv‡c‡ÿ Nwoi KvuUvi w`‡K
Nz‡i hv‡e| GLb
wbU UK© = ej × wµqvkxi ej؇qi ga¨eZ©x j¤^ `~iZ¡
 = F × b = IlB × b = Ilb B
= IAB
GLv‡b A = lb, jy‡ci ‡ÿÎdj|
GKwU Zvi‡K †cuwP‡q hw` N msL¨K jy‡ci KzÐjx ˆZwi Kiv nq Z‡e KzÐjxi cÖ‡Z¨K cv‡k¦© wµqvkxi ej GKwU GKK jy‡ci
N ¸Y n‡e Ges UK©I N ¸Y n‡e| †m Ae¯’vq wbU UK© n‡e,
 = NIAB

135
  
hw` KzÐjx Zj †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi mv‡_  †Kv‡Y Ae¯’vb K‡i A_©vr b I B -Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY  nq [wPÎ 10.12(K)], Z‡e
ej؇qi ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡
P = b cos 

  = NIAB cos 
= NIAB cos (90°  ),  n‡jv jyc Z‡ji Awfj¤^ Ges B-Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY|
= NIAB sin  ... ... ... (10.26)
‡f±iiƒ‡c †jLv hvq,
 
 = NI A × B
    
A -‡K †ÿÎdj †f±i e‡j| NI A -‡K KzÛjxi †PŠ¤^K åvgK (magnetic moment) M ejv nq| M -Gi w`K n‡e A

Gi w`K eivei| Zwor cÖevnevnx KzÐjxi †ÿÎdj A †K GKwU †f±i A wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv nq hvi gvb KzÐjxi †ÿÎd‡ji

gvb Ges w`K n‡e KzÐjxi Z‡ji mv‡_ j¤^| KzÐjxi g‡a¨ Zwor cÖevn Nwoi KvuUvi w`‡K Pj‡j A Gi w`K n‡e KzÐjxi j¤^
eivei †fZ‡ii w`‡K| Avi wecixZ †ÿ‡Î n‡e evB‡ii w`‡K|
  
  M B

A_©vr ‡Kv‡bv we`y¨revnx KzÐjxi we`y¨r cÖevn Ges KzÐjxi †ÿÎdj †f±‡ii ¸Ydj‡K IB KzÐjxi †PŠ¤^K åvgK e‡j|


M -Gi w`K wbY©q:

Wvb nv‡Zi Av½yj¸‡jv we`y¨r cÖev‡ni w`K wb‡a©k Ki‡j e„×v½ywj †h w`K wb‡`©k K‡i †mwUB n‡e M -Gi w`K [wPÎ

10.12(L)] A_©vr ‡PŠ¤^K åvg‡Ki w`K n‡e †ÿÎdj †f±i A Gi w`‡K|
we`y¨revnx KzÐjxi åvgK hZ †ewk n‡e †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Î ¯’vcb Ki‡j KzÐjx ZZ †ewk UK© Abyfe Ki‡e|
mgxKiY (10.24) Abymv‡i KzÐjxi c¨vuP msL¨v I †ÿÎdj e„w× K‡i KzÐjxi †PŠ¤^K åvgK e„w× Kiv hvq|
AbymÜvbg~jK KvR: ‡PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Î ¯’vwcZ †Kv‡bv Zworevnx KzÐjxi Ici UK© Drcbœ nq| GLv‡b `yB evû‡Z cÖev‡ni AwfgyL
wecixZ w`‡K| cÖev‡ni AwfgyL wecixZ w`‡K nIqvq evû `ywUi Ici wµqvkxj e‡ji w`KI wecixZgyLx nq| myZivs
KzÐjxi `yB evûi Ici `ywU gvb, mgvšÍivj I wecixZgyLx ej wµqv K‡i| G‡`i wµqvgyL GKB mij‡iLvq bv nIqvq Giv
GKwU ؇›Ø m„wó K‡i| d‡j KzÐjxi Dci UK© wµqv K‡i|

136
 1| 1m `xN© GKwU †mvRv Zv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q 5A we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡”Q| ZviwU 0.1 Wbm-2 d¬v· Nb‡Z¡i GKwU mylg †PŠ¤^K
†ÿ‡Îi mv‡_ 30° †Kv‡Y GKB Z‡j Ae¯’vb Ki‡j KZ gv‡bi ej Abyfe Ki‡e?
awi wb‡Y©q ej = F GLv‡b,
Avgiv cvB, F = Bil sin  B = 0.1 Wb m-2

 ej, F = 0.1 Wbm-2 × 5A × 1m × sin 30° i = 5A

1 Wb.A l = 1m
= 0.5 ×
2 m  = 30°
Nm
= 0.25 = 0.25 N
m

2| 100 cvK 5 × 10-2 m e¨vmva©wewkó GKwU e„ËvK…wZi KzÐjx‡Z we`y¨r cÖevngvÎv 1 A¨vw¤úqvi| G‡K 1.5 Wbm-2
wewkó †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Î 30° †Kv‡Y ivL‡j KZ gv‡bi UK© KzÐjx‡Z cÖhy³ n‡e?
awi wb‡Y©q UK© =  GLv‡b,
Avgiv cvB, n = 100

 = niBA sin  ... (i) r = 5 × 10-2 m

mgxKiY (i) G gvb¸‡jv ewm‡q cvIqv hvq, A = r2 = 3.14 × (5 × 10-2m)2

i = 1A
 = 100 × 1A × 1.5 × 10-2 Wbm-2 × 3.14 × (5 ×
 = 30°
10-2m)2 × sin30°
1
B = 1.5 × 10-2 Wb m-2
-4
= 1.5 × 3.14 × 25 × 10 × Wb A
2

= 5.887 × 10-3 N m  WbA  Nm

we.`ª. AvqZvKvi KzÐjx n‡j †ÿÎdj A = L × b Ges e„ËvKvi KzÐjx nj A = r2 n‡e|
3| GKwU AvqZvKvi KzÐjxi ˆ`N©¨ 15 cm Ges cÖ¯’ 10 cm| KzÐjxi cvKmsL¨v 500| KzÐjxi Zj‡K 5 × 10-3 T Gi
†PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi mgvšÍiv‡j ¯’vcb K‡i Gi †fZi 5A Zwor cÖevn Pvjbv Kiv n‡jv| KzÐjxi Ici cÖhy³ U‡K©i gvb KZ?
Avgiv cvB, GLv‡b,
 = NIAB = NIlbB ‰`N©¨, l = 15 cm = 15 × 10-2 m
= 500 × 5 × 15 × 10-2 × 10 × 10-2 × 5 × 10-3 cÖ¯’, b = 10 cm = 10 × 10-2 m
= 0.1875 Nm cvKmsL¨v, N = 500, B = 5 × 10-3 T
cÖevn, I = 5A
UK©,  = ?

137