Stability Notlar

1.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Principal Axes Principal Axes
Coordinate Systems
Wing Geometry Axis, as applied to aviation, is defined as "an imaginary line about which
2. Four Forces of Flight a body rotates". An aircraft is free to revolve or move around three axes
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) Weight, Thrust, Drag
Lift
as shown in Figure 1. These axes, referred to as longitudinal, lateral
and vertical, are each perpendicular to the others and intersect at the
Chapter1: Introduction 3. Control Surfaces
Aileron
aircraft centre of gravity. The longitudinal axis of an aircraft is a straight
Elevator
line through the aircraft’s nose cone and the endpoint of the fuselage.
Rudder The lateral axis is parallel to the wings and extends throughout wingtip
4. References
to wingtip. The vertical axis is "normal" of the geometric plane formed
by the longitudinal and lateral axes. Motion around the longitudinal axis,
the lateral axis and the vertical axis are referred to as roll, pitch and yaw
respectively.
Asst.Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü

+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526 GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY
oogucu@gantep.edu.tr Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics
http://www1.gantep.edu.tr/ oogucu/ Department of Aircraft and Aerospace Engineering
Figure 1: The three axes of rotation

September 16, 2019
1 / 17
1. Nomenclature
Nomenclature 1. Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Principal Axes Coordinate Systems Principal Axes Coordinate Systems
Coordinate Systems Coordinate Systems
Wing Geometry To describe the motion of an airplane it is necessary to define a suitable Wing Geometry Here the force components are denoted by X, Y , Z and moments com-
2. Four Forces of Flight coordinate system as shown in Figure 2 to formulate the equations of 2. Four Forces of Flight ponents are indicated by L, M , N along and about the x, y, and z axes.
Weight, Thrust, Drag motion. For most problems dealing with aircraft motion, two right-handed Weight, Thrust, Drag They can be defined in terms of dimensionless coefficients (Cx , Cy , Cz ,
Lift Lift
coordinate systems are used. The first one is denoted by E and fixed to Cl , Cm , Cn ), the flight dynamic pressure (Q), a reference area (S) and a
3. Control Surfaces the Earth. It may be considered for the purpose of aircraft motion analysis 3. Control Surfaces characteristic length (l) as follows;
Aileron Aileron
to be an inertial coordinate system. The second one is denoted by B and
Elevator Elevator Axial Force X = Cx QS
referred to body coordinate system. It is fixed to the center of gravity and
Rudder Rudder
Side Force Y = Cy QS
translates/rotates with the aircraft. Note that, the x- and z-axes are in the
4. References 4. References Normal Force Z = Cz QS
plane of symmetry, with the x-axis pointing along the fuselage and the
Rolling Moment L = Cl QSl
positive y-axis along the right wing.
Pitching Moment M = Cm QSl
Yawing Moment N = Cn QSl
Here, the reference area S is taken as the wing planform area and the
characteristic length l is taken as the wing span for the rolling and yawing
moment and the mean chord for the pitching moment.
Figure 2: Earth-fixed and body-fixed coordinate systems [1]

2 / 17 3 / 17
1. Nomenclature
Nomenclature Nomenclature
Principal Axes Coordinate Systems Wing Geometry
Coordinate Systems
Wing Geometry The angle of attack (α) and sideslip (β), which are illustrated in Figure 3, The wings can be mounted to the fuselage in many different ways as shown in Figure 4. Also, at
2. Four Forces of Flight can be defined in terms of the velocity components as follows; each configuration by angling the wings up or down, dihedral or anhedral designs can be obtained.
Weight, Thrust, Drag
Lift LOW-WING MID-WING HIGH-WING
3. Control Surfaces
Positive
Aileron
Elevator
Rudder
4. References
Figure 3: Definition of a) angle-of-attack b) angle-of-sideslip [1]
Zero
α = tan−1 (1)
u
v
β = sin−1 (2)
V
√
where, V = u2 + v 2 + w 2 .
Negative
If the angle of attack and sideslip are small, that is < 150 , then Equa-
tions 1 and 2 can be approximated by;
α = w/u (3)
β = v/u (4) Figure 4: Low, mid and high mounting configurations of the wing with dihedral/anhedral designs
4 / 17 5 / 17
Nomenclature
Wing Geometry Principal Axes Wing Geometry
Coordinate Systems
In some situations arising from performance requirements, stability or physical constraints such as Wing Geometry The shape of the wing, when viewed from above or below, is called plan-
visibility, dihedral angle may be varied along the span of the wing as in the case of gull-wing or 2. Four Forces of Flight form as shown in Figure 6.
inverted gull-wing designs. For example, gull-wing has sharp dihedral on the root section, little or Weight, Thrust, Drag
Lift
none on the main section. Besides, inverted gull-wing has anhedral on the root section and dihedral
3. Control Surfaces
on the main section.
Aileron
LOW-WING MID-WING HIGH-WING Elevator

Rudder
4. References
Variable
Figure 6: Rectangular, tapered, elliptical, swept and delta wing planform geometries
The ends of the wing are called the wing tips, and the distance from one
wing tip to the other is called the span, given by the symbol b. The leading
Figure 5: Low, mid and high mounting configurations of the wing with dihedral/anhedral designs
edge is the part of the wing that first contacts the air; alternatively it is the
foremost edge of the wing. On the other hand, the trailing edge is rear of
the wing, where the airflow separated by the leading edge rejoins. The
wing area, S, is the projected area of the planform and is bounded by the
leading and trailing edges and the wing tips. Aspect ratio is a measure of
how long and narrow a wing is from tip to tip. The Aspect Ratio of a wing
is defined to be the square of the span divided by the wing area and is
given the symbol AR. There is a component of the drag, which is called
induced drag, depends inversely on the aspect ratio. A higher aspect ratio
wing has a lower drag and a slightly higher lift than a lower aspect ratio
6 / 17
wing. 7 / 17
1. Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Principal Axes Wing Geometry Principal Axes Wing Geometry
Wing Geometry The distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge is called the chord, Wing Geometry Another characteristic parameter related to the chord length that is rarely
2. Four Forces of Flight denoted by the symbol c. The chord length can be constant as in the case 2. Four Forces of Flight used in aerodynamics is mean geometric chord (or standard mean chord).
Weight, Thrust, Drag of rectangular wing, or may be varied along the span as in the case of ta- Weight, Thrust, Drag It is the chord of a rectangular wing with the same area and span as those
Lift
pered, elliptical, swept and delta wings 1 . For example, as shown in the Lift
of the given wing and defined as;
3. Control Surfaces detailed view of the swept wing planform, root and tip chord lengths are 3. Control Surfaces
Aileron
represented by cr and ct , respectively. To give a characteristic parameter Aileron M GC = S/b
Elevator Elevator
Rudder that can be compared among various wing shapes, the mean aerody- Rudder
namic chord, or MAC, is used. It is defined as; Apart from the wing, the chord or chord length is also used to describe
4. References 4. References
width of the horizontal/vertical stabilizer, flap, aileron and rudder.
b/2 Taper ratio can be either in planform or thickness, or both. In its simplest
2
M AC = c(y)2 dy terms, it is a decrease from wing root to wing tip in wing chord or wing
S thickness.
0
The angle between the lateral axis and the quarter-chord line is called
where, S is the wing area, b is the wing span, y is the coordinate along sweep angle as shown in Figure 6 indicated by ΛLE leading edge sweep
the wing span and c is the chord at the coordinate y. The position of angle and ΛT E trailing edge sweep angle.
center of mass (CoM) of an aircraft is usually measured relative to the
MAC, so not only the length but also the position of it is often important.
The aerodynamic center lies on the mean aerodynamic chord.
1
For further reading please refer to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration
8 / 17 9 / 17
Four Forces of Flight
Wing Geometry Principal Axes Weight, Thrust, Drag
Coordinate Systems
A cut through the wing perpendicular to the leading and trailing edges shows the cross-section of Wing Geometry There are four basic forces that allow an airplane to fly; weight, lift, drag
the wing which is called airfoil as shown in Figure 7. The straight line drawn from the leading to 2. Four Forces of Flight and thrust.
trailing edges of the airfoil is called the chord line. The chord line cuts the airfoil into an upper Weight, Thrust, Drag
Lift Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth.
surface and a lower surface. If we plot the points that lie halfway between the upper and lower The magnitude of the weight depends on the total mass of all airplane
3. Control Surfaces
surfaces, we obtain a curve called the mean camber line. For a symmetric airfoil (upper surface parts, amount of fuel, and any payload on board. It is distributed through-
Aileron
the same shape as the lower surface) the mean camber line will fall on top of the chord line. But in Elevator out the airplane, but we assume that it collected and acting through a
most cases, these are two separate lines. The maximum distance between the two lines is called Rudder
single point called the center of gravity.
the camber, which is a measure of the curvature of the airfoil (high camber means high curvature). 4. References
The maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces is called the thickness. Flying encompasses two major problems; overcoming the weight of an
object by some opposing force, and controlling the object in flight. Both of
these problems are related to the object’s weight and the location of the
center of gravity. During a flight, an airplane’s weight constantly changes
as the aircraft consumes fuel. The distribution of the weight and the center
of gravity also changes. So the pilot must constantly adjust the controls
to keep the airplane balanced, or trimmed.
To overcome drag, aircrafts use a propulsion system to generate a force
called thrust. The direction of the thrust force depends on how the en-
gines are attached to the aircraft. On some aircrafts, such as the Harrier,
the thrust direction can be varied to help the airplane take off in a very
short distance.
Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. It tends to
slow an object. Drag is caused by friction and differences in air pressure.
Figure 7: The cross-sectional shapes of various wings
10 / 17 11 / 17
1. Nomenclature
Four Forces of Flight 1. Nomenclature
Control Surfaces
Principal Axes Lift: An Application of the Bernoulli’s Principle Principal Axes
Wing Geometry In an airplane wing profile, as represented in Figure 8, the upper surface Wing Geometry Airplanes come in many different shapes and sizes depending on the mis-
2. Four Forces of Flight is somewhat curved, while the lower surface is relatively flat. When the 2. Four Forces of Flight sion of the aircraft. The airplane shown in Figure 9 is a turbine-powered
Weight, Thrust, Drag airplane moves forward, air travels across both the top and the bottom Weight, Thrust, Drag airliner which has been chosen as a representative aircraft. Individual
Lift Lift
surfaces concurrently. Due to the shape of the profile, air on the bottom aircraft may be configured quite differently from this airliner.
3. Control Surfaces surface moves slower, which creates more pressure, and air on the top 3. Control Surfaces
Aileron Aileron
Elevator
surface moves faster, which creates less pressure. Since the pressure Elevator
Rudder below the wing is higher than the pressure above the wing, there is a Rudder
4. References
net force upwards which creates lift. So, this phenomenon is a direct 4. References
application of the Bernoulli’s principle.
Figure 8: High and low pressure areas for various wing profiles emerging in wind
tunnel tests conducted at the NASA Langley Research Center [2]. Figure 9: Turbine-powered airliner, its parts and functions [3]
Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the center of pressure. The
center of pressure is defined just like the center of gravity.
12 / 17 13 / 17
Control Surfaces Control Surfaces

Aileron Elevator
Ailerons, which are small hinged sections on the outboard portion of a wing, can be used to generate The horizontal stabilizer, as shown in Figure 11, is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide
a rolling motion for an aircraft. They usually work in opposition; as the right aileron is deflected stability for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight. The elevator is the small moving section at the rear
upward, the left is deflected downward, and vice versa. Changing the angle of deflection at the rear of the stabilizer that is attached to the fixed sections by hinges. They work in pairs; when the right
of an airfoil will change the amount of lift generated by the foil. With greater downward deflection, the elevator goes up, the left elevator also goes up. The elevators work by changing the effective shape
lift will increase in the upward direction. Notice from the Figure 10 that the aileron on the left wing, of the airfoil of the horizontal stabilizer. Changing the angle of deflection at the rear of an airfoil
as viewed from the rear of the aircraft, is deflected down. The aileron on the right wing is deflected changes the amount of lift generated by the foil. With greater downward deflection of the trailing
up. Therefore, the lift on the left wing is increased, while the lift on the right wing is decreased. For edge, lift increases. With greater upward deflection of the trailing edge, lift decreases and can even
the conditions shown in the Figure 10, the resulting motion will roll the aircraft to the right (clockwise) become negative as shown in Figure 11.
as viewed from the rear.
Figure 11: a) Resulting motion in the case of upward deflected elevators b) Animated picture showing the
Figure 10: a) Resulting motion in the case of upward deflected right aileron and downward deflected left aileron working principle of elevator [3]
b) Animated picture showing the working principle of aileron [3]
14 / 17 15 / 17
Control Surfaces 1. Nomenclature
References
Rudder Principal Axes
Coordinate Systems
Wing Geometry [1] B. Etkin and L. Reid, Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control, 3rd ed. Wiley, 1995.
The vertical stabilizer, as shown in Figure 12, is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide stability
for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight. It prevents side-to-side, or yawing, motion of the aircraft 2. Four Forces of Flight [2] N. L. R. Group, “Aerodynamics: Airfoil camber, flaps, and slots-slats smoke lifts,” 1938.
nose. The rudder is the small moving section at the rear of the vertical stabilizer that is attached to Weight, Thrust, Drag
Lift
[3] N. G. R. Center, “Aerodynamics index,” 2015.
the fixed sections by hinges. Changing the angle of deflection at the rear of an airfoil will change the
3. Control Surfaces
amount of lift generated by the foil. With increased deflection, the lift will increase in the opposite
Aileron
direction. The rudder and vertical stabilizer are mounted so that they will produce forces from side Elevator
to side. The side force (F ) is applied through the center of pressure of the vertical stabilizer which Rudder
is some distance (L) from the aircraft center of gravity. This creates a torque on the aircraft and the 4. References
aircraft rotates about its center of gravity.
Figure 12: a) Resulting motion in the case of left deflected rudder b) Animated picture showing the working
principle of rudder [3]
16 / 17 17 / 17
CHAPTER 2
STATIC STABILITY & CONTROL
General Remarks
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Equilibrium State (Trim Condition)
1. General Remarks
By stability we mean the tendency of the airplane to return to its equilib-
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control
2.1. Pitch Stability
rium position after it has been disturbed. The disturbance may be gen-
erated by the pilot’s actions or atmospheric phenomena (wind gusts,
2.2. Pitch Control
Chapter 2: Static Stability & Control wind gradients, or turbulent air).
3. Lateral Stability & Control
3.1. Yaw Stability Stability is a property of an equilibrium state. To discuss stability we
3.2. Yaw Control must first define what is meant by equilibrium. If an airplane is to re-
3.3. Roll Stability main in steady uniform flight, the resultant force as well as the resultant
3.4. Roll Control moment about the center of gravity must both be equal to 0. An air-
4. Summary plane satisfying this requirement is said to be in a state of equilibrium
5. References
or flying at a trim condition. On the other hand, if the forces and mo-
ments do not sum to 0, the airplane will be subjected to translational
and/or rotational accelerations.
The subject of airplane stability is generally divided into static and dy-
namic stability.
Base Floor, Z-13 GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY
+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
http://www1.gantep.edu.tr/~oogucu/ Department of Aircraft and Aerospace Engineering
September 16, 2019

1 / 56
CHAPTER 2
General Remarks CHAPTER 2
General Remarks
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Static Stability: Stable Equilibrium Static Stability: Neutral Equilibrium
1. General Remarks 1. General Remarks
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control

2.1. Pitch Stability 2.1. Pitch Stability
2.2. Pitch Control 2.2. Pitch Control
3. Lateral Stability & Control 3. Lateral Stability & Control

3.1. Yaw Stability 3.1. Yaw Stability
3.2. Yaw Control 3.2. Yaw Control
3.3. Roll Stability 3.3. Roll Stability
3.4. Roll Control 3.4. Roll Control
4. Summary 4. Summary
Figure 1: Various conditions of equilibrium states (a) stable equilibrium, (b) Figure 1: Various conditions of equilibrium states (a) stable equilibrium, (b)
neutral equilibrium, (c) unstable equilibrium, (d) unstable (wrt x-axis)/stable (wrt neutral equilibrium, (c) unstable equilibrium, (d) unstable (wrt x-axis)/stable (wrt
y-axis) equilibrium [1] y-axis) equilibrium [1]
Static stability is the initial tendency of the vehicle to return to its equi- In the second example, the ball is placed on a flat surface as shown in
librium state after a disturbance occured. An example of the various (b). Now, if the ball were to be displaced from its initial equilibrium point
types of static stability is illustrated in Figure 1. If the ball were to be to another position, the it would remain at the new position. This would
displaced from the bottom of the curved surface as in (a), by virtue of be classified as a neutrally stable equilibrium point and represents the
the gravitational attraction, the ball would roll back to the bottom (i.e., boundary between static stability and instability.
the force and moment would tend to restore the ball to its equilibrium
point). Such a situation would be referred to as a stable equilibrium
point.
2 / 56 2 / 56
CHAPTER 2
General Remarks
Static Stability: Unstable Equilibrium Static Stability: Unstable/Stable Equilibrium


Figure 1: Various conditions of equilibrium states (a) stable equilibrium, (b) Figure 1: Various conditions of equilibrium states (a) stable equilibrium, (b)
neutral equilibrium, (c) unstable equilibrium, (d) unstable (wrt x-axis)/stable (wrt neutral equilibrium, (c) unstable equilibrium, (d) unstable (wrt x-axis)/stable (wrt
y-axis) equilibrium [1] y-axis) equilibrium [1]
On the other hand, if we were able to balance a ball on the curved sur- Note that, (a)-(c) exemplifies to the single axis motions. If the degree-
face as shown in (c), then any displacement from the equilibrium point of-freedom is increased as shown in (d), then combined situations may
would cause the ball to roll off the surface. In this case, the equilibrium arise. At this case, equilibrium point is unstable with respect to the
point would be classified as unstable. x-axis disturbances, however stable with respect to the y-axis distur-
bances.
2 / 56 2 / 56
CHAPTER 2
General Remarks
Dynamic Stability Longitudinal (Symmetric) vs. Lateral (Asymmetric) Motions


5. References Figure 2: Stable and unstable dynamic motions [2] 5. References
In the study of dynamic stability we are concerned with the time history
of the motion of the vehicle after it is disturbed from its equilibrium point. Figure 3: Types of motion and stability
Figure 2 shows several airplane motions that could occur if the airplane Aircraft Movement Control Surface Axes of Rotation Type of Stability
were disturbed from its equilibrium conditions. Roll Aileron Longitudinal Lateral
Note that the vehicle can be statically stable but dynamically unstable. Pitch Elevator Lateral Longitudinal
Yaw Rudder Vertical Directional
Static stability, therefore, does not guarantee dynamic stability. How-
ever, for the vehicle to be dynamically stable it must be statically stable. The motion of an airplane can frequently be separated for convenience
The reduction of the effects of disturbance with time indicates that there into two parts. One of these consists of the longitudinal or symmetric
is resistance to the motion and, therefore, energy is being dissipated. motions; that is, those in which the wings remain level, and in which the
The dissipation of energy is called positive damping. In positive damp- center of gravity moves in a vertical plane.
ing, forces and moments will oppose the motion of the airplane and The other consists of the lateral or asymmetric motions; that is, rolling,
cause the disturbance to damp out with time. yawing, and sideslipping, while the angle of attack remains constant.
3 / 56 4 / 56
CHAPTER 2
General Remarks
Lift & Drag Forces Lift & Drag Coefficients
Lift and drag forces, as calculated in Equation 1 and 2, depend on The variation of steady-state lift and drag coefficients for subsonic and
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control the density of the air (ρ), the square of the velocity (V 2 ), the area of 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control supersonic Mach numbers (M < 5) are shown in Figure 4.
the lifting surfaces (S), as well as the air’s viscosity and compressibility,
the shape of the body, and the body’s inclination to the flow, which
3. Lateral Stability & Control are embedded into the lift and drag coefficients designated by CL and 3. Lateral Stability & Control
CD , respectively. For given air conditions, shape, and inclination of the
3.3. Roll Stability
object, we have to determine the values for CL and CD to determine 3.3. Roll Stability
3.4. Roll Control the lift and drag forces. 3.4. Roll Control
1
4. Summary L = ρV 2 SCL (1) 4. Summary
2
5. References 5. References Figure 4: Lift and drag coefficients for subsonic and supersonic speeds [1]
1
D = ρV 2 SCD (2) Over a useful range of α, these coefficients are given accurately enough
2
2
by; C L = C L + CL α (3)
Remember that the term (1/2) ρV is called the dynamic pressure and 0 α
2
appears in Bernoulli’s equation. CD = C D 0 + K · C L (4)
The three constants CLα , CD0 , K are principally functions of the con-
figuration shape, thrust coefficient, and Mach number. As noted here,
below the stall, variation of lift coefficient with respect to angle-of-attack
is assumed to be linear. Of course significant departure from the this
idealization may be anticipated in some cases. For example, the cur-
vature of the CL vs α relation may be an important consideration. For
the nonlinear cases, a suitable formulation for CL can be given as;
1
CL = CNα sin (2α) cos (α) + CNαα sin (α) |sin (α)| cos (α) (5)
5 / 56 6 / 56 2
CHAPTER 2
General Remarks
Limitations of Single Axis Stability Analysis Validity of the Methods: Subsonic Flight Regime + Rigid Airplanes
In the following sections, we shall consider the moments that acts on Furthermore, the methods generally are valid only for the subsonic flight
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control the airplane when its angle-of-attack, angle-of-sideslip or angle-of-bank 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control regime. A complete discussion of how to extend these methods to
are changed from the equilibrium value, as by a disturbance. We focus higher-speed flight regimes is beyond the scope of this course.
our attention on whether or not these moments act in such a sense as Also note that aeroelastic effects are not included. Hence the analysis
3. Lateral Stability & Control to restore the airplane to its original state. Notice that, we deal with a 3. Lateral Stability & Control applies to rigid airplanes.
limited version of longitudinal static stability concept represented by Cm
3.3. Roll Stability
vs. α, or limited version of lateral static stability concept represented by 3.3. Roll Stability
3.4. Roll Control Cn vs. β and Cl vs. β. So, the applicability of the results is thereby 3.4. Roll Control
limited. When the aerodynamic characteristics of an airplane change
with speed, owing to com-
5. References pressibility effects, struc- 5. References
tural distortion, or the influ-
ence of the propulsive sys-
tem, then the airplane may
be unstable with respect
to disturbances in speed.
Such instability is not pre-
dicted by a consideration of
angle-of-attack or angle-of-
sideslip disturbances only.
For example, identify speed Figure 5: Unstable condition of equilibrium state
with x-axis and angle of at- wrt x-axis, and stable condition of equilibrium
state wrt y-axis [1]
tack with y-axis in Figure 5.
7 / 56 8 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Longitudinal Stability & Control CHAPTER 2
Longitudinal Stability & Control
Pitch Stability Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pitch Stability
Symmetric Steady Flight Condition Condition of Longitudinal Balance
The symmetric steady flight condition (M = 0 about CG) is illustrated
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control in Figure 6, where basic forces acting on the airplane are indicated by 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control
L (lift force), D (drag force), T (thrust force) and W (weight). Also note
that velocity vector and angle-of-attack are designated with V and α,
3. Lateral Stability & Control respectively. 3. Lateral Stability & Control
5. References 5. References Figure 7: Pitching moment curves for airplane-1 and airplane-2. Vertical and
horizontal axes denote pitching moment coefficient (Cm ) and angle-of-attack
(α), respectively. [2]
An airplane can continue in steady unaccelerated flight only when the
resultant external force and moment about the CG both vanish. In par-
ticular, this requires that the pitching moment be zero. This is the con-
dition of longitudinal balance. Let us consider the two airplanes with
fixed elevators in which their respective pitching moment curves shown
in Figure 7. The curves have been assumed to be linear until the wing
Figure 6: Steady symmetric flight [1]
is close to stalling. Since Cmcg = 0 is required for longitudinal bal-
ance, the airplanes can fly only at the trim point denoted by α = B for
the given elevator angle.
9 / 56 10 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Pitch Stability
Slope Requirement, Nose Up Disturbance Slope Requirement, Nose Down Disturbance


5. References Figure 7: Pitching moment curves for airplane-1 and airplane-2. Vertical and 5. References Figure 7: Pitching moment curves for airplane-1 and airplane-2. Vertical and
horizontal axes denote pitching moment coefficient (Cm ) and angle-of-attack horizontal axes denote pitching moment coefficient (Cm ) and angle-of-attack
(α), respectively. [2] (α), respectively. [2]
Suppose the airplanes suddenly encounter an upward gust such that If we were to encounter a disturbance that reduced the angle of attack,
the angle of attack is increased to point C while its speed remains un- say, to point A, we would find that airplane-1 would develop a nose-up
altered. At the angle of attack denoted by C, airplane-1 would develop moment that would rotate the aircraft back toward the equilibrium point.
a negative (nose-down) pitching moment that would tend to rotate the On the other hand, airplane-2 would develop a nose-down moment that
airplane back toward its equilibrium point, hence is a restoring moment. would rotate the aircraft away from the equilibrium point.
However, for the same disturbance, airplane-2 would develop a positive On the basis of this simple analysis, we can conclude that to have static
(nose-up) pitching moment that would tend to rotate the aircraft away longitudinal stability the aircraft pitching moment curve must have a
from the equilibrium point. negative slope. That is,
dCm
<0 (6)
dα
through the equilibrium point.
10 / 56 10 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Pitch Stability
Intercept Requirement Slope + Intercept Requirement
Actually, derived stability conditions, given in Equation 6 and 7, can be
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control interpreted as constraints to determine the geometric properties of a
line in which the slope-intercept form can be written as;
Cm = Cm0 + Cmα α (8)
3.1. Yaw Stability 3.1. Yaw Stability Total Pitching Moment Curve vs. Components Contributions
3.2. Yaw Control 3.2. Yaw Control In discussing the requirements for static stability, we so far have con-
sidered only the total airplane pitching moment curve. However, it is of
interest (particularly to airplane designers) to know the contribution of
4. Summary 4. Summary the wing, fuselage, tail, propulsion system, and the like, to the pitching
5. References Figure 8: Pitching moment curves for airplane-1 and airplane-3. Both curves 5. References moment and static stability characteristics of the airplane. In the fol-
have negative slopes, but only airplane-1 has static longitudinal stability due to lowing sections, each of the components will be considered separately.
the positive pitching moment intercept at zero angle-of-attack. [2]
We will start by breaking down the airplane into its basic components,
Having negative pitching moment slope is necessary but not sufficient such as the wing, fuselage, horizontal tail, and propulsion unit.
condition for static longitudinal stability. The other point that we must
make is illustrated in Figure 8. Here we see two pitching moment curves
with negative slopes. However, only airplane-1 has static longitudinal
stability, because unlike airplane-3, only airplane-1 can be trimmed at
a positive angle of attack a . Therefore, to having static longitudinal
stability, in addition to negative pitching moment slope, we also must
have a positive pitching moment intercept;
Cm0 > 0 (7)
a
In a steady level flight, a positive lift force, which requires a positive angle-of-attack, is
11 / 56 necessitated to balance the weight. So, trimming at a positive angle-of-attack is a prerequisite. 12 / 56
Longitudinal Stability & Control Longitudinal Stability & Control

Pitch Stability Pitch Stability
Wing Contribution Wing Contribution
Figure 9: Wing contribution to the pitching moment [2] Figure 9: Wing contribution to the pitching moment [2]
The contribution of the wing to an airplane’s static stability can be examined with the aid of Figure 9. If we sum the moments about the center of gravity, the following equation is obtained;
In this sketch we have replaced the wing by its mean aerodynamic chord c̄. The distances from the Mcgw = Macw + Lw cos (αw − iw ) [xw ] + Lw sin (αw − iw ) [zw ]
wing leading edge to the aerodynamic center and the center of gravity are denoted by xac and xcg , (9)
+Dw sin (αw − iw ) [xw ] − Dw cos (αw − iw ) [zw ]
respectively. Also, the distance between aerodynamic center and center of gravity is indicated by
xw . The vertical displacement of the center of gravity is denoted by zcg . The angle wing chord Remember from Equation 1 and 2, lift force Lw and drag force Dw can be calculated as;
line makes with the fuselage reference line is denoted as iw . This is the angle at which the wing is 1 1
Lw = ρV 2 SCLw Dw = ρV 2 SCDw
mounted onto the fuselage. 2 2
13 / 56 13 / 56
Wing Contribution Wing Contribution
Equation 9 is made nondimensional by dividing through (1/2) ρV 2 Sc̄

xw zw
Cmcgw = Cmacw + CLw cos (αw − iw ) + CLw sin (αw − iw )
c̄ c̄
(10)
xw zw
+CDw sin (αw − iw ) − CDw cos (αw − iw )
c̄ c̄
Equation 10 can be simplified by assuming that the angle of attack is sufficiently small which leads
to the following approximations;
cos (αw − iw ) = 1, sin (αw − iw ) = αw − iw
Also in streamlined bodies such as airfoils, the lift coefficient is highly greater than the drag coeffi-
cient;
C L CD Figure 9: Wing contribution to the pitching moment [2]
If we further assume that the vertical contribution is negligible; The distance between aerodynamic center and center of gravity can be expressed as xw =
zw ≈ 0 xcg − xac . Furthermore, suppose that CLw varies linearly as given in Equation 3. After these
substitutions, Equation 11 can be rearranged as;
xcg xac
Then Equation 10 reduces to;

xw Cmcgw = Cmacw + CL0w + CLαw αw −
Cmcgw = Cmacw + CLw (11) c̄ c̄
c̄
xcg xac xcg xac
= Cmacw + CL0w − + CLαw − αw (12)
c̄ c̄ c̄ c̄
14 / 56 15 / 56

Wing Contribution Aft Tail Contribution
The forces on an isolated tail are represented just like those on an isolated wing. However, when
the tail is mounted on an airplane, important interferences and interactions occur. Some of them
can be ordered as follows; blanking of part of the tail by the body, and a reduction of the relative
wind when the tail lies in the wing wake. But, the most significant of these, and one that is usually
predictable by aerodynamic theory as sketched in Figure 10, is a upward / downward deflection
of the flow at the tail caused by the wing. The tail can be located either forward (canard) or aft of
the wing. The canard surface is affected by the upwash flow, whereas the aft tail is subjected to
the downwash flow. The magnitude of the exposed upwash or downwash effect depends on the
location of the tail surface with respect to the wing.
Figure 9: Wing contribution to the pitching moment [2]
Note that Equation 12 is expressed in the same form as Equation 8. Applying the condition for static
stability gives;
xcg xac
Cm0w = Cmacw + CL0w − (13)
c̄ c̄

xcg xac
Cmαw = CLαw − (14)
c̄ c̄
Figure 10: Flow field around an airplane created by the wing [2]
For a wing-alone design to be statically stable, Equation 14 tells us that the aerodynamic center
must lie aft of the center of gravity to make Cmαw < 0. However, for many airplanes, the aero-
dynamic center is located slightly forward of the center of gravity position. Therefore, the wing
contribution to static longitudinal stability is destabilizing for most conventional airplanes.
16 / 56 17 / 56
Aft Tail Contribution Aft Tail Contribution
Figure 11: Aft tail contribution to the pitching moment [2] Figure 11: Aft tail contribution to the pitching moment [2]
The contribution that a tail surface located aft of the wing makes to the airplane’s pitching moment The pitching moment due to the tail can be obtained by summing the moments about the center of
can be developed with the aid of Figure 11. In this sketch, the wing and tail surfaces have been gravity;
replaced by their mean aerodynamic chords. The horizontal and vertical distances between wing’s Mcgt = Mact − Lt cos (αt − it ) [xt ] + Lt sin (αt − it ) [zt ]
aerodynamic center and center of gravity are denoted by xw and zw , respectively. Similarly, the hor- (15)
−Dt sin (αt − it ) [xt ] − Dt cos (αt − it ) [zt ]
izontal and vertical distances between tail’s aerodynamic center and center of gravity are denoted
by xt and zt , respectively. If we again use sufficiently small angle-of-attack, CLt CDt and zt ≈ 0 assumptions, then
Equation 15 reduces to;
Mcgt = Mact − Lt xt (16)
18 / 56 19 / 56

Figure 11: Aft tail contribution to the pitching moment [2] Figure 11: Aft tail contribution to the pitching moment [2]
Equation 16 is made nondimensional by dividing through (1/2) ρV 2 Sc̄ Suppose that CLt varies linearly as given in Equation 3.
(1/2) ρVt2 St xt C Lt = C L αt α t (18)
Cmcgt = Cmact − CLt
(1/2) ρV 2 Sc̄ where, CLαt is the slope of the tail lift curve. From Figure 11, the angle of attack of the tail is seen
= Cmact − ηVH CLt (17) to be;
αt = αw − iw − ε + it (19)
where η is called the tail efficiency (the ratio of the dynamic pressures), and VH is called horizontal
tail volume ratio as given below. where ε and it , are the downwash and tail incidence angles, respectively. Assume that, the down-
wash angle also varies linearly;
Qt (1/2) ρVt2 S t xt dε
η= = , VH = ε = ε0 + αw (20)
Q (1/2) ρV 2 Sc̄ dα
where ε0 is the downwash at zero angle of attack.
20 / 56 21 / 56
So, Equation 18 can be rewritten as; Equation 23 can be used to ensure that Cm0 for the complete airplane is positive. This can be
CL t = CL α t α t accomplished by adjusting the tail incidence angle it . Note that we would want to mount the tail
plane at a negative angle of incidence to the fuselage reference line to increase Cm0 due to the
= CLαt (αw − iw − ε + it ) tail.
Cm0t = Cmact + ηVH CLαt (ε0 + iw − it ) (23)
dε
= CL α t αw − iw − ε0 −
αw + it (21)
dα The tail contribution to the Cmαt can be controlled by proper selection of VH and CLαt . The
Substituting Equation 21 into Equation 17 gives the tail contribution to the pitching moment as contribution will become more negative by increasing the tail moment arm xt , or tail surface area St ,
written below; and by increasing CLαt . The tail lift curve slope CLαt , can be increased most easily by increasing
Cmcgt = Cmact − ηVH CLt the aspect ratio of the tail planform. As noted here, a tail surface located aft of the wing can be
used to ensure that the airplane has a positive Cm0 , and a negative Cmα .
dε
= Cmact + ηVH CLαt (ε0 + iw − it ) − ηVH CLαt αw 1− (22) dε
dα Cmαt = −ηVH CLαt 1 − (24)
Note that Equation 22 is expressed in the same form as Equation 8. So, the expressions for the dα
intercept and slope can be obtained as;
Cm0t = Cmact + ηVH CLαt (ε0 + iw − it ) (23)

dε
Cmαt = −ηVH CLαt 1− (24)
dα
Equation 23 can be used to ensure that Cm0 for the complete airplane is positive. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the tail incidence angle it . Note that we would want to mount the tail
plane at a negative angle of incidence to the fuselage reference line to increase Cm0 due to the
tail.
22 / 56 23 / 56

Fuselage Contribution Fuselage Contribution
It can be shown that pitching moment coefficient at zero angle-of-attack (Cm0 ) due to the long, Without loss of generality, Equation 25 can be approximated by;
slender fuselage is; x=lf
l
f k2 − k 1 1
k2 − k1 1 2
Cm0f = wf2 α0w + if Δx (27)
Cm0f = wf α0w + if dx (25) 36.5 Sc̄
36.5 Sc̄ x=0
0 Figure 12 illustrates how the fuselage can be divided into segments for the calculation of Cm0 and
The change in pitching moment coefficient is given according to the change in local flow angle with also defines the body width wf for various body cross-sectional shapes.
angle of attack, ∂εu /∂α, as follows; l
f
1 1 ∂εu
Cmαf = wf2 dx [1/ deg] (26)
36.5 Sc̄ ∂α
where, 0
k2 − k 1 the correction factor for the body fineness ratio

S wing reference area
c̄ wing mean aerodynamic chord
lf length of the fuselage
wf average width of the fuselage sections
α 0w wing zero-lift angle relative to the fuselage reference line
if incidence of the fuselage camber line relative to the fuselage reference line at the
center of each fuselage increment. The incidence angle is defined as negative for
nose droop and aft upsweep
Δx length of the fuselage increments
Figure 12: Approximation to calculate the Cm0 by dividing the fuselage into segments [2]
∂εu /∂α change in local flow angle with angle of attack
24 / 56 25 / 56
Fuselage Contribution Total Pitching Moment and Neutral Point
Also, Equation 26 can be approximated by; The total pitching moment for the airplane can now be obtained by summing the wing, fuselage,
x=lf and tail contributions;
1 1 ∂εu Cmcg = Cm0 + Cmα α (29)
Cmαf = wf2 Δx [1/ deg] (28) where,
36.5 Sc̄ ∂α Cm0 = Cm0w + Cm0t + Cm0f (30)
x=0
Figure 13 is a sketch showing the application of Equation 28. Cmα = Cmαw + Cmαt + Cmαf

xcg xac dε
= C L αw − − ηVH CLαt 1 − + Cmαf (31)
c̄ c̄ dα
Notice that the expression for Cmα depends upon the center of gravity position as well as the
aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane. The center of gravity of an airplane varies during the
course of its operation (i.e., loading condition, fuel consumption). Therefore it is important to know
the range and maximum allowable amount of displacement that the center of gravity can be moved.
In other words, we would like to know at what point the static longitudinal stability condition is
violated. If we assume that the intercept value is positive, then static longitudinal stability condition
is determined by the slope of the pitching moment coefficient curve. Remember that if slope is
negative, then airplane is statically stable. If slope is positive, then airplane is statically unstable.
So, boundary of the stability can be obtained by using zero slope conditions. Setting Cmα equal to
zero and solving for the center of gravity position yields;
xN P xac C L αt dε
Cmα
f
= + ηVH 1− − (32)
c̄ c̄ C L αw dα C Lα w
Figure 13: Approximation to calculate the Cmα by dividing the fuselage into segments [2] In obtaining Equation 32, we have ignored the influence of center of gravity movement on VH .
26 / 56 27 / 56

Pitch Control
Total Pitching Moment and Neutral Point Variation In Lift Force & Resulting Moment
1. General Remarks
We call this location the stick fixed neutral point. If the airplane’s center of gravity ever reaches this Figure 15 shows the basic aerodynamic control (or lifting) surfaces;
point, the airplane will be neutrally stable. Movement of the center of gravity beyond the neutral 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control namely aileron, elevator, and rudder. Deflecting the entire control sur-
point causes the airplane to be statically unstable. The influence of center of gravity position on face or deflecting a flap incorporated in the control surface leads to
2.2. Pitch Control
static stability is shown in Figure 14. change in lift force. Because the control surfaces are located at some
xN P xac CLαt dε
Cmα
f
3. Lateral Stability & Control distance from the center of gravity, a variation in lift force generated by
= + ηVH 1− − (32) 3.1. Yaw Stability
using these control surfaces leads to a moment, or equivalently a rota-
c̄ c̄ C L αw dα C Lα w 3.2. Yaw Control
3.3. Roll Stability
tional movement, about the airplane’s center of gravity. Roll, pitch and
3.4. Roll Control yaw movement (or control) can be achieved by deflecting the ailerons,
elevators and rudder, respectively.
4. Summary
5. References
Figure 14: The influence of center of gravity position on longitudinal static stability [2]
28 / 56 29 / 56 Figure 15: Primary aerodynamic controls [2]

CHAPTER 2
Pitch Control Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pitch Control
Variation In Lift Force & Resulting Moment Elevator Effectiveness
In this section we shall be concerned with longitudinal control, in other One of the factors affecting the design of a control surface are control
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control words pitch control. The longitudinal control surface, that is elevator, 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control effectiveness. It is a measure of how effective the control deflection
provides a moment that can be used to balance or trim the airplane at 2.1. Pitch Stability is in producing the desired control moment. Control effectiveness is a
different operating angles of attack or lift coefficient. Figure 16 shows function of the size of the flap and tail volume ratio.
3. Lateral Stability & Control the influence of the elevator on the pitching moment curve. Notice that 3. Lateral Stability & Control When the elevator is deflected, it changes the lift of the airplane which
3.1. Yaw Stability
a variation in elevator angle does not change the slope of the curves 3.1. Yaw Stability can be expressed as follows;
3.3. Roll Stability
but only shifts them so that different trim angles can be achieved. 3.3. Roll Stability
CL = CLα α + ΔCL
3.4. Roll Control 3.4. Roll Control = C Lα α + C Lδ e δe (33)
where δe is elevator deflection and CLδe is elevator deflection depen-
5. References 5. References dent lift stability derivative. It can be formulated as given below;
CLδe = dCL /dδe
The derivative CLδe can be related to the aerodynamic and geometric
characteristics of the horizontal tail in the following manner;
St dCLt
CLδe = η (34)
S dδe
where, dCLt /dδe is the elevator effectiveness. It is proportional to the
size of the flap being used as an elevator and can be estimated from
the equation;
dCLt dCLt dαt
Figure 16: The influence of the elevator on the Cm versus α curve [2] = = CLαt τ (35)
dδe dαt dδe
30 / 56 31 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Pitch Control
Elevator Effectiveness Elevator Effectiveness
So substituting Equation 35 into 34 gives; Because the horizontal tail surface is located at some distance from the
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control St dCLt St 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control center of gravity, a change in lift acting on the tail causes a change in
2.1. Pitch Stability CLδe = η = η CLαt τ (36) 2.1. Pitch Stability pitching moment as written below;
2.2. Pitch Control
S dδe S 2.2. Pitch Control
The parameter τ is called flap effectiveness and can be determined Cm = Cm0 + Cmα α + ΔCm
3.1. Yaw Stability
from Figure 17. 3.1. Yaw Stability
= Cm0 + Cmα α + Cmδe δe (37)
3.2. Yaw Control 3.2. Yaw Control where Cmδe is elevator deflection dependent pitching moment stability
derivative and can be expressed as follows;
Cmδe = dCm /dδe
As can be easily understood from Equation 37, a larger Cmδe gener-
ates a higher variation in pitching moment for the same elevator deflec-
tion which means more effective pitch control. It can be related to the
aerodynamic and geometric characteristics of the horizontal tail in the
following manner;
dCLt
Cmδe = −ηVH = −ηVH CLαt τ (38)
dδe
Figure 17: Flap effectiveness parameter [2]
32 / 56 33 / 56
Lateral Stability & Control
Elevator Angle to Trim Longitudinal vs Lateral Motions: Symmetrical Flight
1. General Remarks
An airplane is said to be trimmed if the forces and moments acting on the airplane are in equilibrium. In the previous sections we discussed aerodynamic characteristics of
Setting the pitching moment equation equal to 0 (the definition of trim) we can solve for the elevator 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control symmetrical configurations flying with the velocity vector in the plane
angle required to trim the airplane; of symmetry. As a result, if velocity state and lift/thrust/drag forces are
2.2. Pitch Control
Cm0 + Cmα αtrim left aside, the only nonzero motion variables were angle-of-attack, and
Cm = 0 = Cm0 + Cmα α + Cmδe δe ⇒ δtrim = − (39) 3. Lateral Stability & Control pitch rate, the only nonzero moment was pitching moment. Because
Cmδe 3.1. Yaw Stability
the ailerons and rudder were nominally undeflected in steady flight,
To eliminate the trim angle of attack, αtrim , the lift coefficient equation at trim condition can be 3.2. Yaw Control
there was no fundamental trimming problem. Also, the gravity vector
3.3. Roll Stability
used; in normal flight lay in the plane of symmetry, the CG position was not a
CLtrim − CLδe δtrim 3.4. Roll Control
CL = CLα α + CLδe δe ⇒ αtrim = (40) dominant parameter.
4. Summary
CLα
5. References
Substituting Equation 40 into 39 gives the following equation for the elevator angle to trim;
Cm0 CLα + Cmα CLtrim
δtrim = − (41)
Cmδe CLα − Cmα CLδe
Figure 18: Symmetrical flight conditions

34 / 56 35 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Lateral Stability & Control CHAPTER 2
Yaw Stability
Longitudinal vs Lateral Motions: Asymmetrical Flight Yaw Axis Disturbance, Definition of Sideslip Angle
We now turn to the cases in which the velocity vector is not in the plane Yaw (directional, weathercock) stability is concerned with the static sta-
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control of symmetry, and in which yawing (β) and rolling (φ) displacements 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control bility of the airplane about the z-axis. Just as in the case of longitudinal
are present. The associated side force coefficient is Cy , yawing mo- static stability, it is desirable that the airplane should tend to return to
ment coefficient is Cn and rolling moment coefficient is Cl . One of an equilibrium condition when subjected to some form of yawing distur-
3. Lateral Stability & Control the simplifying aspects of the longitudinal motion is that the rotation 3. Lateral Stability & Control bance. In other words, when the airplane is at an angle of sideslip ,β,
is about one axis only (y-axis). This simplicity is lost when we go to relative to its flight path as shown in Figure 20, the generated yawing
the lateral motions, for then the rotation takes place about two axes moment should be such as to direct the nose of the airplane to its flight
3.4. Roll Control
(x-axis and z-axis). Furthermore, the roll and yaw controls are also 3.4. Roll Control path to have static directional stability.
often cross-coupled; deflection of the ailerons can produce significant
yawing moments, and deflection of the rudder can produce significant
5. References rolling moments. 5. References
Figure 19: Asymmetrical flight conditions
Figure 20: Definition and direction of sideslip angle, yawing moment [1]
36 / 56 37 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Lateral Stability & Control Lateral Stability & Control
Yaw Stability Yaw Stability
Slope Requirement Wing-Fuselage Contribution
1. General Remarks
The wing-fuselage contribution can be calculated from the following empirical expression;
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control Sf s lf
2.1. Pitch Stability Cnβ = −kn kRl (42)
wf Sw b
2.2. Pitch Control

where,
3.1. Yaw Stability kn : an empirical wing-body interference factor that is a function of the fuselage geometry
3.2. Yaw Control
kRl : an empirical correction factor that is a function of the fuselage Reynolds number
3.3. Roll Stability
3.4. Roll Control
Sf s : the projected side area of the fuselage
lf : the length of the fuselage
4. Summary
Sw : the area of the wing
5. References b : the span of the wing
Note that the contribution of the wing to directional stability usually is quite small in comparison to
Figure 21: Yawing moment curves for airplane-1 and -2. Vertical and horizontal the fuselage. On the other hand, the fuselage and engine nacelles, in general, create a destabilizing
axes denote yawing moment coefficient (Cn ) and angle of sideslip (β) [2] contribution to directional stability.
Figure 21 shows the yawing moment coefficient (Cn ) versus sideslip
angle (β) for two airplane configurations. Assume that both airplanes
are disturbed from their equilibrium condition, so that the airplanes are
flying with a positive sideslip angle. Airplane-1 will develop a restoring
moment that will tend to rotate the airplane back to its equilibrium con-
dition; that is, a zero sideslip angle. However, airplane-2 will develop
a yawing moment that will tend to increase the sideslip angle. So by
examining these curves, we see that to have static directional stability
38 / 56 the slope of the yawing moment curve must be positive (Cnβ ). 39 / 56

Yaw Stability Yaw Stability
Vertical Tail Contribution Vertical Tail Contribution
The contribution of the vertical tail to directional stability can be obtained as follows;

dσ
Cnβυ = ηυ Vυ CLαυ 1 + (43)
dβ
where, ηυ is the ratio of the dynamic pressure at the vertical tail to the dynamic pressure at the
wing, Vυ is vertical tail volume ratio, and CLαυ is vertical tail lift curve slope.
Qυ Sυ lυ
ηυ = Vυ =
Qw Sb
A simple algebraic equation for estimating the combined sidewash and tail efficiency factor is pre-
sented as follows;

dσ Sυ /S z
ηυ 1 + = 0.724 + 3.060 + 0.400 w + 0.009ARw (44)
dβ 1 + cos Λc/4w d
where,
S : the wing area
Sυ : the vertical tail area, including the submerged area to the fuselage centerline
Figure 22: Vertical tail contribution to directional stability [2]
zw : the distance from wing root quarter chord point to fuselage centerline
d : the maximum fuselage depth
When the airplane is flying at a nonzero sideslip angle as shown in Figure 22, the vertical tail
ARw : the aspect ratio of the wing
produces a side force (lift force in the xy-plane) which generates a yaw moment that tends to rotate
Λc/4w : sweep of wing quarter chord
the airplane about its center of gravity. Here σ is called sidewash angle which is analogous to the
downwash angle ε for the horizontal tail plane. The sidewash is caused by the flow field distortion Since the wing-fuselage contribution to directional stability is destabilizing, the vertical tail must be
due to the wings and fuselage. properly sized to ensure that the airplane has directional stability.
40 / 56 41 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Yaw Control Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Yaw Control
Variation In Lift Force & Resulting Moment Factors Affecting Rudder Sizing
Directional control is achieved by a control surface, called a rudder, The size of the rudder is determined by the directional control require-
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control located on the vertical tail, as shown in Figure 23. The rudder is a 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control ments which can be listed as follows;
hinged flap that forms the aft portion of the vertical tail. By rotating the Adverse Yaw
flap, the side force can be varied to create a yawing moment about the When an airplane is banked to execute a turning maneuver the ailerons
3. Lateral Stability & Control center of gravity. 3. Lateral Stability & Control
may create a yawing moment that opposes the turn (i.e., adverse yaw),
3.2. Yaw Control 3.2. Yaw Control The rudder must be able to overcome the adverse yaw so that a coor-
3.3. Roll Stability 3.3. Roll Stability dinated turn can be achieved.
Figure 23: Directional control by means of the rudder [2]
Figure 24: Adverse yaw is the natural and undesirable tendency for an aircraft to
yaw in the opposite direction of a roll
42 / 56 43 / 56
CHAPTER 2
Yaw Control
Factors Affecting Rudder Sizing Factors Affecting Rudder Sizing
The size of the rudder is determined by the directional control require- The size of the rudder is determined by the directional control require-
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control ments which can be listed as follows; 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control ments which can be listed as follows;
2.2. Pitch Control Crosswind Landings 2.2. Pitch Control Asymmetric Power Condition
3. Lateral Stability & Control To maintain alignment with the runway during a crosswind landing re- 3. Lateral Stability & Control The critical asymmetric power condition occurs for a multi-engine air-
3.1. Yaw Stability quires the pilot to fly the airplane at a sideslip angle. The rudder must 3.1. Yaw Stability plane when one engine fails at low flight speeds. The rudder must
3.2. Yaw Control be powerful enough to permit the pilot to trim the airplane for the spec- 3.2. Yaw Control be able to overcome the yawing moment produced by the asymmetric
3.3. Roll Stability ified crosswinds. 3.3. Roll Stability thrust arrangement.
Figure 26: Asymmetry of the thrust line leads to yawing effect which depends
Figure 25: Crosswind landing is a landing maneuver in which a significant upon the engine thrust, the distance between the thrust line and the airplane’s
component of the prevailing wind is perpendicular to the runway center line center of gravity (CG)
44 / 56 45 / 56
Roll Stability
Rudder Effectiveness Steady Flight Condition, Roll Axis Disturbance, Sideslip
1. General Remarks
For a positive rudder deflection, a positive side force is created on the vertical tail that leads to a An airplane possesses static roll stability if a restoring moment is de-
negative yawing moment about center of gravity as given below in terms of yaw moment coefficients; 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control veloped when it is disturbed from a wings-level attitude. To examine
Cn = Cnδr δr (45) the roll stability, consider an airplane in a steady level flight, i.e., flight
2.2. Pitch Control
where, δr is rudder deflection and Cnδr is rudder deflection dependent yaw moment stability deriva- path coincides with the x-axis and bank angle φ is zero. Let generate
3. Lateral Stability & Control a roll axis perturbation and disturb the aircraft from wing-level attitude.
tive. It can be expressed as; 3.1. Yaw Stability
Cnδr = dCn /dδr When an aircraft acquires a bank angle, weight component W sin (φ)
3.2. Yaw Control
acts in the y-direction which leads to sideslip. Assume that roll distur-
The derivative Cnδr can be related to the aerodynamic and geometric characteristics of the vertical 3.3. Roll Stability
bance causes roll to right, i.e., right wing down, left wing up, sideslip
tail in the following manner; dCLυ 3.4. Roll Control
Cnδr = −ηυ Vυ (46) to right as shown in Figure 28. So aircraft experiences a relative wind
4. Summary
dδr from right to left which indicates positive sideslip angle, i.e., β > 0.
5. References
where, ηυ is the ratio of the dynamic pressure at the vertical tail to the dynamic pressure at the
wing, Vυ is vertical tail volume ratio, and dCLυ /dδr is vertical tail lift curve slope.
Qυ Sυ l υ dCLυ dCLυ dαυ
ηυ = Vυ = = = CL α υ τ
Qw Sb dδr dαυ dδr
The factor τ can be estimated from Figure 27.
Figure 28: Roll disturbance causes roll to right, i.e., right wing down, left wing up,
46 / 56 Figure 27: Flap effectiveness parameter [2] 47 / 56 sideslip to right
CHAPTER 2
Roll Stability Roll Stability
Slope Requirement Wing Contribution: Dihedral Effect Due to the Dihedral Angle
1. General Remarks
When an airplane has a sideslip it produces both rolling and yawing The major contributor to Clβ , is the wing dihedral angle Γ. As stated above, once the airplane starts
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control moments. The restoring rolling moment can be shown to be a function to sideslip a component of the relative wind is directed toward the side of the airplane. The leading
of the sideslip angle β as illustrated in Figure 29. The requirement for wing experiences an increased angle of attack and consequently an increase in lift. The trailing
2.2. Pitch Control
stability is that Clβ < 0. wing experiences the opposite effect. By assuming that Γ is small, it can be shown that increment
3. Lateral Stability & Control in the angle-of-attack for the leading wing is Δα = +βΓ, and decrement in the angle-of-attack for
3.1. Yaw Stability
3.2. Yaw Control
the trailing wing is Δα = −βΓ. The net result is a rolling moment that tries to bring the wing back
3.3. Roll Stability
to a wings-level attitude as shown in Figure 30. This restoring moment is often referred to as the
3.4. Roll Control dihedral effect.
4. Summary
5. References
Figure 30: Wing contribution to the rolling moment due to the dihedral angle
The contribution of the wing to roll stability due to the dihedral effect can be obtained as follow;
dCL c̄
Figure 29: Rolling moment curves for airplane-1 and -2. Vertical and horizontal Clβ = −Γ (47)
axes denote rolling moment coefficient (Cl ) and angle of sideslip (β) [2] w(Γ) dα b
where, Γ is dihedral angle, c̄ is mean aerodynamic chord of the wing, and b is wing span. Since,
The roll moment created on an airplane when it starts to sideslip de-
Clβ < 0 should be negative for static roll stability, the contribution of dihedral angle to rolling
pends on the wing dihedral, wing sweep, position of the wing on the
moment is a stabilizing contribution.
fuselage, and the vertical tail.
48 / 56 49 / 56
Roll Stability Roll Stability
Wing Contribution: Dihedral Effect Due to the Wing Sweep Fuselage Contribution: Interference Effect & Keel Effect
Wing sweep also contributes to the dihedral effect. In a sweptback wing, the windward wing has The contribution of fuselage to Clβ arises due to the interference effect. Consider an airplane
an effective decrease in sweep angle and the trailing wing experiences an effective increase in having positive β or the sideward velocity component from right to left. Figure 32 shows the dis-
sweep angle. For a given angle of attack, a decrease in sweepback angle will result in a higher lift placement of streamlines for high wing and low wing configurations. For the high wing layout, the
coefficient as shown in Figure 31. Therefore, the windward wing (with a less effective sweep) will change in angle of attack (Δα) is positive on the right wing and negative on the left wing. This would
experience more lift than the trailing wing. It can be concluded that sweepback adds to the dihedral result in a negative rolling moment which is a stabilizing contribution. For a low wing configuration
effect. the effect would be opposite.
Figure 31: Wing contribution to the rolling moment due to the sweep angle
The contribution of the wing to roll stability due to the sweep angle can be obtained as follow; Figure 32: Fuselage wing layout contribution to the rolling moment [2]
c̄ Also note that if the center of gravity is below the wing, the weight tends to restore the upright
Clβ = −CL sin (2Λ) (48)
w(Λ) b position. This is known as pendulum stability or the keel effect. If it is above the wing, the weight is
where, c̄ is mean aerodynamic chord, b span, and Λ is sweep angle of the wing. destabilizing.
50 / 56 51 / 56

Roll Stability Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Roll Control
Vertical Tail Contribution Variation In Lift Force & Resulting Moment
1. General Remarks
The contribution of vertical tail is produced by the side force due to sideslip. The side force on Roll control is achieved by the differential deflection of small flaps called
the vertical tail produces both a yawing moment and a rolling moment. The rolling moment occurs 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control ailerons which are located outboard on the wings, or by the use of spoil-
because the center of pressure for the vertical tail is located above the aircraft’s center of gravity. 2.1. Pitch Stability
ers. Figure 33 is a sketch showing both types of roll control devices.
2.2. Pitch Control
So, the rolling moment produced by the vertical tail tends to bring the aircraft back to a wings-level
attitude. The contribution of the vertical tail to roll stability can be obtained as follow; 3. Lateral Stability & Control
Clβυ = −ηυ Vυ CLαυ (49) 3.1. Yaw Stability
3.2. Yaw Control
where, ηυ is the ratio of the dynamic pressure at the vertical tail to the dynamic pressure at the 3.3. Roll Stability
wing, Vυ is vertical tail volume ratio, and CLαυ is vertical tail lift curve slope. 3.4. Roll Control
Qυ Sυ l υ 4. Summary
ηυ = Vυ =
Qw Sb 5. References
Figure 33: Aileron and spoilers for roll control [2]
52 / 56 53 / 56
Summary
Roll Control Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Aileron Effectiveness Inherent Aerodynamic Characteristics
1. General Remarks
For a negative right aileron and positive left aileron deflections, a positive roll moment about center The requirements for static stability were developed for longitudinal,
of gravity arises; 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control lateral directional, and lateral rolling motions. It is seen that without
Cl = Clδa δa (50) 2.1. Pitch Stability
static stability the pilot would have to continuously control the airplane
2.2. Pitch Control
where, δa is aileron deflection and Clδa is aileron deflection dependent roll moment stability deriva- to maintain a desired flight path, which would be quite fatiguing. The im-
tive. It can be expressed as; 3. Lateral Stability & Control portant point at this time is to recognize that the airplane must be made
Clδa = dCl /dδa 3.1. Yaw Stability
statically stable, either through inherent aerodynamic characteristics or
3.2. Yaw Control
The control power Clδa can be obtained as; by artificial means through the use of an automatic control system.
y2
3.3. Roll Stability
2CLαw τ 3.4. Roll Control Horizontal Tail, Vertical Tail Surface Sizing, Dihedral Angle, Sweep
Clδa = cydy (51) 4. Summary Angle, Fuselage-Wing Layout
Sb
y1 5. References The inherent static stability is a function of its geometric and aerody-
where, S is wing area, b is wing span, y1 and y2 is the y-axis coordinate of the aileron on lateral namic properties. The designer can control the degree of longitudinal
axis, c (y) is chord value dependent to the y-axis coordinate. The factor τ can be estimated from and lateral directional stability by proper sizing of the horizontal and
Figure 34.a. The lower and upper bound of the integrand is determined from Figure 34.b. vertical tail surfaces, whereas roll stability is a consequence of dihe-
dral effect, which is controlled by dihedral angle, sweep angle and/or
fuselage-wing layout (low-wing, high-wing).
Stability vs. Maneuverability
The relationship between static stability and control is examined. An
airplane that is very statically stable will not be very maneuverable; if
the airplane has very little static stability, it will be very maneuverable.
The degree of maneuverability or static stability is determined by the
Figure 34: a) Flap effectiveness parameter b) Integral limits to calculate rolling moment coefficient and aileron designer on the basis of the airplane’s mission requirements.
control power [2]
54 / 56 55 / 56
CHAPTER 2
References
[1] B. Etkin and L. Reid, Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control, 3rd ed. Wiley, 1995.
1. General Remarks
[2] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.
2. Longitudinal Stability & Control
2.2. Pitch Control

3.1. Yaw Stability
3.2. Yaw Control
3.3. Roll Stability
3.4. Roll Control
4. Summary
5. References
56 / 56
CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
General Remarks
MOTION
Non-Oscillatory & Oscillatory Motions
1. General Remarks While the subject of static stability, which was discussed in Chapter 2, is
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 2. Kinematic Analysis
concerned with the initial tendency of a disturbed aircraft, the dynamic
stability is dealt with the resulting motion over a span of time. The
Chapter 3: Aircraft Equations of Motion 3. Dynamic Analysis various conditions of possible dynamic behavior are illustrated by the
3.1. Force Equations
time history diagrams of Fig. 1.
3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution
4. Equations of Motion
5. Linearized Equations
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM
6. References

+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
oogucu@gantep.edu.tr Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics Figure 1: Stable/unstable non-oscillatory/oscillatory motion modes after
http://www1.gantep.edu.tr/~oogucu/ Department of Aircraft and Aerospace Engineering perturbed by a disturbance [1]
The airplane can be considered to be dynamically stable if after be-
ing perturbed from its equilibrium flight condition the ensuing motion
October 21, 2019 diminishes with time as shown in Fig. 1.a and Fig. 1.d. Note that, static
1 / 33 stability is necessary but not sufficient condition for dynamic stability.
CHAPTER 3
General Remarks
MOTION MOTION
Descriptive Parameters of Oscillatory Motions Body and Inertial Axis Systems
1. General Remarks The damped oscillatory motions can be described by two parameters; 1. General Remarks
2. Kinematic Analysis 1. Period: The time required to complete one full cycle, or one 2. Kinematic Analysis
3. Dynamic Analysis oscillation 3. Dynamic Analysis

3.1. Force Equations 2. Time to Halve: The time required to decrease to half of its initial 3.1. Force Equations
3.2. Moment Equations amplitude 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution as shown in Fig. 2.a. Note that the required degree of dynamic stability 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution
4. Equations of Motion is usually specified by using these two parameters. 4. Equations of Motion
5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations

5.1. Small Disturbance Theory 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation 5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM 5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM
Figure 2: Descriptive parameters of oscillatory motions a) period and half-time Figure 3: Body and inertial axis systems [2]
for damped oscillation b) period and double-time for diverged oscillation [1] For many problems in the airplane dynamics, an axis system fixed to
the Earth can be used as an inertial reference frame. Figure 3 shows
In the case of an unstable motion as represented in Fig. 2.b, the time re- the body axis system fixed to the center of mass of the aircraft and the
quired to increase to double of its initial amplitude can be used instead inertial axis system that is fixed to the Earth.
2 / 33 of half-time for describing the degree of unstability. 3 / 33
CHAPTER 3
Kinematic Analysis
MOTION MOTION
Forces/Moments, Linear/Angular Velocities and Respective Axes Euler Angles
1. General Remarks 1. General Remarks The Euler angles are three angles to describe the orientation of a rigid
body with respect to a fixed coordinate system. It can be shown any
2. Kinematic Analysis 2. Kinematic Analysis
orientation can be achieved by composing three elemental rotations.
3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis They are typically denoted as (α, β, γ), or (Φ, θ, ψ).
3.1. Force Equations 3.1. Force Equations
Definition of Rotation Axes (Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic)
3.2. Moment Equations 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution The three elemental rotations may be extrinsic (rotations about the axes
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution xyz of the original coordinate system, which is assumed to remain mo-
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion tionless), or intrinsic (rotations about the axes of the rotating coordinate
system XY Z, solidary with the moving body, which changes its orien-
tation after each elemental rotation).
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
Sequences of Rotation Axes & Conventions
5.3. Longitudinal EoM 5.3. Longitudinal EoM There exist 24 possible sequences of rotation axes, divided in two groups
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM as shown below;
Figure 4: Forces, moments, linear/angular velocities and respective axes [3] Formalism Type Intrinsic Rotations Extrinsic Rotations
Proper Euler Angles z − x − z z−x−z
Figure 4 illustrates forces (X, Y, Z) and linear velocities (u, v, w) along x − y − x x−y−x
the [xb , yb , zb ] axes, respectively. These forces act at the origin (c.g) y − z − y y−z−y
of the body-fixed frame. Also in this figure, roll-pitch-yaw moments z − y − z z−y−z
(L, M, N ) and angular velocities (p, q, r) about [xb , yb , zb ] are shown x − z − x x−z−x
y − x − y y−x−y
as well. Note that, these moments are taken with respect to (wrt) to Tait–Bryan Angles x − y − z x−y−z
origin of the body-fixed frame. y − z − x y−z−x
z − x − y z−x−y
Our Goal x − z − y x−z−y
We want to relate the forces/moments to linear/angular velocities. z − y − x z−y−x
4 / 33 5 / 33 y − x − z y−x−z
CHAPTER 3
Kinematic Analysis Kinematic Analysis
MOTION
z-y'-x'' (Yaw-Pitch-Roll) Intrinsic Rotation Three Consecutive Rotations
1. General Remarks Tait–Bryan z-y'-x'' is the convention normally used for aerospace appli-
cations, so that zero degrees elevation represents the horizontal atti-
2. Kinematic Analysis
tude. Note that Tait–Bryan angles represent rotations about three dis-
3. Dynamic Analysis tinct axes (e.g. z-y'-x'' or z-y-x), while proper Euler angles use the same
axis for both the first and third elemental rotations (e.g., z-y'-z'' or z-y-z).
5.4. Lateral EoM Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2]
6. References As shown in Figure 6, the orientation of the airplane can be described in terms of a fixed frame of
reference by three consecutive rotations, whose order is extremely important. The amount of these
rotations are called Euler angles.
The orientation of the body frame wrt the fixed frame can be determined in the following manner;
0. Coincide the origin of fixed frame xf , yf , zf to body frame xb , yb , zb .
1. Rotate the xf , yf , zf frame about O − zf through the yaw angle ψ bringing the frame to x1 , y1 , z1 .
2. Rotate the x1 , y1 , z1 frame about O − y1 through the pitch angle θ bringing the frame to x2 , y2 , z2 .
Figure 5: Tait–Bryan angles notation; z-y'-x'' or yaw-pitch-roll intrinsic rotations
(youtube link here) 3. Rotate the x2 , y2 , z2 frame about O − x2 through the roll angle Φ bringing the frame to xb , yb , zb .
6 / 33 7 / 33
Rotation Matrix About z-Axis Rotation Matrix About y-Axis
Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2] Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2]
xf = x1 cos (ψ) − y1 sin (ψ) yf = x1 sin (ψ) + y1 cos (ψ) zf = z1 x1 = x2 cos (θ) + z2 sin (θ) y1 = y 2 z1 = −x2 sin (θ) + z2 cos (θ)

xf x1 cos (ψ) − sin (ψ) 0 x1 x1 x2 cos (θ) 0 sin (θ) x2
yf = Rz (ψ) · y1 = sin (ψ) cos (ψ) 0 · y1 (1) y1 = Ry (θ) · y2 = 0 1 0 · y2 (2)
zf z1 0 0 1 z1 z1 z2 − sin (θ) 0 cos (θ) z2
7 / 33 7 / 33
Rotation Matrix About x-Axis Rotation Matrix
Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2] Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2]
For simplicity, let use the shorthand notation Cψ cos (ψ), Sψ sin (ψ), Cθ cos (θ), Sθ
x2 = x b y2 = yb cos (Φ) − zb sin (Φ) z2 = yb sin (Φ) + zb cos (Φ) sin (θ), CΦ cos (Φ), SΦ sin (Φ). Result of consecutive rotations can be calculated by using
multiplication of all rotation matrices R (Φ, θ, ψ) = Rz (ψ) Ry (θ) Rx (Φ) as follows;

x2 xb 1 0 0 xb xf Cψ −Sψ 0 Cθ 0 Sθ 1 0 0 xb
y2 = Rx (Φ) · yb = 0 cos (Φ) − sin (Φ) · yb (3) yf = Sψ Cψ 0 · 0 1 0 · 0 CΦ −SΦ · yb
z2 zb 0 sin (Φ) cos (Φ) zb zf 0 0 1 −Sθ 0 Cθ 0 SΦ CΦ zb

Cψ C θ C ψ S θ S Φ − Sψ C Φ C ψ Sθ C Φ + S ψ S Φ u
= Sψ Cθ Sψ Sθ SΦ + C ψ C Φ S ψ S θ CΦ − C ψ SΦ · v (4)
−Sθ Cθ SΦ Cθ CΦ w
7 / 33 7 / 33
Kinematic Analysis CHAPTER 3
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Force Equations
Relationship Between Linear Velocities in the Inertial Frame & Body Frame Force Equation in the Body Frame
We can calculate the linear velocity components in the inertial frame (ẋ,ẏ,ż) by using rotation matrix 1. General Remarks The rigid body equations of motion are obtained from Newton’s second
(R = Rz (ψ) Ry (θ) Rx (Φ)) and linear velocity components in the body frame (u,v,w) as follows; law, which states that the summation of all external forces acting on
a body is equal to the time rate of change of the linear momentum.
ẋ Cψ C θ Cψ Sθ S Φ − Sψ CΦ C ψ Sθ C Φ + S ψ S Φ u
3. Dynamic Analysis Consider the airplane shown in Figure 7.
ẏ = Sψ C θ Sψ Sθ SΦ + C ψ C Φ S ψ S θ CΦ − C ψ SΦ · v (5) 3.1. Force Equations
ż −Sθ Cθ SΦ Cθ CΦ w 3.2. Moment Equations
Relationship Between Angular Velocities in the Body Frame & Euler Rates 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution
The relationship between the angular velocities in the body frame (p, q, r) and the Euler rates 4. Equations of Motion
(Φ̇,θ̇,ψ̇) can be determined as follows;
p 1 0 −Sθ Φ̇ 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
Figure 7: An element of mass on an airplane [2]
q = 0 CΦ Cθ SΦ θ̇ (6) 5.2. X-Force Equation
r 0 −SΦ Cθ CΦ ψ̇ 5.3. Longitudinal EoM If we let δm be an element of mass of the airplane, ν be the velocity
5.4. Lateral EoM of the elemental mass, and δF be the resulting force acting on the
Relationship Between Euler Rates & Angular Velocities in the Body Frame 6. References elemental mass, then Newton’s second law yields;
We can calculate the Euler rates in terms of angular velocities in the body frame (p, q, r) as follows;
d
F = δF = δm
ν (8)
Φ̇ 1 SΦ tan (θ) CΦ tan (θ) p dt
θ̇ = 0 CΦ −SΦ q (7) The velocity of the differential mass δm is;
ψ̇ 0 SΦ sec (θ) CΦ sec (θ) r ν = vc + d
r/dt (9)
By integrating these equations, one can determine the Euler angles Φ, θ, and ψ. where vc is the velocity of the center of mass of the airplane, and d
r/dt
is the velocity of the element relative to the center of mass.
8 / 33 9 / 33
CHAPTER 3
Dynamic Analysis CHAPTER 3
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Force Equations MOTION Force Equations
Force Equation in the Body Frame Coriolis Equation (Transport Theorem)
Substituting Equation 9 into Equation 8 gives; referred to a rotating body frame
Derivative of an arbitrary vector A
1. General Remarks
1. General Remarks
= d d
r having an angular velocity ω
can be represented by the following vector
2. Kinematic Analysis F δF = δm vc + (10) 2. Kinematic Analysis
dt dt identity;
3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis

3.1. Force Equations If we use constant mass assumption, Equation 10 can be rewritten; 3.1. Force Equations
dA = dA + ω ×A
2
(14)
dt dt
= m d vc + d
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution F δm r (11) 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
I B
dt dt2
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution where the subscripts I and B refer to the inertial and body fixed frames
Note that r is measured from the center of mass, and it does not of reference.
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion
over time due to the rigid body assumption, so the summa-
change
Cross Product
5. Linearized Equations tion rδm is equal to zero. Then force equation becomes;
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory If two vectors are defined as
5.2. X-Force Equation = m d vc
F (12) 5.2. X-Force Equation
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k (15)
5.3. Longitudinal EoM dt 5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM which relates the external force on the airplane to the motion of the 5.4. Lateral EoM then cross product generates an orthogonal vector which can be calcu-
lated by the formula;
6. References vehicle’s center of mass in the body-fixed frame. The vector equation 6. References
can be rewritten in scalar form as follows; a × b = a2 b3 − a3 b2 a3 b1 − a1 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1 (16)

X = mu̇ Y = mv̇ Z = mẇ (13)
Force equation
in the body-fixed
frame does not
depend on ori-
entation, but ...?
Figure 8: Cross product of two arbitrary vector generates a new orthogonal
10 / 33 11 / 33 vector
CHAPTER 3
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Force Equations MOTION Moment Equations
Force Equation in the Inertial Frame Moment Equation in the Body Frame
1. General Remarks Applying Transport Theorem to the force equation derived in Equa- 1. General Remarks The rigid body equations of motion are obtained from Newton’s second
tion 12 yields law, which states that the summation of the external moments acting on
= m d vc = m d vc + m (
the body is equal to the time rate of change of the angular momentum.
3. Dynamic Analysis F ω × vc ) (17) 3. Dynamic Analysis If similar steps are taken to the previous section, it can be shown that
dt I dt B 3.1. Force Equations
moment equation in the vector form is;
3.2. Moment Equations , and linear velocity vc vectors are defined as;
where, angular velocity ω 3.2. Moment Equations

= pi + qj + rk
ω vc = ui + vj + wk (18) 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
M = dH = Icg d ω
(20)
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution
dt dt
So the scalar equations in the inertial frame are;
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion where, moment of inertia matrix Icg is;
X = m (u̇ + qw − rv)
5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations Ix −Ixy −Ixz
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory Y = m (v̇ + ru − pw) (19) 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory Icg = −Ixy Iy −Iyz
Z = m (ẇ + pv − qu) 5.2. X-Force Equation −Ixz −Iyz Iz
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM So, the scalar equations for the moment are;
6. References 6. References L = Ḣx = Ix ṗ − Ixy q̇ − Ixz ṙ
M = Ḣy = −Ixy ṗ + Iy q̇ − Iyz ṙ (21)
N = Ḣz = −Ixz ṗ − Iyz q̇ + Iz ṙ
Here, the mass moments of inertia can be calculated by;
2 2 2 2 2 2
Ix = (y +z )δm Iy = (x +z )δm Iz = (x +y )δm
and the products of inertia can be determined as;

Ixy = xyδm Ixz = xzδm Iyz = yzδm
12 / 33 13 / 33
CHAPTER 3
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Moment Equations MOTION Moment Equations
Moment Equation in the Inertial Frame Matter of Symmetry Plane
1. General Remarks Applying Transport Theorem to the moment equation derived in Equa- 1. General Remarks
tion 20 yields;

M = dH = dH + ω ×H (22)
dt dt
3.1. Force Equations I B 3.1. Force Equations
where, angular velocity w, and angular momentum H vectors are de- 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution fined as; 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution
= pi + qj + rk
ω = Hx i + Hy j + Hz k
H (23)
5. Linearized Equations So the scalar equations for the moment in the inertial frame are; 5. Linearized Equations
For each section along the X axis, the contribution from the left side
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory L = Ḣx + qHz − rHy 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
cancels the contribution from the right.
5.3. Longitudinal EoM M = Ḣy + rHx − pHz (24) 5.3. Longitudinal EoM Ixy = xyδm=0
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM
N = Ḣz + pHy − qHx For each section along the Z axis, the contribution from the left side
6. References 6. References cancels the contribution from the right.
Due to the symmetry plane of the aircraft (xz-plane), products of iner-
tia Ixy and Iyz are zero. With this simplification, Equation 24 can be Iyz = yzδm=0
rewritten as; Hence the moment of inertia matrix simplifies to;
L = Ix ṗ − Ixz ṙ − Ixz pq + (Iz − Iy ) qr
Ix 0 −Ixz
2 2 Icg = 0 0
M = Iy q̇ + (Ix − Iz ) pr + Ixz p − r (25) Iy
−Ixz 0 Iz
N = −Ixz ṗ + Iz ṙ + (Iy − Ix ) pq + Ixz qr
14 / 33 15 / 33
CHAPTER 3
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Gravitational Force Contribution MOTION Thrust Force Contribution
Direct Force Direct Force
1. General Remarks
The gravitational force components acting along the body axis are a 1. General Remarks
The thrust force due to the propulsion system can have components
function of the airplane’s orientation in space as shown in Figure 9. that act along each of the body axis directions.

3.1. Force Equations 3.1. Force Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

Induced Moment
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory Figure 9: Components of gravitational force acting along the body axis [2] 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
The propulsive forces can create moments if the thrust does not act
5.2. X-Force Equation 5.2. X-Force Equation through the center of gravity as shown in Figure 10.
The components along the x, y, and z axes can be easily shown to be
5.4. Lateral EoM (Fx )gravity = −mg sin (θ) 5.4. Lateral EoM
6. References (Fy )gravity = mg cos (θ) sin (Φ) (26) 6. References
(Fz )gravity = mg cos (θ) cos (Φ)
Induced Moment
The gravitational force acting on the airplane acts through the center
of gravity of the airplane. Because the body axis system is fixed to the
center of gravity, the gravitational force will not produce any moments.
Figure 10: Force and moments due to propulsion system [2]

16 / 33 17 / 33
Equations of Motion CHAPTER 3

Linearized Equations
MOTION Small Disturbance Theory
Kinematic + Dynamic Equations Nonlinear-Coupled vs. Linear-Decoupled Equations
1. General Remarks The equations developed in the preceding section completely describe
the motion of a flight vehicle. However, these equations are nonlin-
ear and coupled. In general they can be solved by using numerical
3. Dynamic Analysis methods. Despite being difficult to figure out, still, the solutions of the
nonlinear-coupled equation system give relatively little insight into the
dependence of the stability and controllability of the vehicle on basic
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution aerodynamic parameters of the vehicle. More information can be ob-
tained by examining linear approximations.
Nominal Value (Equilibrium/Trim State) + Small Perturbation
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory The equations developed in the previous section can be linearized by
5.2. X-Force Equation using the small disturbance theory. For this purpose, it is assumed that
5.3. Longitudinal EoM the motion of the airplane consists of small deviations about a steady
5.4. Lateral EoM
(equilibrium) flight condition. So, all the variables in the equations of
6. References motion are replaced by a reference value plus a perturbation or distur-
bance;
X = X0 + ΔX Y = Y0 + ΔY Z = Z0 + ΔZ
M = M0 + ΔM N = N0 + ΔN L = L0 + ΔL
u = u0 + Δu v = v0 + Δv w = w0 + Δw
p = p0 + Δp q = q0 + Δq r = r0 + Δr
Φ = Φ0 + ΔΦ θ = θ0 + Δθ ψ = ψ0 + Δψ
δa = δa0 + Δδa δe = δe0 + Δδe δr = δr0 + Δδr
18 / 33 19 / 33 δT = δT0 + ΔδT
Linearized Equations Linearized Equations
X-Force Equation X-Force Equation
Nonlinear X-Force Equation Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions
By introducing the small-disturbance notation into the nonlinear equations of motion, they can be Note that only the forward velocity u0 and pitch angle θ0 have non-zero equilibrium values. So we
linearized and simplified. Consider the x-component of the force equation; can describe the state variables as;
X − mg sin (θ) = m (u̇ + qw − rv) (27) X = X0 + ΔX Y =0 Z=0
Substituting the small-disturbance variables into this equation yields; M =0 N =0 L=0
X0 + ΔX − mg sin (θ0 + Δθ) u = u0 + Δu v = Δv w = Δw
p = Δp q = Δq r = Δr
d
=m (u0 + Δu) + (q0 + Δq) (w0 + Δw) − (r0 + Δr) (v0 + Δv) Φ=0 θ = θ0 + Δθ ψ=0
dt
δa = 0 δe = Δδe δr = 0
= m [u̇0 + Δu̇ + q0 w0 + q0 Δw + Δqw0 + ΔqΔw − r0 v0 − r0 Δv − Δrv0 − ΔrΔv]
δT = δT0 + ΔδT
Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions
The greatest simplification of the equations arises when the equilibrium condition is chosen to The equations for the unperturbed initial equilibrium state then reduce to
correspond to a longitudinal equilibrium, in which the velocity and gravity vectors lie in the plane X0 − mg sin (θ0 ) = 0
of symmetry of the vehicle; the most common choice corresponds to unaccelerated flight (i.e., to
level, unaccelerated flight, or to steady climbing/descending flight). For convenience, the reference Assumption: Small Angle
flight condition is assumed to be symmetric, so we will consider perturbations from a longitudinal Since we assume that all perturbation quantities are small, we can approximate
trim condition. Also the propulsive forces are assumed to remain constant. Because the initial trim sin (θ0 + Δθ) = sin (θ0 ) cos (Δθ) + cos (θ0 ) sin (Δθ) ≈ sin (θ0 ) + Δθ cos (θ0 )
condition corresponds to longitudinal equilibrium, the trim values of all lateral/directional variables
are zero; v0 = p0 = r0 = Φ0 = ψ0 = 0 Assumption: Quadratic Perturbations
Aligning the x-axis so that it is along the direction of the airplane’s velocity vector (using stability We can also neglect terms that are quadratic in the small perturbations;
axis system) gives; w0 = 0 ΔqΔw ≈ 0 ΔrΔv ≈ 0
Restricting the equilibrium state to have no normal acceleration yields;
20 / 33 q0 = 0 21 / 33

Linearized Small-Disturbance X-Force Equation Linearized Small-Disturbance X-Force Equation with Aerodynamic Forces
Thus, after making these approximations, the x-component of the force equation given in Equa- Substituting the Equation 29 for ΔX into the Equation 28 force equation yields;
tion 27 can be rewritten as; ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
ΔX − mgΔθ cos (θ0 ) = mΔu̇ (28) Δu + Δw + Δδe + ΔδT − mgΔθ cos (θ0 ) = mΔu̇ (30)
∂u ∂w ∂δe ∂δT
Aerodynamic Forces & Moments
Rearranging gives;
As indicated before, the perturbation variables are the instantaneous changes from the reference
d ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
conditions of the translational velocities, angular velocities, control deflection, and their derivatives. m − Δu − Δw + mgΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Δδe + ΔδT (31)
dt ∂u ∂w ∂δe ∂δT
The aerodynamic forces and moments can be expressed as a function of the instantaneous values
of the perturbation variables Δu, Δu̇, Δw, Δẇ, and so forth. The perturbations in aerodynamic The equation can be rewritten in a more convenient form by dividing through by the mass m;

forces and moments are functions of both, the perturbations in state variables and control inputs. d
− Xu Δu − Xw Δw + gΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (32)
With this assumption, we can express the aerodynamic forces and moments by means of a Tay- dt
lor series expansion of the perturbation variables about the reference equilibrium condition. For where, aerodynamic derivatives divided by the airplane’s mass as follows;
example, the change in the x-component of the force can be expressed as follows; 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X
∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X Xu Xw Xδe XδT
ΔX u, u̇, ..., δe , δ̇e = Δu + Δu̇ + Δδe + Δδ̇e + H.O.T. m ∂u m ∂w m ∂δe m ∂δT
∂u ∂ u̇ ∂δe ∂ δ̇e
For example, the contribution of the change in the velocity u to the change ΔX in the X force is
just [∂X/∂u] Δu. Here the term ∂X/∂u called stability derivative.
The aerodynamic forces and moments can be expressed as a function of all the motion variables.
However, it is not necessary to take into consideration all of the perturbation variables, for simplicity
usually significant terms are retained and some of them can be omitted. For example, change
in the x-component of the force equation can be expressed by using most important perturbation
variables as follows; ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
ΔX = Δu + Δw + Δδe + ΔδT (29)
22 / 33 ∂u ∂w ∂δ e ∂δ T 23 / 33
Stability Derivative (∂X/∂u) & Stability Coefficient (CXu ) Stability Derivative (∂X/∂w) & Stability Coefficient (CXα )
In order to solve the equations describing x-component of the force, we need to be able to evaluate We can estimate the stability derivative of X with respect to the directional velocity w as;
all the coefficients appearing in Equation 32. This means we need to be able to provide estimate for ∂X ρS
the derivatives of X with respect to the relevant independent variables u and w. The aerodynamic =− CX α (35)
∂w u0
and propulsive forces acting on the airplane along the X body axes are the drag force and the
where,
thrust. The drag varies with changes in the airplane’s forward speed. In addition the thrust of the 2CL0 CLα
airplane is also a function of the forward speed. So, we can express the stability derivative as; CX α = C L0 −
πe AR
∂X ρS ∂CD ∂T
=− u20 + 2u0 CD0 + (33)
∂u 2 ∂u ∂u
These stability derivatives usually are expressed in terms of dimensionless aerodynamic coefficient
derivatives. Expressing ∂X/∂u in coefficient form yields;
CXu = − (CDu + 2CD0 ) + CTu (34)
where, ∂CD ∂CT
C Du = CTu =
∂ (u/u0 ) ∂ (u/u0 )
are the changes in the drag and thrust coefficients with forward speed. These coefficients have
been made nondimensional by differentiating with respect to (u/u0 ). The coefficient CDu can be
estimated from a plot of the drag coefficient versus the Mach number;
∂CD
CDu = M
∂M
The thrust term CTu is 0 for gliding flight; it also is a good approximation for jet powered aircraft. For
a variable pitch propeller and piston engine power plant, CTu can be approximated by assuming it
to be equal to the negative of the reference drag coefficient (i.e., CTu = −CD0 ).
24 / 33 25 / 33

Longitudinal Equations of Motion Longitudinal Equations of Motion
Nonlinear Longitudinal Equations of Motion Aerodynamic Forces & Moments
Nominal Value (Equilibrium/Trim State) + Small Perturbation
Linearized Small-Disturbance Longitudinal Equations of Motion
Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions
Assumption: Small Angle
Assumption: Quadratic Perturbations
26 / 33 27 / 33
Longitudinal Equations of Motion Longitudinal Equations of Motion
Longitudinal Stability Derivatives Longitudinal Stability Coefficients
28 / 33 29 / 33

Lateral Equations of Motion Lateral Equations of Motion
Nonlinear Lateral Equations of Motion Lateral Stability Derivatives
Linearized Small-Disturbance Lateral Equations of Motion
30 / 33 31 / 33
Linearized Equations CHAPTER 3
References
Lateral Equations of Motion MOTION
Lateral Stability Coefficients [1] H. H. Hurt, Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators, 1st ed. Flightshops, 1965.
1. General Remarks [2] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.
[3] B. Etkin and L. Reid, Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control, 3rd ed. Wiley, 1995.
3. Dynamic Analysis
5.4. Lateral EoM
6. References
32 / 33 33 / 33
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Differential Equations
Derivatives of Dependent Variables wrt Independent Variables
1. General Remarks
1.1. Differential Equations
An equation containing the derivatives of one or more dependent vari-
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System ables with respect to the one or more independent variables, is said to
be a differential equation.
2. Constrained Dynamics
Chapter 4: Longitudinal Motion Dependent Variable

2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
dn y
3. Unconstrained Dynamics = F x, y , y , ..., y (n−1)
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM dxn
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
Independent Variable
3.3. State-Space Representation Second Order Ordinary Differential Equations
4. Reduced Dynamics Many physical systems including plenty of electrical and mechanical
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode applications can be modeled by second order ordinary differential equa-
4.2. Short-Period Mode tions (ODE). Besides these systems, 2nd order ODEs are also impor-
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn tant in the expression of aircraft dynamics.
6. References Especially, while studying the reduced dynamics cases, these kind of
differential equations arise frequently.
So, firstly in this section before proceeding with our discussion of air-
Base Floor, Z-13 GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY craft motions, we shall exemplify to second order system and then ex-
+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
oogucu@gantep.edu.tr Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics amine its system matrix, characteristic polynomial, eigenvalues, eigen-
http://www1.gantep.edu.tr/~oogucu/ Department of Aircraft and Aerospace Engineering vectors and various solution forms.
November 17, 2019

1 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Example: Mass-Spring-Damper System Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Example: Mass-Spring-Damper System
Free Body Diagram & Equation of Motion Nonhomogeneous Solution
To illustrate the properties of a second-order differential equation, we 1.1. Differential Equations
The differential equation for this system can be written as;
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System examine the motion of a mechanical system composed of a mass, a 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System dx2 c dx k 1
spring, and a damper as shown in Fig. 1. + + x= F (t) (2)
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics dt2 m dt m m
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion This is a nonhomogeneous, linear, second-order differential equation
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics with constant coefficients. The general solution of the nonhomoge-
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM neous differential equation can be calculated as;
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
y = y c + yp
3.3. State-Space Representation 3.3. State-Space Representation
where, yc is called homogeneous (complementary) solution, and yp is
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics
Figure 1: A mass-spring-damper system, where m, k, and c indicate mass, spring called particular solution.
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
4.2. Short-Period Mode constant and viscous damping coefficient, respectively. Also, F (t) represents the 4.2. Short-Period Mode Homogeneous Solution
forcing function. [1]
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn The homogeneous solution is the solution of the differential equation
The spring provides a linear restoring force that is proportional to the when the forcing function is equal to 0 as given in Eq. 3 that corre-
extension of the spring; sponds to the free response of the system.
Fs = −kx
dx2 c dx k
The damper provides a damping force that is proportional to the velocity + + x=0 (3)
dt2 m dt m
of the mass;
Fd = −cv Particular Solution
Applying Newton’s law to a free-body diagram of the mass gives; On the other hand, particular solution in this context means any solution
that satisfies the Eq. 2 together with homogeneous solution.
ma = F = −Fs − Fd + F (t) (1)
where, F (t) is forcing function.

2 / 34 3 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Reduced Order System of Equations Eigen Decomposition & Solution Forms
Rearranging Eq. 3 gives; The roots of the characteristic equation λ1,2 are called
eigenvalues;
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System
c
ẍ = − ẋ − x
k
(4)

2
2 c k c c k
m m p=λ + λ+ =0 ⇒ λ1,2 = − ± − (9)
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics m m 2m 2m m
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion By introducing a new state variable, Eq. 4 can be rewritten in first-order 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
The vectors η1 and η2 which corresponds to λ1 and λ2 , respectively,
form as;
3. Unconstrained Dynamics ẋ = v (5) 3. Unconstrained Dynamics are called eigenvectors. Note that λ1,2 depend on the system param-
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM −c k 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM eters; namely, m, c, and k. According to these values, three possible
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM v̇ = v− x (6) 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM cases may occur to calculate the eigenvectors and solution;
3.3. State-Space Representation
m m 3.3. State-Space Representation
where, v is the velocity of the mass. 1. Case-1: (c/2m) > k/m
System Matrix, State Vector λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0, (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
These set of equations can be expressed in matrix form as;

x (t)
4.2. Short-Period Mode
v (t)
= c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 eλ2 t η2 (10)
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn ẋ 0 1 x 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
= (7)
v̇ −k/m −c/m v
6. References 6. References 2. Case-2: (c/2m) = k/m
So, system matrix (A) and state vector (
x) of the mass-spring-damper
λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0, (λ1 I − A) η2 = η1
system can be defined as;

x (t)
0 1 x = c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 teλ1 t η1 + eλ1 t η2 (11)
A x (8) v (t)
−k/m −c/m v

Characteristic Equation 3. Case-3: (c/2m) < k/m
λ1 = λ2 ∈ C ⇒ (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0, (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0
Characteristic equation p can be calculated as;
x (t)
λ = λ2 + c λ + k = c1 Re eλ1 t η1 + c2 Im eλ1 t η1 (12)

0 0 1
p = det (λI − A) =
0 λ
−
−k/m −c/m
v (t)
m m
4 / 34 5 / 34 where, c1 , and c2 are constants determined from the initial conditions.
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Geometric Interpretation of Eigenvectors Case-1: (c/2m)2 > (k/m)
Consider figure shown below in which six points p1 , p2 , ..., p6 and 1.1. Differential Equations If the inequality (c/2m)2 > (k/m) is satisfied, then the eigenvalues are
corresponding vectors are defined. real and distinct;
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System

2
2. Constrained Dynamics S S S 2. Constrained Dynamics c c k
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ λ1,2 =− ± −
2m 2m m
3. Unconstrained Dynamics S ¶
S ¶
S ¶
S
3. Unconstrained Dynamics
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
¶
S 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM So, linearly independent eigenvectors can be calculated;
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM √
3.3. State-Space Representation S S ¶
S ¶
S 3.3. State-Space Representation −c + c2 − 4km / (2k)
(λ1 I − A) η1 = 0 ⇒ η1 =
4. Reduced Dynamics Let apply a scaling transformation to these points (or vectors) with factor 4. Reduced Dynamics 1
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 2 in the horizontal direction and factor 0.5 in the vertical direction as 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode √
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode −c − c2 − 4km / (2k)

calculated below; (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0 ⇒ η2 =
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn p 1x p 2x p 3x p 4x p 5x p 6x 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 1
p 1y p 2y p 3y p 4y p 5y p 6y By using these values, the solution can be formed;
6. References
6. References

2 0 p1x p2x p3x p4x p5x p6x x (t)
= = c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 eλ2 t η2
0 0.5 p1y p2y p3y p4y p5y p6y v (t)
Note that the direction of some vectors (shown in red) is not affected by where, x (t) and v (t) represent the position and velocity functions. The
this linear transformation. They are called eigenvectors whose direc- arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are found from initial conditions of the
tion remain unchanged when a linear transformation is applied to them. motion.
Also realize that, scaling factors are the corresponding eigenvalues. x (0) = x0 , v (0) = v0
6 / 34 7 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-1: (c/2m)2 > (k/m) Case-1: (c/2m)2 > (k/m)
1.1. Differential Equations 1.1. Differential Equations
Position
Listing 1: Mathematica Implementation 1.5
1 // Define system parameters, system matrix and characteristic polynomial
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics
2 m = 1; c = 4; k = 3; 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 1.0
3 A = {{0, 1}, {−k/m, −c/m}};
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
4 p = Det[λ* IdentityMatrix [2] − A] ⇒ 3 + 4λ + λ2 Case-1
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 0.5
5 // Calculate eigenvalues
6 Roots[p == 0, λ] ⇒ λ == −3||λ == −1
7 λ1 = −3; λ2 = −1; Time
4. Reduced Dynamics 8 // Calculate eigenvectors 4. Reduced Dynamics 0.5 1. 1.5 2. 2.5 3. 3.5 4. 4.5 5.
9 η1 = {{ η1x }, {η1v }}; η2 = {{ η2x }, {η2v }};
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode -0.5
10 Solve[(λ1 * IdentityMatrix [2] − A).η1 == 0, {η1x , η1v }] ⇒ {{η1v → −3η1x }}
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 11 Solve[(λ2 * IdentityMatrix [2] − A).η2 == 0, {η2x , η2v }] ⇒ {{η2v → −η2x }} 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
12 η1x = −1/3; η1v = 1; η2x = −1; η2v = 1; -1.0
13 // Define solution forms and initial conditions for position and velocity functions
14 x [t_] := c1 * Exp[λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x + c2 *Exp[λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2x -1.5
15 v [t_] := c1 * Exp[λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v + c2 *Exp[λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2v
Figure 2: Position response to the initial conditions
16 x0 = 1; v0 = −2;
17 Solve[x[0] == x0 && v[0] == v0 ,{c1 ,c2 }] ⇒ c1 → −3/2, c2 → −1/2 Note that, system response to initial conditions will die out exponen-
18 c1 = −3/2; c2 = −1/2; tially with time. This type of behaviour is referred to as an overdamped
19 // Plot position response to initial condition motion.
20 plt1 = Plot [x[ t ], { t , 0, 5}, PlotRange−>{−1.5, 1.5}, AxesLabel−>{Time, Position}] t→∞ ⇒ x (t) → 0
8 / 34 9 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-2: (c/2m)2 = (k/m) Case-2: (c/2m)2 = (k/m)
1.1. Differential Equations If the equality (c/2m)2 = (k/m) is satisfied, then the eigenvalues are 1.1. Differential Equations
Listing 2: Mathematica Implementation
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System real and identical; 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System
c 1 // Define system parameters, system matrix and characteristic polynomial
2. Constrained Dynamics λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ λ1,2 = − 2. Constrained Dynamics
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2m 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
2 m = 1; c = 6; k = 9;
3 A = {{0, 1}, {−k/m, −c/m}}; I = IdentityMatrix [2];
3. Unconstrained Dynamics So, linearly independent eigenvectors can be calculated; 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
p = Det[λ*IM − A] ⇒ 9 + 6λ + λ2
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
4
−2m/c 5 // Calculate eigenvalues
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0 ⇒ η1 = 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
⇒ λ == −3||λ == −3
3.3. State-Space Representation 1 3.3. State-Space Representation
6 Roots[p == 0, λ]
7 λ1 = −3; λ2 = −3;
4. Reduced Dynamics −2m (c − 2m) /c2 4. Reduced Dynamics
(λ1 I − A) η2 = η1 ⇒ η2 = 8 // Calculate eigenvectors
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 1 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
9 η1 = {{ η1x }, {η1v }}; η2 = {{ η2x }, {η2v }};
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode
By using these values, the solution can be formed; 10 Solve[(λ1 * IM − A).η1 == 0, {η1x , η1v }] ⇒ {{η1v → −3η1x }}
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 11 Solve[(λ2 * IM − A).η2 − η1 == 0, {η2x , η2v }] ⇒ {{η2v → (1/3) − 3η2x }}
x (t)
6. References
= c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 teλ1 t η1 + eλ1 t η2 6. References 12 η1x = −1/3; η1v = 1; η2x = −2/9; η2v = 1;
v (t)
where, x (t) and v (t) represent the position and velocity functions. The 14 x [t_] :=
arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are found from initial conditions of the c1 ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x + c2 ∗ (t ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x + Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2x )
motion. 15 v [t_] :=
c1 ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v + c2 ∗ (t ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v + Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2v )
x (0) = x0 , v (0) = v0 16 x0 = 1; v0 = −4;
Note that for a fixed m and k, choosing c such that to satisfy the con- 17 Solve[x[0] == x0 && v[0] == v0 ,{c1 ,c2 }] ⇒ c1 → −1, c2 → −3
dition (c/2m)2 = (k/m) gives the fastest return of the system to its 18 c1 = −1; c2 = −3;
equilibrium position. 19 // Plot position response to initial conditions
20 plt2 = Plot [x[ t ], { t , 0, 5}, PlotRange−>{−1.5, 1.5}, AxesLabel−>{Time, Position}]
10 / 34 11 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-2: (c/2m)2 = (k/m) Case-3: (c/2m)2 < (k/m)
Position 1.1. Differential Equations If the inequality (c/2m)2 < (k/m) is satisfied, then the eigenvalues are
152 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System a pair of complex conjugates;
2
c k c
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics λ1 = λ2 ∈ C ⇒ λ1,2 = − ±j −
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 15. 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2m m 2m
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics So, linearly independent eigenvectors can be calculated;
. 52
√
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM Case-1 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
−c + j 4km − c2 / (2k)
3.3. State-Space Representation Case-0 3.3. State-Space Representation (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0 ⇒ η1 =
Time 1
4. Reduced Dynamics . 52 15 152 05 052 35 352 45 452 25 4. Reduced Dynamics √
-. 52
−c − j 4km − c2 / (2k)
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0 ⇒ η2 =
1
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
-15. By using these values, the solution can be formed;
x (t)
= c1 Re eλ1 t η1 + c2 Im eλ1 t η1
-152 v (t)
Figure 3: Position responses to the initial conditions where, x (t) and v (t) represent the position and velocity functions. The
The resulting behaviour is referred to as the critically damped motion, arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are found from initial conditions of the
which represents the boundary between the overdamped exponential motion.
x (0) = x0 , v (0) = v0
and the damped sinusoidal motions. As in the overdamped case, this
motion does not oscillate. Alternatively, the solution form can be rewritten in terms of sine and
cosine functions by using Euler’s formula;
e(a±jb)t = eat cos (bt) ± jeat sin (bt)
12 / 34 13 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-3: (c/2m)2 < (k/m) Case-3: (c/2m)2 < (k/m)
Position
Listing 3: Mathematica Implementation 123
1 // Define system parameters, system matrix and characteristic polynomial
2 m = 1; c = 2; k = 10; 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 125
3 A = {{0, 1}, {−k/m, −c/m}}; I = IdentityMatrix [2];
4 p = Det[λ* I − A] ⇒ 10 + 2λ + λ2
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 523 Case-1
5 // Calculate eigenvalues
6 Roots[p == 0, λ] ⇒ λ == −1 − 3i||λ == −1 + 3i Case-0
7 λ1 = −1 − 3i; λ2 = −1 + 3i; Time
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics 523 12 123 02 023 .2 . 23 42 423 32
8 // Calculate eigenvectors
9 η1 = {{ η1x }, {η1v }}; η2 = {{ η2x }, {η2v }}; -523
10 Solve[(λ1 * I − A).η1 == 0, {η1x , η1v }] ⇒ {{η1v → (−1 − 3i)η1x }} Case-.
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 11 Solve[(λ2 * I − A).η2 == 0, {η2x , η2v }] ⇒ {{η2v → (−1 + 3i)η2x }} 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
12 η1x = (−1 + 3i)/10; η1v = 1; η2x = (−1 − 3i)/10; η2v = 1;
-125
14 x [t_] := c1 ∗ Re [Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x ] + c2 ∗ Im [Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2x ] -123
15 v [t_] := c1 ∗ Re [Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v ] + c2 ∗ Im [Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2v ] Figure 4: Position responses to the initial conditions
16 x0 = 1; v0 = −4;
17 Solve[x[0] == x0 && v[0] == v0 ,{c1 ,c2 }] ⇒ c1 → −4, c2 → −2 The resulting behaviour is referred to as the underdamped motion.
18 c1 = −4; c2 = −2;
19 // Plot position response to initial condition
20 plt3 = Plot [x[ t ], { t , 0, 5}, PlotRange−>{−1.5, 1.5}, AxesLabel−>{Time, Position}]
14 / 34 15 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Constrained Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Constrained Dynamics
Pure Pitching Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pure Pitching Motion
Wind-Tunnel Model One Degree-of-Freedom Equation of Motion
1. General Remarks Consider the case in which the airplane’s center of gravity is constrained 1. General Remarks
The equation of motion for this constrained model of a pure pitching
to move in a straight line at a constant speed but the aircraft is free to motion can be given;
pitch about its center of gravity as illustrated in Fig. 5.
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics M = Iy θ̈ (13)
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
Eq. 13 can be expressed in perturbation form;
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM ∂M ∂M ∂M ∂M
Δα + Δα̇ + Δq + Δδe = Iy Δθ̈ (14)
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM ∂α ∂ α̇ ∂q ∂δe
For the restricted motion that we are examining, the variables are the
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics angle of attack, pitch angle, the time rate of change of these variables,
and the elevator angle. It is convenient to express Eq. 14 in terms of a
single variable, namely angle-of-attack. If we align the body and fixed
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn frames so they coincide at t = 0, the change in pitch angle and angle-
6. References 6. References of-attack are identical;
Δθ = Δα Δq = Δθ̇ = Δα̇
Substituting this information into Eq. 14 yields;
Δα̈ − (Mq + Mα̇ ) Δα̇ − Mα Δα = Mδe Δδe (15)
where,
1 ∂M 1 ∂M 1 ∂M 1 ∂M
Figure 5: Wind-tunnel model constrained to a pure pitching motion [1]
Mq = Mα̇ = Mα = M δe =
Iy ∂q Iy ∂ α̇ Iy ∂α Iy ∂δe
Eq. 15 is a nonhomogeneous second-order differential equation, having
constant coefficients.
16 / 34 17 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained Dynamics
Pure Pitching Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Nonlinear Coupled Equations of Motion
Step Response Force & Moment Equations
The solution for a step change in the elevator angle Δδe is illustrated in 1.1. Differential Equations
At previous chapter, the nonlinear force and moment equations were
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System Fig. 6. 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System derived by making
1. rigid body assumption,
2. constant mass assumption.
as given in Eq. 16 to Eq. 21.
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM Force Equations
3.3. State-Space Representation 3.3. State-Space Representation X − mgSθ = m (u̇ + qw − rv) (16)

Y + mgCθ SΦ = m (v̇ + ru − pw) (17)
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode Z + mgCθ CΦ = m (ẇ + pv − qu) (18)
Moment Equations
L = Ix ṗ − Ixz ṙ − Ixz pq + (Iz − Iy ) qr (19)
6. References 6. References 2 2

M = Iy q̇ + (Ix − Iz ) pr + Ixz p − r (20)
N = −Ixz ṗ + Iz ṙ + (Iy − Ix ) pq + Ixz qr (21)
where,
Figure 6: Angle of attack time history for a pitching model [1] Cθ cos (θ) , Sθ sin (θ) , CΦ cos (Φ) , SΦ sin (Φ)

Mathematica Implementation Ix = y 2 +z 2 δm, Iy = x2 +z 2 δm, Iz = x2 +y 2 δm
Switch to Mathematica to derive angle-of-attack time history of Boeing-
Ixy = xyδm, Ixz = xzδm, Iyz = yzδm
747 for various elevator deflection functions (i.e., Step, Sine);
18 / 34 19 / 34
Unconstrained Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Linearized Decoupled Equations of Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
State-Space Representation
Longitudinal & Lateral Equations General & Simplified Cases
1. General Remarks
Also, these equations were decoupled and linearized by incorporating 1.1. Differential Equations
The linearized longitudinal equations can be written as a set of first-
1. small deviations from equilibrium flight assumption, 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System order differential equations, called the state-space or state variable
2. separable longitudinal and lateral motion assumption equations. The most general state-space representation of a linear
and obtained in perturbation form as given in Eq. 22 to Eq. 27. 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
system with p inputs, q outputs and n state variables is written in the
following form;
Longitudinal Equations 3. Unconstrained Dynamics

ẋ (t) = A (t) x (t) + B (t) u (t)
d
− Xu Δu − Xw Δw + gΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (22) 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
y (t) = C (t) x (t) + D (t) u (t)
where,

dt
d d x (.) state vector, x (t) ∈ Rn
−Zu Δu + (1 − Zẇ ) − Zw Δw − (u0 + Zq ) − g sin θ0 Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (23) 4. Reduced Dynamics
dt dt y (.) output vector, y (t) ∈ Rq

2
u (.) input (or control) vector, u (t) ∈ Rp
d d d 4.2. Short-Period Mode
−Mu Δu − Mẇ + Mw Δw + 2
− Mq Δθ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (24) A (.) state (or system) matrix, dim [A (.)] = n × n
dt dt dt
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn B (.) input matrix, dim [B (.)] = n × p
Lateral Equations

6. References C (.) output matrix, dim [C (.)] = q × n
d
− Yv Δv − Yp Δp + (u0 − Yr ) Δr − g cos (θ0 ) ΔΦ = Yδr Δδr (25) D (.) feedthrough (or feedforward) matrix, dim [D (.)] = q × p
dt

Note that the representation given above belongs to the time-variant
d Ixz d
−Lv Δv + − Lp Δp − + Lr Δr = Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr (26) system (i.e., A is function of time due to the variable mass assump-
dt

Ix dt

tion), however we will attend to time-invariant system (i.e., A does
Ixz d d
−Nv Δv − + Np Δp + − Nr Δr = Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr (27) not depend to time due to the constant mass assumption). Moreover,
Iz dt dt
feedthrough matrix is generally zero for the subject of aircraft dynamics.
where,
So, simplified representation for our case can be given as;
1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂N ẋ (t) = Ax (t) + Bu (t)
Xu , Xw , X δe , XδT , ..., N δr
m ∂u m ∂w m ∂δe m ∂δT Iz ∂δr
20 / 34 21 / 34 y (t) = Cx (t)
Unconstrained Dynamics Unconstrained Dynamics

State-Space Representation State-Space Representation
Rearranging Equations Leaving Δq̇ Alone
The linearized longitudinal set of equations developed earlier are repeated here; For leaving Δq̇ alone, multiply Eq. 35 by Mẇ and sum with Eq. 36;
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (28) −Zu Mẇ Δu + Mẇ Δẇ − Zw Mẇ Δw − u0 Mẇ Δq + Mẇ g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Mẇ Δδe + ZδT Mẇ ΔδT
−Zu Δu + (1 − Zẇ ) Δẇ − Zw Δw − (u0 + Zq ) Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (29) −Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δq̇ − Mq Δq = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT
+
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (30)
− (Zu Mẇ + Mu ) Δu − (Zw Mẇ + Mw ) Δw + Δq̇ − (u0 Mẇ + Mq ) Δq + g sin (θ0 ) Mẇ Δθ
where Δδe and ΔδT are the aerodynamic and propulsive controls, respectively.
= (Zδe Mẇ + Mδe ) Δδe + ZδT Mẇ + MδT ΔδT (37)
Neglecting Force Derivatives
In practice, the force derivatives Zq , and Zẇ usually are neglected because they contribute very
little to the aircraft response; Making Small Angle Assumption
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (31) By assuming small deviations from equilibrium flight, we can get rid of trigonometric terms;
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (32) θ0 ≈ 0 → sin (θ0 ) = 0, cos (θ0 ) = 1
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (33) Rearranging Equations
Reducing Equation Order Leaving derivative terms on the left side gives;
For reducing the order of Eq. 33, introduce a new state variable Δθ̇ = Δq and Δθ̈ = Δq̇ by Δu̇ = Xu Δu + Xw Δw − gΔθ + Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (38)
assuming that y-axis of body frame and earth frame is initially aligned. So, angular velocity at Δẇ = Zu Δu + Zw Δw + u0 Δq + Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (39)
y-axis according to the body frame is equivalent to pitch rate with respect to the inertial frame.
Δq̇ = (Zu Mẇ + Mu ) Δu + (Zw Mẇ + Mw ) Δw + (u0 Mẇ + Mq ) Δq
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (34)
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δq + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (35) + (Zδe Mẇ + Mδe ) Δδe + ZδT Mẇ + MδT ΔδT (40)
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δq̇ − Mq Δq = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (36) Δθ̇ = Δq (41)
22 / 34 23 / 34
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
State-Space Representation Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Representing In Matrix Form Decomposition Into Low & High Frequency Responses
1. General Remarks
Rewriting the Eq. 38 to Eq. 41 in the state-space form yields; 1.1. Differential Equations
The natural response of most aircraft to longitudinal perturbations typi-
Δu̇
Xu Xw 0 −g
Δu
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System cally consists of two underdamped oscillatory modes having rather dif-
Δẇ Zu Zw u0 0 Δw ferent time scales as shown in Fig. 7.a and Fig. 7.b.
= 2. Constrained Dynamics
Δq̇ (Zu Mẇ + Mu ) (Zw Mẇ + Mw ) (u0 Mẇ + Mq ) 0 Δq 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
Δθ̇ 0 0 1 0 Δθ
⎡ ⎤ 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Xδe XδT
+⎣
Zδe Z δT ⎦ Δδe
(42)
(Zδe Mẇ + Mδe ) ZδT Mẇ + MδT ΔδT 3.3. State-Space Representation
0 0 4. Reduced Dynamics
4.2. Short-Period Mode Figure 7: When the controls are fixed, the longitudinal motion disturbed from
equilibrium condition are characterized by two oscillatory motions; a) long-period
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
(phugoid) mode and b) short-period mode [1]
6. References
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode: Although the damping is very weak,
the period is so long that the pilot usually corrects for this motion without
being aware that the oscillation even exists.
Short-Period Mode: This heavily damped oscillation generally has pe-
riod of only a few seconds. Moreover, the time to damp the amplitude
to one-half of its initial value is usually on the order of 1 second.
These responses can be obtained by solving the fourth order charac-
teristic equation derived in the previous section and factorising it into
low and high frequency components. Alternatively, similar results can
24 / 34 25 / 34 be obtained more directly as explained in the remaining subsections.
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
Large-Amplitude Variation of Pitch Angle, Altitude, & Speed Gradual Interchange of Potential & Kinetic Energy
A phugoid is an aircraft motion in which the vehicle pitches up and 1.1. Differential Equations
Actually, the long-period mode is a gradual interchange of potential and
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System climbs, and then pitches down and descends, accompanied by speed- 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System kinetic energy about the equilibrium altitude and airspeed as the aircraft
ing up and slowing down as illustrated in Fig. 8. It can be seen that the attempts to re-establish the equilibrium level-flight condition from which
long-period mode is characterized by large-amplitude variation of pitch 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
it had been disturbed. The motion is so slow that the effects of inertia
angle, altitude, and velocity at a nearly constant angle of attack. forces and damping forces are very low.

Figure 8: Schematic representation of long-period (phugoid) mode [2]

There is a great similarity between phugoid mode and roller coaster
movements, which does not change its angle with respect to the rails
(angle-of-attack) but has large angle differences with respect to the
Figure 9: Phugoid mode experiment by using balsa wood glider (link here)
26 / 34 ground (pitch angle). 27 / 34
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
Fixed Aerodynamic Control & Zero Propulsive Control Constant Angle of Attack
1. General Remarks
Remember the linearized longitudinal equations again with neglected force derivatives Zq and Zẇ ; 1.1. Differential Equations
Also, approximation to the long-period mode involves assuming that the
change in angle of attack is zero;
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (43) 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System
α = tan−1 (w/u) → Small Angle Assumption → α = w/u
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (44) 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion Remember the perturbation states;
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (45) 3. Unconstrained Dynamics α = 0 + Δα w = 0 + Δw u = u0 + Δu
Because there is no control action Δδe = 0 and ΔδT = 0, the equations reduce to; 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
Then;
3.3. State-Space Representation Δα = Δw/ (u0 + Δu) Δα = 0 → Δw = 0 (51)
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (46)
4. Reduced Dynamics Note that the altitude of the aircraft varies due to the changes in θ and
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (47) 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode u, but not w. At this point, roller coaster can be a good example for
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = 0 (48) long-period mode of motion.
Matrix Form Representation
Neglected Pitching Moment 6. References Making these assumptions, the homogeneous longitudinal state equa-
An approximation to the long-period mode can be obtained by neglecting the pitching moment tions reduce to the following;
equation;
Δu̇ = Xu Δu − gΔθ (52)
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (49)
−Zu
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (50) Δθ̇ = Δu (53)
u0
In matrix form as;
Small Angle Assumption
Δu̇ Xu −g Δu
By assuming small deviations from equilibrium flight, we can get rid of trigonometric terms; = −Zu (54)
Δθ̇ 0 Δθ
θ0 ≈ 0 → sin (θ0 ) = 0, cos (θ0 ) = 1 u0
28 / 34 29 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Short-Period Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Short-Period Mode
Rapid Variation in Angle-of-Attack, Nearly Constant Air-Speed Matrix Form Representation
This motion can be characterized by rapid variation in angle-of-attack. 1.1. Differential Equations
An approximation to the short-period mode of motion can be obtained
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System The period is so short that the speed does not have time to change. 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System by assuming Δu = 0 and dropping the X-force equation. The longitu-
There is very little change in the trajectory over the time it takes for the dinal state-space equations reduce to the following;
oscillation to damp out.
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion Δẇ Zw u0 Δw
= (55)
Δq̇ Mw + Mẇ Zw Mq + Mẇ u0 Δq
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM This equation can be written in terms of the angle of attack by using the
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM relationship;
3.3. State-Space Representation 3.3. State-Space Representation Δw
Δα = ⇒ Δw = u0 Δα, Δẇ = u0 Δα̇
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics u0
In addition, the derivatives due to w and ẇ can be replaced with deriva-
tives due to α and α̇ by using the following equations. For example, the
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn moment derivative Mw can be expressed;
6. References 6. References 1 ∂M 1 ∂M 1 1 ∂M 1
Mw = = = = Mα
Iy ∂w Iy ∂ (u0 α) u0 Iy ∂α u0
In a similar way, other derivatives can be obtained;
Figure 10: Visualized simulation results for short-period mode (link here) 1 1
Zw = Zα Mẇ = Mα̇
It arises from the tendency of a stable aircraft to point in the general u0 u0
direction of flight. A short input (in control systems terminology an im- Using these expressions, the state equations for the short-period ap-
pulse) in pitch will generally lead to overshoots about the trimmed con- proximation can be rewritten in terms of Δα and Δq;
dition. The transition is characterised by a damped simple harmonic Zα

Δα̇ u0
1 Δα
motion about the new trim. = (56)
Δq̇ Mα + Mα̇ Zα
Mq + Mα̇ Δq
30 / 34 31 / 34 u0
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained vs Reduced Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained vs Reduced Dynamics
State-Space Representation & Eigenvalue Locations Initial Condition Responses
By assuming power approach configuration with stick-fixed control, the 1.1. Differential Equations
For the unconstrained and reduced dynamics, the system responses to
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System state-space representation is obtained for Boeing-747 type wide-body 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System the initial conditions are calculated as follows;
commercial
jet airliner
at standard sea-level with 0.25 Mach
Speed;
Forward Velocity (u) Vertical Velocity (w) Pitch Rate (q) Pitch Angle (θ)
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics X Z T Q
/RQJ3HULRG0RGH
Δu̇ - 0.0225 0.0467 0 - 9.8100 Δu
Δẇ - 0.2241 - 0.5678 80.0015 0 Δw
=
3. Unconstrained Dynamics Δq̇ 0.0015 - 0.0023 - 0.9309 0 Δq 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Δθ̇ 0 0 1 0 Δθ
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM The
reduced form
dynamics are alsoconstituted
for long-period mode; 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
3.3. State-Space Representation Δu̇ - 0.0225 - 9.8100 Δu 3.3. State-Space Representation
=
Δθ̇ 0.0028 0 Δθ
and for short-period
mode;
8QFRQVWUDLQHG'\QDPLFV
4.2. Short-Period Mode Δẇ - 0.5678 80.0015 Δw 4.2. Short-Period Mode
=
Δq̇ - 0.0023 - 0.9309 Δq
The eigenvalue locations are marked as follows; 0 600 0 600 0 600 0 600
6. References -0.7557 -0.0049 6. References X Z T Q
0.8
8QFRQVWUDLQHG'\QDPLFV 0.6
0.3917
× 6KRUW-3HULRG /RQJ-3HULRG
×
×
Imaginary
6KRUW3HULRG0RGH
0.1348
8QFRQVWUDLQHG'\QDPLFV
×
×
o
-0.1348
-0.3917
× -0.6
-0.
Real 0 120 0 120 0 120 0 120
32 / 34 -1.0-0.9-0.8-0.7-0.6-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.1 0.0 0.1 33 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
References
[1] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.
1. General Remarks
1.1. Differential Equations [2] A. K. Ghosh, Y. Singh, and D. Philip, “Aircraft performance, stability and control with experiments in flight
lecture notes, module 7, lecture 34,” 2015.
4. Reduced Dynamics
6. References
34 / 34
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
General Remarks
Coupled Rolling, Yawing & Sideslipping Motions
1. General Remarks
As was shown in Chapter 2, an airplane produces both yawing and
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 2. Constrained Dynamics
2.1. Pure Rolling Motion
rolling moments due to the sideslip angle. So, the lateral motion is a
complicated combination of rolling, yawing, and sideslipping motions.
2.2. Pure Yawing Motion
Chapter 5: Lateral Motion
4. Reduced Dynamics
4.1. Roll Mode
4.2. Spiral Mode
4.3. Dutch Roll Mode
6. References

+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
October 28, 2019

1 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Pure Rolling Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pure Rolling Motion
1. General Remarks Fig. 1 illustrates a constrained wind-tunnel model that can only perform 1. General Remarks
The equation of motion for this constrained model of a pure rolling mo-
2. Constrained Dynamics rolling motion about its x-axis. 2. Constrained Dynamics tion can be given;
2.1. Pure Rolling Motion 2.1. Pure Rolling Motion
L = Ix φ̈ (1)
2.2. Pure Yawing Motion 2.2. Pure Yawing Motion
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics Eq. 1 can be expressed in perturbation form;

3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM ∂L ∂L
Δp + Δδa = Ix Δφ̈ (2)
∂p ∂δa
Because the roll rate (Δφ̇) is equal to angular velocity about x-axis
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics (Δp), Eq. 2 can be rewritten;
4.1. Roll Mode 4.1. Roll Mode
1 Lδa
4.2. Spiral Mode 4.2. Spiral Mode Δṗ = − Δp + Δδa (3)
4.3. Dutch Roll Mode 4.3. Dutch Roll Mode τ Lp
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn where,
1 1 ∂L 1 ∂L
6. References 6. References τ =− Lp = Lδa =
Lp Ix ∂p Ix ∂δa
The solution to Eq. 3 gives the variation of angular velocity about x-axis
with respect to the aileron deflection as follows;
Lδ
Δp (t) = − a 1 − e−t/τ Δδa (4)
Figure 1: Wind-tunnel model constrained to a pure rolling motion [1] Lp
The parameter τ is referred to as the time constant. It tells us how
fast our system approaches a new steady-state condition after being
disturbed. If the time constant is small, the system will respond very
2 / 28 3 / 28 rapidly; if the time constant is large, the system will respond very slowly.
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Pure Rolling Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pure Yawing Motion
Step Response Wind-Tunnel Model
1. General Remarks 1. General Remarks Fig. 3 illustrates a constrained wind-tunnel model that can only perform
Variation of angular velocity about x-axis due to step type aileron de-
2. Constrained Dynamics flection is shown in Fig. 2. 2. Constrained Dynamics yawing motion about its z-axis.


4.2. Spiral Mode 4.2. Spiral Mode
4.3. Dutch Roll Mode 4.3. Dutch Roll Mode
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn Figure 2: Angular velocity about x-axis for step type aileron deflection [1] 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
Steady-State Value
The steady-state roll rate can be obtained from Eq. 4 while t → ∞;
−Lδa −Clδa QSb/Ix −Clδa
pss = Δδa = Δδa = Δδa
Lp Clp (b/2u0 ) QSb/Ix Clp (b/2u0 )
The term pss b/2u0 can be used for sizing the aileron.
Figure 3: Wind-tunnel model constrained to a pure yawing motion [1]

4 / 28 5 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Pure Yawing Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pure Yawing Motion
One Degree-of-Freedom Equation of Motion Step Response
The equation of motion for this constrained model can be given; The solution to Eq. 8 for a step change in the rudder control will result
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics in a damped sinusoidal motion. Fig. 4 illustrates the yawing motion due
2.1. Pure Rolling Motion N = Iz ψ̈ (5) 2.1. Pure Rolling Motion
to a step change in rudder deflection for different levels of aerodynamic
Eq. 5 can be expressed in perturbation form; damping.
∂N ∂N ∂N ∂N
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM Δβ + Δβ̇ + Δr + Δδr = Iz Δψ̈ (6) 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM ∂β ∂ β̇ ∂r ∂δr 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
Because the center of gravity is constrained, the yaw angle ψ and the
4. Reduced Dynamics sideslip angle β are related by the expressions; 4. Reduced Dynamics
4.2. Spiral Mode
Δψ = −Δβ Δψ̇ = −Δβ̇ Δψ̇ = Δr 4.2. Spiral Mode
4.3. Dutch Roll Mode Substituting these relationships into Eq. 6 and rearranging yields; 4.3. Dutch Roll Mode

5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn Δψ̈ − Nr − Nβ̇ Δψ̇ + Nβ Δψ = Nδr Δδr (7) 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
6. References where, 6. References

1 ∂N 1 ∂N 1 ∂N 1 ∂N
Nr = Nβ̇ = Nβ = N δr =
Iz ∂r Iz ∂ β̇ Iz ∂β Iz ∂δr
Note that the term Nβ̇ is usually negligible and eliminated;
Δψ̈ − Nr Δψ̇ + Nβ Δψ = Nδr Δδr (8)
By introducing Δψ̇ = Δr and Δψ̈ = Δṙ, Eq. 8 can be expressed in
state-space form;

Δψ̇ 0 1 Δψ 0 Figure 4: Yaw angle time history for step change in rudder deflection [1]
= + Δδr (9)
Δṙ −N β N r Δr N δr
6 / 28 7 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
Nonlinear Coupled Equations of Motion Linearized Decoupled Equations of Motion
Force & Moment Equations Longitudinal & Lateral Equations
1. General Remarks
At previous chapter, the nonlinear force and moment equations were Also, these equations were decoupled and linearized by incorporating
2. Constrained Dynamics derived by making 1. small deviations from equilibrium flight assumption,
2.1. Pure Rolling Motion 1. rigid body assumption, 2. separable longitudinal and lateral motion assumption
2.2. Pure Yawing Motion
2. constant mass assumption. and obtained in perturbation form as given in Eq. 16 to Eq. 21.
3. Unconstrained Dynamics as given in Eq. 10 to Eq. 15.
Longitudinal Equations
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM Force Equations

d
3.3. State-Space Representation − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + gΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (16)
4. Reduced Dynamics
X − mgSθ = m (u̇ + qw − rv) (10)
dt

Y + mgCθ SΦ = m (v̇ + ru − pw) (11) d d
4.1. Roll Mode −Zu Δu + (1 − Zẇ ) − Zw Δw − (u0 + Zq ) − g sin θ0 Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (17)
dt dt
4.2. Spiral Mode Z + mgCθ CΦ = m (ẇ + pv − qu) (12)

2
4.3. Dutch Roll Mode d d d
Moment Equations −Mu Δu − Mẇ + Mw Δw + 2
− Mq Δθ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (18)
dt dt dt
L = Ix ṗ − Ixz ṙ + qr (Iz − Iy ) − Ixz pq (13)
6. References 2 2
Lateral Equations

M = Iy q̇ + rq (Ix − Iz ) + Ixz p − r (14) d
− Yv Δv − Yp Δp + (u0 − Yr ) Δr − g cos (θ0 ) ΔΦ = Yδr Δδr (19)
N = −Ixz ṗ + Iz ṙ + pq (Iy − Ix ) + Ixz qr (15)
dt

d Ixz d
where, −Lv Δv + − Lp Δp − + Lr Δr = Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr (20)

dt

Ix dt

Cθ cos (θ) , Sθ sin (θ) , CΦ cos (Φ) , SΦ sin (Φ) Ixz d d
−Nv Δv − + Np Δp + − Nr Δr = Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr (21)
Iz dt dt
Ix = y 2 +z 2 δm, Iy = x2 +z 2 δm, Iz = x2 +y 2 δm
where,
1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂N
Ixy = xyδm, Ixz = xzδm, Iyz = yzδm Xu , Xw , Xδe , XδT , ..., N δr
m ∂u m ∂w m ∂δe m ∂δT Iz ∂δr
8 / 28 9 / 28

Rearranging Equations Leaving Δṙ Alone
The linearized lateral set of equations developed earlier are repeated here; To eliminate Δṗ, multiply Eq. 23 by Ixz /Iz and sum with Eq. 24;
Δv̇ − Yv Δv − Yp Δp + u0 Δr − Yr Δr − g cos (θ0 ) ΔΦ = Yδr Δδr (22) Ixz Ixz Ixz I2 Ixz Ixz Ixz
− Lv Δv + Δṗ − Lp Δp − xz Δṙ − Lr Δr = Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr
Ixz Iz Iz Iz Ix Iz Iz Iz Iz
−Lv Δv + Δṗ − Lp Δp − Δṙ − Lr Δr = Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr (23) Ixz
Ix −Nv Δv − Δṗ − Np Δp + Δṙ − Nr Δr = Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr
Ixz +

Iz

−Nv Δv − Δṗ − Np Δp + Δṙ − Nr Δr = Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr (24) I Ixz 2
Ixz Ixz
Iz −
xz
Lv + Nv Δv − Lp + Np Δp + 1− Δṙ − Lr + Nr Δr
Iz Iz Ix Iz Iz
Leaving Δṗ Alone

Ixz Ixz
= Lδa + Nδa Δδa + Lδr + Nδr Δδr (26)
To eliminate Δṙ, multiply Eq. 24 by Ixz /Ix and sum with Eq. 23; Rearranging Equations Iz Iz
Ixz Leaving derivative terms on the left side gives;
−Lv Δv + Δṗ − Lp Δp − Δṙ − Lr Δr = Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr
Ix Δv̇ = Yv Δv + Yp Δp − (u0 − Yr ) Δr + g cos (θ0 ) ΔΦ + Yδr Δδr (27)
Ixz I2 Ixz Ixz Ixz Ixz Ixz

− Nv Δv − xz Δṗ − Np Δp + Δṙ − Nr Δr = Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr I2 Ixz Ixz Ixz
I I I I I I I Ix 1 − xz Δṗ = Lv + Nv Δv + Lp + Np Δp + Lr + Nr Δr
+ x x z x x x x Ix Iz Ix Ix Ix

2

+ Lδa +
Ixz
Δδa + Lδr +
Ixz
Δδr
Ixz Ixz Ixz Ixz Nδa Nδr (28)
− Lv + Nv Δv + 1− Δṗ − Lp + Np Δp − Lr + Nr Δr Ix Ix
Ix Ix Iz Ix Ix
2

1−
Ixz
Δṙ =
Ixz
Lv + Nv Δv +
Ixz
Lp + Np Δp +
Ixz
Lr + Nr Δr
Ixz Ixz Ix Iz Iz Iz Iz
= Lδa + N δa Δδa + Lδr + N δr Δδr (25)

Ix Ix Ixz Ixz
+ Lδa + Nδa Δδa + Lδr + Nδr Δδr (29)
Iz Iz
10 / 28 11 / 28 ΔΦ̇ = Δp (30)
Representing In Matrix Form Replacing State
Rewriting the Eq. 27 to Eq. 30 in the state-space form yields; Sometimes it is convenient to use the sideslip angle, Δβ, instead of the side velocity, Δv. As can
be remembered, these two quantities are related to each other in the following way;
Δv̇ Yv Yp − (u0 − Yr ) g cos (θ0 ) Δv

Δṗ L∗ ∗
v + (Ixz /Ix ) Nv L∗ ∗
p + (Ixz /Ix ) Np L∗ ∗
r + (Ixz /Ix ) Nr 0 Δp v ∼ v Δv
= β = sin−1 = ⇒ Δβ ∼ = ⇒ Δv = u0 Δβ
Δṙ (Ixz /Iz ) L∗
v + Nv
∗
(Ixz /Iz ) L∗
p + Np
∗
(Ixz /Iz ) L∗
r + Nr
∗
0 Δr |V | u u0
ΔΦ̇ 0 1 0 0 ΔΦ
A similar relationship can be found between derivatives;
0 Yδr 1 ∂Y 1 ∂Y 1 1 ∂Y 1 1 1
L∗ ∗
δa + (Ixz /Ix ) Nδa L∗ ∗
δr + (Ixz /Ix ) Nδr Δδa Yv = = = = Yβ , Lv = Lβ , Nv = Nβ
+ m ∂v m ∂ (u0 β) u0 m ∂β u0 u0 u0
(Ixz /Iz ) L∗δa + N ∗
δa (Ixz /Iz ) L∗δr + N ∗
δr Δδr
0 0 So, state-space equations can be rewritten in terms of Δβ;
where, Yβ
u0 Δβ̇ = u0 Δβ + Yp Δp − (u0 − Yr ) Δr + g cos (θ0 ) ΔΦ + Yδr Δδr
Lv Nv Nδr u0
L∗v = 2 / (I I ))
Nv∗ = 2 / (I I ))
... Nδ∗r = 2 / (I I ))
1 − (Ixz x z 1 − (Ixz x z 1 − (Ixz x z Δṗ =
Lβ
u0 Δβ + Lp Δp + Lr Δr + Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr
u0
Neglecting Product of Inertia Nβ
Δṙ = u0 Δβ + Np Δp + Nr Δr + Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr
If the product of inertia is neglected, Ixz = 0, then the equations of motion reduce to; u0

Δv̇ Yv Yp − (u0 − Yr ) g cos (θ0 ) Δv 0 Yδr ΔΦ̇ = Δp
Δṗ Lv Lp Lr 0 Δp Lδa Lδr Δδa
Δṙ = + and can be expressed in matrix form;
Nv Np Nr 0 Δr Nδa Nδr Δδr
ΔΦ̇ 0 1 0 0 ΔΦ 0 0 ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Yβ Yp −(u0 −Yr ) g cos(θ0 )
⎤ ⎡ Yδ
⎤
Δβ̇ u0 u0 u0 u0
Δβ 0 r
u0
⎣ Δṗ ⎦=⎣ Lβ Lp Lr 0 ⎦ Δp
+⎣ Lδa Lδr ⎦ Δδa
Δṙ Nβ Np Nr 0 Δr Nδa Nδr Δδr
ΔΦ̇ 0 1 0 0 ΔΦ 0 0
12 / 28 13 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Roll Mode
Decomposition Into Exponential & Oscillatory Responses Heavily Damped Pure Roll Motion
The natural response of most aircraft to lateral perturbations typically Roll mode consists of almost pure rolling motion, which is dominated by
2. Constrained Dynamics consists of two exponential and one oscillatory modes. 2. Constrained Dynamics perturbations in bank angle φ and roll rate p, with a very small amount
Roll Mode: This heavily damped exponential mode is highly convergent 2.1. Pure Rolling Motion
of sideslip β and negligible yaw rate r. It can be seen that the motion is
and represents the response of the aircraft primarily in roll. heavily damped.
Spiral Mode: This exponential mode can be either convergent or diver-
gent, but usually varies very slowly and has a large time constant that 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
3.3. State-Space Representation presents no difficulty to be corrected. 3.3. State-Space Representation
Dutch-Roll Mode: This lightly damped oscillatory mode has a relatively
4.1. Roll Mode
short period, especially for swept-wing aircrafts. It consists of a com- 4.1. Roll Mode
4.2. Spiral Mode bined rolling, sideslipping, and yawing motions. 4.2. Spiral Mode
These responses can be obtained by solving the fourth order lateral
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn characteristic equation and factorising it into exponential and oscillatory 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
6. References components. Here, the characteristic equation is obtained by expand- 6. References

ing the following determinant;
|λI − A| = 0
where I and A are the identity and lateral system matrices, respec-
tively, which is obtained in the former subsection. In general, the roots
of this equation are found to be composed of two real poles (roll and
spiral modes) and a pair of complex poles (dutch-roll mode).
Alternatively, similar results can be obtained by directly solving the
equation of motion belongs to reduced dynamics as explained in the
14 / 28 remaining subsections. 15 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Roll Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Spiral Mode
Heavily Damped Pure Roll Motion Coordinated Roll & Yaw Motions
Because the roll mode corresponds to almost pure rolling motion, it is The spiral mode consists of mostly coordinated roll and yaw motions. It
2. Constrained Dynamics reasonable to neglect all equations except the rolling moment equation, 2. Constrained Dynamics is dominated by changes in bank angle φ. Since the motion is so slow,
and all perturbations except roll rate state. Thus it can be approximated 2.1. Pure Rolling Motion the roll rate p is quite small, and the yaw rate r is almost 2.5 times to the
by the single first-order differential equation as follows; roll rate, so it would be expected significant changes in heading angle
3. Unconstrained Dynamics Lp + Ix Np 3. Unconstrained Dynamics ψ, as well as bank angle φ.
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM Δṗ = Δp ≈ Lp Δp 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
1 − Ix Iz 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
3.3. State-Space Representation Since the product of inertia coefficients Ix and Iz usually are small, 3.3. State-Space Representation
4. Reduced Dynamics the rolling mode is seen to be dominated by roll damping Lp , which is 4. Reduced Dynamics
4.1. Roll Mode almost always large and negative. Therefore, the eigenvalue related to 4.1. Roll Mode
4.2. Spiral Mode this motion can be defined as; 4.2. Spiral Mode
4.3. Dutch Roll Mode −1 4.3. Dutch Roll Mode
λroll = = Lp
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn τ 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
6. References where τ is the roll time constant. The magnitude of the roll damping 6. References
Lp , is dependent on the size of the wing and tail surfaces.
This mode can be stable or unstable. However, the given visualization

16 / 28 17 / 28 illustrates an uncontrolled vehicle with an unstable spiral mode.
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Spiral Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Spiral Mode
Directional Divergence Spiral Divergence
As indicated in Fig. 18 the spiral mode is characterized by changes in As indicated in Fig. 18 the spiral mode is characterized by changes in
2. Constrained Dynamics the bank angle Φ and the heading angle ψ. 2. Constrained Dynamics the bank angle Φ and the heading angle ψ.


Directional divergence is a result of a directionally unstable airplane. Spiral divergence is characterized by an airplane that is very stable
When the airplane yaws or rolls into a sideslip so that side forces on directionally but not very stable laterally; for example, a large finned
the airplane are generated, the yawing moments that arise continue to airplane with no dihedral.
18 / 28 increase the sideslip. 18 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Spiral Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Dutch Roll Mode
Coordinated Roll & Yaw Motions Out-of-Phase Roll & Yaw Motions
The spiral mode consists of a slow rolling and yawing motion for which Dutch roll is a series of out-of-phase turns, when the aircraft rolls in one
2. Constrained Dynamics the sideslip is relatively small. The roll rate is quite small compared to 2. Constrained Dynamics direction and yaws in the other. This motion is normally well damped in
2.1. Pure Rolling Motion the yaw rate, so a reasonable approximation can be done by setting roll 2.1. Pure Rolling Motion most light aircrafts.
rate to zero as follows;
3. Unconstrained Dynamics Lv + Ix Nv Lr + Ix Nr 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Δṗ = 0 = Δv + Δr
1 − Ix Iz 1 − Ix Iz 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
3.3. State-Space Representation Hence, sideslip velocity can be calculated as; 3.3. State-Space Representation
Lr + Ix Nr
4. Reduced Dynamics Δv ≈ − Δr 4. Reduced Dynamics
4.1. Roll Mode Lv + Ix Nv 4.1. Roll Mode
4.2. Spiral Mode Since Ix and Iz are generally very small, this can be simplified to; 4.2. Spiral Mode
Lr
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn Δv ≈ − Δr (31) 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
Lv
6. References The yaw equation can be formed as; 6. References
Nv + Iz Lv Nr + Iz Lr
Δṙ = Δv + Δr (32)
1 − Ix Iz 1 − Ix Iz
Substituting Eq. 31 into Eq. 32 and neglecting the inertia terms yields;

Lr Nv
Δṙ = Nr − Δr
Lv
So the root of the characteristic equation for the spiral mode is;
Lr Nv
λspiral = Nr −
Lv
19 / 28 20 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Dutch Roll Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Dutch Roll Mode
Strong Roll Stability & Weaker Yaw Stability Strong Roll Stability & Weaker Yaw Stability
Dutch roll results from strong positive lateral stability as opposed to Dutch roll results from strong positive lateral stability as opposed to
2. Constrained Dynamics relatively weaker positive directional stability. 2. Constrained Dynamics relatively weaker positive directional stability.
2.2. Pure Yawing Motion Rolling Introduces A Sideslip 2.2. Pure Yawing Motion Restoring to Level Flight & Pulling Nose to Right

When an aircraft rolls around the longitudinal axis, a sideslip is intro- The right wing has more air flowing parallel to the chord line than the left
duced into the relative wind in the direction of the rolling motion. wing, meaning the right wing generates more lift. This effect is known
as dihedral effect. It results in positive roll stability; the extra lift rolls the
aircraft back towards level. However, this extra lift also generates drag
that pulls aircraft’s nose to the right.
21 / 28 22 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Dutch Roll Mode
Strong Roll Stability & Weaker Yaw Stability Strong Roll Stability & Weaker Yaw Stability
Dutch roll results from strong positive lateral stability as opposed to Dutch roll results from strong positive lateral stability as opposed to
2. Constrained Dynamics relatively weaker positive directional stability. 2. Constrained Dynamics relatively weaker positive directional stability.
2.2. Pure Yawing Motion Yawing to Left 2.2. Pure Yawing Motion Over-banking to Left

Vertical stabilizer generates lift towards the right, yawing the nose back While the tail’s still trying to line up the nose, the aircraft has over-
to the left. Since directional stability is weaker than lateral stability, the banked to the left, causing a left sideslip. At that point, the sideslip is
restoring yaw motion lags significantly behind the restoring roll motion. introduced in the opposite direction and the process is reversed. Now
the sweepback starts to raise the left wing, rolling the aircraft to right.
The drag from the left wing starts to pull the nose to the left.
23 / 28 24 / 28
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
LATERAL MOTION
Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
Sideslipping and Yawing Motions with Neglected Roll Motion State-Space Representation & Eigenvalue Locations
The lightly damped Dutch Roll mode is characterized by coordinated By assuming power approach configuration with stick-fixed control, the
2. Constrained Dynamics rolling, sideslipping, and yawing motions. It is particularly difficult to ap- 2. Constrained Dynamics state-space representation is obtained for Boeing-747 type wide-body
proximate because this mode usually involves significant perturbations commercial
2.2. Pure Yawing Motion 2.2. Pure Yawing Motion jetairliner at standard sea-level with 0.25 Mach
Speed;
in all four state variables. The most useful approximations require ne- Δv̇ −0.0999 0 −85.0697 9.8100 Δv
3. Unconstrained Dynamics glecting either the roll component or simplifying the sideslip component 3. Unconstrained Dynamics Δṗ −0.0181 −1.0992 0.2467 0 Δp
=
Δṙ 0.0039 −0.0933 −0.2313 0 Δr
by assuming the vehicle c.g. travels in a straight line. By using the first Δφ̇ 0 1 0 0 Δφ
approximation, it can be considered that the Dutch Roll mode to consist 3.3. State-Space Representation The reduced form dynamics are also constituted for roll mode;
primarily of sideslipping and yawing motions. Δṗ = −1.0992Δp
and for spiral mode;
Δṙ = −0.1785Δr
and for dutch-roll mode;
Δv̇ −0.0999 −1.0000 Δv
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn =
Δṙ 0.3299 −0.2313 Δr
6. References 6. References The eigenvalue locations are marked as follows;
1.
Full Dynamics
××
0.8
Dutch-Roll Mode 0.6

So the reduced equationof motion can be obtained
as follows;
Yβ
0.4
− 1− Y Δβ Roll Mode 0.2
Imaginary
Δβ̇ r
×× ××
Spiral Mode
= u0 u0 0.
Δṙ Δr
o
Nβ Nr Full Dynamics Full Dynamics -0.2

-0.4
Solving for the characteristic equation yields;

Y + u N
β 0 r Yβ Nr − Nβ Yr + u0 Nβ
Dutch-Roll Mode
×× -0.6
λ2 − λ+ =0 Full Dynamics
-0.8
25 / 28 u0 u0 26 / 28 -1.5 -1.3 -1.1 -0.9 -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1

-1.
0.1
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn CHAPTER 5
LATERAL MOTION
References
Initial Condition Responses [1] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.
For the unconstrained and reduced dynamics, the system responses to
2. Constrained Dynamics the initial conditions are calculated as follows; 2. Constrained Dynamics
Full Dynamics Full Dynamics
3. Unconstrained Dynamics Dutch-Roll Mode Roll Mode 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Side Velocity (v)

Roll Rate (p)


4.3. Dutch Roll Mode Y S 4.3. Dutch Roll Mode

Full Dynamics Full Dynamics
Spiral Mode
Dutch-Roll Mode
Roll Angle ( )
Yaw Rate (r)
U F
0 20 40 600 20 40 60
27 / 28 28 / 28
CHAPTER 6
RESPONSE TO CONTROL OR
General Remarks
ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS
Non-Uniform Atmosphere Effects on Aircraft Motion
1. General Remarks In Chapter 3 the equations of motion were developed for flight in a
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 2. Constrained Dynamics
stationary atmosphere. However, it is rarely calm but usually is charac-
terized by winds, gusts, and turbulence.
2.1. Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion
Chapter 6: Response to Control or Atmospheric Inputs 3. Unconstrained Dynamics In the following sections we discuss the influence of wind gusts on air-
3.1. State-Space Representation craft response as illustrated in Fig. 1.
4. References

+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
October 31, 2019

1 / 11 Figure 1: Gust simulation for an industrial aircraft configuration
CHAPTER 6
ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion
1. General Remarks
Consider an airplane constrained so that movement is possible only 1. General Remarks The equation of motion for this example is obtained by applying New-
in the up and down vertical direction. This type of motion could be ton’s second law;
simulated in the wind tunnel using a model constrained by a vertical 2. Constrained Dynamics dw
rod as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Z=m (1)
dt
3.1. State-Space Representation 3.1. State-Space Representation Eq. 1 can be expressed in perturbation form;
4. References 4. References ∂Z ∂Z ∂Z ∂Z ∂Z ∂Z
Δu + Δw + Δẇ + Δq + Δδe + ΔδT
∂u ∂w ∂ ẇ ∂q ∂δe ∂δT
= mΔẇ (2)
Note that the relevant model is constrained to only vertical motion, and
there is no control input;
Δu = Δq = 0 Δδe = ΔδT = 0
Then, Eq. 2 reduces to;
1 ∂Z 1 ∂Z
Δw + Δẇ = Δẇ
m ∂w m ∂ ẇ
Zw Δw + Zẇ Δẇ = Δẇ (3)
In practice, the force derivative Zẇ contributes very little to the aircraft
response, so it is usually neglected;
Figure 2: Wind tunnel model constrained to pure vertical motion [1]
Zẇ ≈ 0
Assume that the constrained wind tunnel model is subjected to an ex- So, Eq. 3 yields;
ternal disturbance such as a wind gust. Zw Δw = Δẇ (4)
2 / 11 3 / 11
CHAPTER 6
Incorporation of Wind Gust Sharp-Edged Wind Gust Profile
1. General Remarks Replacing Δw by Δw − wg (t) in Eq. 4 gives; 1. General Remarks
2. Constrained Dynamics Zw (Δw − wg (t)) = Δẇ (5) 2. Constrained Dynamics

2.1. Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion where wg (t) is the gust velocity as a function of time. Note that Eq. 5 2.1. Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion
3. Unconstrained Dynamics is a first-order differential equation with constant coefficients and re- 3. Unconstrained Dynamics Figure 3: Sharp-edged type idealized gust profile [1]
3.1. State-Space Representation lates the change in vertical velocity to the vertical gust input. It can be 3.1. State-Space Representation The transient response of an airplane to an encounter with a sharp-
4. References rewritten to have the form; 4. References edged gust can be modeled by expressing the gust profile as a step
− (1/Zw ) Δẇ + Δw = wg (t) function;
0 t = 0−
τ Δẇ + Δw = wg (t) (6) wg (t) =
Ag u (t) t = 0+
where the parameter τ is referred to time constant and defined;
where, Ag is the magnitude of the gust and u (t) is a unit step change.
τ = −1/Zw The solution to Eq. 6 for a step input can be obtained;
The time constant indicates how fast the system approaches to a new

Δw (t) = Ag 1 − e−t/τ (7)
steady-state condition after being disturbed. If the time constant is
small the system will respond very rapidly or vice versa. The variation in vertical velocity of the airplane grows exponentially
Idealized Wind Gust Profiles from 0 to a final value of Ag as shown in Fig. 4.
In the next section, sharp-edged (step) and sinusoidal gust profiles will
be used as input functions to obtain the solution forms. These type of
functions have great importance, because they occur quite often in na-
ture. Furthermore, both sharp-edged and sinusoidal type of functions
can be used to construct any arbitrary gust profile. Also in the case of
an arbitrary-periodic gust function the profile can be decomposed into
a series of sine waves by Fourier analysis. Figure 4: Response to a sharp edged gust [1]
4 / 11 5 / 11
CHAPTER 6
Sinusoidal Wind Gust Profile Sinusoidal Wind Gust Profile
1. General Remarks 1. General Remarks Fig 6.a shows the vertical response of an airplane to a sinusoidal gust
encountered for values of τ w.
2.1. Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion 2.1. Pure Vertical (Plunging) Motion

Figure 5: Sinusoidal type idealized gust profile [1]
If the gust profile encountered by the airplane is sinusoidal, then the
response consists of a transient phase followed by a steady-state sinu-
soidal oscillation which can be written;
Ag
Δw (t) = √ sin (wt − φ) where φ = −tan−1 (τ w) (8)
1 + τ 2 w2
The steady-state response has the following characteristics;
Figure 6: a) Time and b) frequency responses to sinusoidal gust [1]
1. If amplitude of the gust is Ag , then amplitude of the response is Notice for small values of τ w, that is, low-frequency gusts or small air-

Ass = Ag / 1 + τ 2 w2 plane time constants, the phase angle φ is very small and the ratio of
the response to gust input amplitudes is near unity. In this situation, the
response is in phase with the gust wave and the amplitude of response
2. If frequency of the gust is w, then frequency of the response is of the airplane is nearly equal to the amplitude of the gust profile.
wss = w
For very large values of τ w, the response amplitude tends to 0; that is,
the airplane is unaffected by the gust profile. These trends are easily
3. If phase of the gust 0, then phase of the response is observed in the frequency response curve shown in Fig. 6.b.
φss = −tan−1 (τ w)
Although the high-frequency gusts do not influence the rigid body mo-
tion they will excite the structural modes of the airplane.
6 / 11 7 / 11
CHAPTER 6
ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS State-Space Representation ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS State-Space Representation
Translational & Rotational Effects of Gusts Perturbation States
1. General Remarks
It is obvious that spatial and temporal variations in the gust compo- 1. General Remarks The aerodynamic forces and moments now can be expressed;
nents have translation effects on motion. Moreover, these variations
create rotational gust. For example, if the gust field wavelength is large
in comparison with the airplane, as shown in Fig. 7, the vertical gust
3. Unconstrained Dynamics produces a spanwise variation of velocity along the span of the wing. 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Figure 7: Gust field creating a) rolling b) pitching gusts [1] where,

Therefore, to account for atmospheric disturbances such as winds, the
forces and moments must be related to the relative motion with respect
to the atmosphere. This is accomplished by expressing the velocities
used in calculating the aerodynamics in terms of the inertial and gust
velocities as follows;
8 / 11 9 / 11
CHAPTER 6
References
ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS State-Space Representation ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS
In Matrix Form [1] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.
1. General Remarks
The equations of motion, modified to account for atmospheric distur- 1. General Remarks
bances, can be written in the state-space form;
where x, η, and ξ are the state, control, and gust disturbance vectors.
The longitudinal equations are; 3.1. State-Space Representation
and the lateral equations are;
10 / 11 11 / 11

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1.

Asst.Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü

Figure 1: The three axes of rotation

Figure 2: Earth-ﬁxed and body-ﬁxed coordinate systems [1]

Figure 3: Deﬁnition of a) angle-of-attack b) angle-of-sideslip [1]

LOW-WING MID-WING HIGH-WING Elevator

Control Surfaces Control Surfaces

September 16, 2019

2. Longitudinal Stability & Control 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control

3. Lateral Stability & Control 3. Lateral Stability & Control

2. Longitudinal Stability & Control 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control

3. Lateral Stability & Control 3. Lateral Stability & Control

2. Longitudinal Stability & Control 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control

3. Lateral Stability & Control 3. Lateral Stability & Control

5. References Figure 2: Stable and unstable dynamic motions [2] 5. References

2. Longitudinal Stability & Control 2. Longitudinal Stability & Control

3. Lateral Stability & Control 3. Lateral Stability & Control

Longitudinal Stability & Control Longitudinal Stability & Control

Longitudinal Stability & Control Longitudinal Stability & Control

Figure 9: Wing contribution to the pitching moment [2]

Longitudinal Stability & Control Longitudinal Stability & Control

Longitudinal Stability & Control Longitudinal Stability & Control

k2 − k 1 the correction factor for the body ﬁneness ratio

Longitudinal Stability & Control CHAPTER 2

28 / 56 29 / 56 Figure 15: Primary aerodynamic controls [2]

Figure 17: Flap effectiveness parameter [2]

Figure 18: Symmetrical ﬂight conditions

Figure 19: Asymmetrical ﬂight conditions

3. Lateral Stability & Control

Lateral Stability & Control Lateral Stability & Control

Figure 23: Directional control by means of the rudder [2]

Lateral Stability & Control CHAPTER 2

Figure 33: Aileron and spoilers for roll control [2]

3. Lateral Stability & Control

Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü

3. Dynamic Analysis oscillation 3. Dynamic Analysis

5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations

Rotation Matrix About z-Axis Rotation Matrix About y-Axis

Kinematic Analysis Kinematic Analysis

Rotation Matrix About x-Axis Rotation Matrix

can be rewritten in scalar form as follows; a × b = a2 b3 − a3 b2 a3 b1 − a1 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1 (16)

3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis

4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion

6. References (Fy )gravity = mg cos (θ) sin (Φ) (26) 6. References

(Fz )gravity = mg cos (θ) cos (Φ)

Figure 10: Force and moments due to propulsion system [2]

Equations of Motion CHAPTER 3

Linearized Equations Linearized Equations

Linearized Equations Linearized Equations

Nominal Value (Equilibrium/Trim State) + Small Perturbation

Linearized Small-Disturbance Longitudinal Equations of Motion

Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions

Assumption: Small Angle

Assumption: Quadratic Perturbations

Linearized Equations Linearized Equations

Linearized Small-Disturbance Lateral Equations of Motion

November 17, 2019

where, F (t) is forcing function.

4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics

Unconstrained Dynamics Unconstrained Dynamics

4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics

5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn

Figure 8: Schematic representation of long-period (phugoid) mode [2]