Ae401 ch04

CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Differential Equations
Derivatives of Dependent Variables wrt Independent Variables
1. General Remarks
1.1. Differential Equations
An equation containing the derivatives of one or more dependent vari-
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System ables with respect to the one or more independent variables, is said to
be a differential equation.
2. Constrained Dynamics
Chapter 4: Longitudinal Motion Dependent Variable

2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
dn y
3. Unconstrained Dynamics = F x, y , y , ..., y (n−1)
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM dxn
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
Independent Variable
3.3. State-Space Representation Second Order Ordinary Differential Equations
4. Reduced Dynamics Many physical systems including plenty of electrical and mechanical
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode applications can be modeled by second order ordinary differential equa-
4.2. Short-Period Mode tions (ODE). Besides these systems, 2nd order ODEs are also impor-
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn tant in the expression of aircraft dynamics.
6. References Especially, while studying the reduced dynamics cases, these kind of
differential equations arise frequently.
So, firstly in this section before proceeding with our discussion of air-
Base Floor, Z-13 GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY craft motions, we shall exemplify to second order system and then ex-
+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
oogucu@gantep.edu.tr Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics amine its system matrix, characteristic polynomial, eigenvalues, eigen-
http://www1.gantep.edu.tr/~oogucu/ Department of Aircraft and Aerospace Engineering vectors and various solution forms.
November 17, 2019

1 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Example: Mass-Spring-Damper System Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Example: Mass-Spring-Damper System
Free Body Diagram & Equation of Motion Nonhomogeneous Solution
1. General Remarks 1. General Remarks
To illustrate the properties of a second-order differential equation, we 1.1. Differential Equations
The differential equation for this system can be written as;
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System examine the motion of a mechanical system composed of a mass, a 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System dx2 c dx k 1
spring, and a damper as shown in Fig. 1. + + x= F (t) (2)
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics dt2 m dt m m
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion This is a nonhomogeneous, linear, second-order differential equation
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics with constant coefficients. The general solution of the nonhomoge-
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM neous differential equation can be calculated as;
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
y = y c + yp
3.3. State-Space Representation 3.3. State-Space Representation
where, yc is called homogeneous (complementary) solution, and yp is
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics
Figure 1: A mass-spring-damper system, where m, k, and c indicate mass, spring called particular solution.
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
4.2. Short-Period Mode constant and viscous damping coefficient, respectively. Also, F (t) represents the 4.2. Short-Period Mode Homogeneous Solution
forcing function. [1]
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn The homogeneous solution is the solution of the differential equation
The spring provides a linear restoring force that is proportional to the when the forcing function is equal to 0 as given in Eq. 3 that corre-
6. References 6. References
extension of the spring; sponds to the free response of the system.
Fs = −kx
dx2 c dx k
The damper provides a damping force that is proportional to the velocity + + x=0 (3)
dt2 m dt m
of the mass;
Fd = −cv Particular Solution
Applying Newton’s law to a free-body diagram of the mass gives; On the other hand, particular solution in this context means any solution
that satisfies the Eq. 2 together with homogeneous solution.
ma = F = −Fs − Fd + F (t) (1)
where, F (t) is forcing function.

2 / 34 3 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Reduced Order System of Equations Eigen Decomposition & Solution Forms
Rearranging Eq. 3 gives; The roots of the characteristic equation λ1,2 are called
eigenvalues;
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System
c
ẍ = − ẋ − x
k
(4)

2
2 c k c c k
m m p=λ + λ+ =0 ⇒ λ1,2 = − ± − (9)
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics m m 2m 2m m
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion By introducing a new state variable, Eq. 4 can be rewritten in first-order 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
The vectors η1 and η2 which corresponds to λ1 and λ2 , respectively,
form as;
3. Unconstrained Dynamics ẋ = v (5) 3. Unconstrained Dynamics are called eigenvectors. Note that λ1,2 depend on the system param-
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM −c k 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM eters; namely, m, c, and k. According to these values, three possible
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM v̇ = v− x (6) 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM cases may occur to calculate the eigenvectors and solution;
3.3. State-Space Representation
m m 3.3. State-Space Representation
where, v is the velocity of the mass. 1. Case-1: (c/2m) > k/m
System Matrix, State Vector λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0, (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
These set of equations can be expressed in matrix form as;

x (t)
4.2. Short-Period Mode
v (t)
= c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 eλ2 t η2 (10)
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn ẋ 0 1 x 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
= (7)
v̇ −k/m −c/m v
6. References 6. References 2. Case-2: (c/2m) = k/m
So, system matrix (A) and state vector (
x) of the mass-spring-damper
λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0, (λ1 I − A) η2 = η1
system can be defined as;

x (t)
0 1 x = c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 teλ1 t η1 + eλ1 t η2 (11)
A x (8) v (t)
−k/m −c/m v

Characteristic Equation 3. Case-3: (c/2m) < k/m
λ1 = λ2 ∈ C ⇒ (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0, (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0
Characteristic equation p can be calculated as;
x (t)
λ = λ2 + c λ + k = c1 Re eλ1 t η1 + c2 Im eλ1 t η1 (12)

0 0 1
p = det (λI − A) =
0 λ
−
−k/m −c/m
v (t)
m m
4 / 34 5 / 34 where, c1 , and c2 are constants determined from the initial conditions.
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Geometric Interpretation of Eigenvectors Case-1: (c/2m)2 > (k/m)
Consider figure shown below in which six points p1 , p2 , ..., p6 and 1.1. Differential Equations If the inequality (c/2m)2 > (k/m) is satisfied, then the eigenvalues are
corresponding vectors are defined. real and distinct;
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System

2
2. Constrained Dynamics S S S 2. Constrained Dynamics c c k
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ λ1,2 =− ± −
2m 2m m
3. Unconstrained Dynamics S ¶
S ¶
S ¶
S
3. Unconstrained Dynamics
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
¶
S 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM So, linearly independent eigenvectors can be calculated;
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM √
3.3. State-Space Representation S S ¶
S ¶
S 3.3. State-Space Representation −c + c2 − 4km / (2k)
(λ1 I − A) η1 = 0 ⇒ η1 =
4. Reduced Dynamics Let apply a scaling transformation to these points (or vectors) with factor 4. Reduced Dynamics 1
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 2 in the horizontal direction and factor 0.5 in the vertical direction as 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode √
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode −c − c2 − 4km / (2k)

calculated below; (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0 ⇒ η2 =
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn p 1x p 2x p 3x p 4x p 5x p 6x 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 1
p 1y p 2y p 3y p 4y p 5y p 6y By using these values, the solution can be formed;
6. References
6. References

2 0 p1x p2x p3x p4x p5x p6x x (t)
= = c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 eλ2 t η2
0 0.5 p1y p2y p3y p4y p5y p6y v (t)
Note that the direction of some vectors (shown in red) is not affected by where, x (t) and v (t) represent the position and velocity functions. The
this linear transformation. They are called eigenvectors whose direc- arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are found from initial conditions of the
tion remain unchanged when a linear transformation is applied to them. motion.
Also realize that, scaling factors are the corresponding eigenvalues. x (0) = x0 , v (0) = v0
6 / 34 7 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-1: (c/2m)2 > (k/m) Case-1: (c/2m)2 > (k/m)
1.1. Differential Equations 1.1. Differential Equations
Position
Listing 1: Mathematica Implementation 1.5
1 // Define system parameters, system matrix and characteristic polynomial
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics
2 m = 1; c = 4; k = 3; 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 1.0
3 A = {{0, 1}, {−k/m, −c/m}};
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
4 p = Det[λ* IdentityMatrix [2] − A] ⇒ 3 + 4λ + λ2 Case-1
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 0.5
5 // Calculate eigenvalues
6 Roots[p == 0, λ] ⇒ λ == −3||λ == −1
7 λ1 = −3; λ2 = −1; Time
4. Reduced Dynamics 8 // Calculate eigenvectors 4. Reduced Dynamics 0.5 1. 1.5 2. 2.5 3. 3.5 4. 4.5 5.
9 η1 = {{ η1x }, {η1v }}; η2 = {{ η2x }, {η2v }};
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode -0.5
10 Solve[(λ1 * IdentityMatrix [2] − A).η1 == 0, {η1x , η1v }] ⇒ {{η1v → −3η1x }}
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 11 Solve[(λ2 * IdentityMatrix [2] − A).η2 == 0, {η2x , η2v }] ⇒ {{η2v → −η2x }} 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
12 η1x = −1/3; η1v = 1; η2x = −1; η2v = 1; -1.0
13 // Define solution forms and initial conditions for position and velocity functions
14 x [t_] := c1 * Exp[λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x + c2 *Exp[λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2x -1.5
15 v [t_] := c1 * Exp[λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v + c2 *Exp[λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2v
Figure 2: Position response to the initial conditions
16 x0 = 1; v0 = −2;
17 Solve[x[0] == x0 && v[0] == v0 ,{c1 ,c2 }] ⇒ c1 → −3/2, c2 → −1/2 Note that, system response to initial conditions will die out exponen-
18 c1 = −3/2; c2 = −1/2; tially with time. This type of behaviour is referred to as an overdamped
19 // Plot position response to initial condition motion.
20 plt1 = Plot [x[ t ], { t , 0, 5}, PlotRange−>{−1.5, 1.5}, AxesLabel−>{Time, Position}] t→∞ ⇒ x (t) → 0
8 / 34 9 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-2: (c/2m)2 = (k/m) Case-2: (c/2m)2 = (k/m)
1.1. Differential Equations If the equality (c/2m)2 = (k/m) is satisfied, then the eigenvalues are 1.1. Differential Equations
Listing 2: Mathematica Implementation
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System real and identical; 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System
c 1 // Define system parameters, system matrix and characteristic polynomial
2. Constrained Dynamics λ1 = λ2 ∈ R ⇒ λ1,2 = − 2. Constrained Dynamics
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2m 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
2 m = 1; c = 6; k = 9;
3 A = {{0, 1}, {−k/m, −c/m}}; I = IdentityMatrix [2];
3. Unconstrained Dynamics So, linearly independent eigenvectors can be calculated; 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
p = Det[λ*IM − A] ⇒ 9 + 6λ + λ2
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM
4
−2m/c 5 // Calculate eigenvalues
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0 ⇒ η1 = 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
⇒ λ == −3||λ == −3
3.3. State-Space Representation 1 3.3. State-Space Representation
6 Roots[p == 0, λ]
7 λ1 = −3; λ2 = −3;
4. Reduced Dynamics −2m (c − 2m) /c2 4. Reduced Dynamics
(λ1 I − A) η2 = η1 ⇒ η2 = 8 // Calculate eigenvectors
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 1 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
9 η1 = {{ η1x }, {η1v }}; η2 = {{ η2x }, {η2v }};
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode
By using these values, the solution can be formed; 10 Solve[(λ1 * IM − A).η1 == 0, {η1x , η1v }] ⇒ {{η1v → −3η1x }}
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 11 Solve[(λ2 * IM − A).η2 − η1 == 0, {η2x , η2v }] ⇒ {{η2v → (1/3) − 3η2x }}
x (t)
6. References
= c1 eλ1 t η1 + c2 teλ1 t η1 + eλ1 t η2 6. References 12 η1x = −1/3; η1v = 1; η2x = −2/9; η2v = 1;
v (t)
where, x (t) and v (t) represent the position and velocity functions. The 14 x [t_] :=
arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are found from initial conditions of the c1 ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x + c2 ∗ (t ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x + Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2x )
motion. 15 v [t_] :=
c1 ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v + c2 ∗ (t ∗ Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v + Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2v )
x (0) = x0 , v (0) = v0 16 x0 = 1; v0 = −4;
Note that for a fixed m and k, choosing c such that to satisfy the con- 17 Solve[x[0] == x0 && v[0] == v0 ,{c1 ,c2 }] ⇒ c1 → −1, c2 → −3
dition (c/2m)2 = (k/m) gives the fastest return of the system to its 18 c1 = −1; c2 = −3;
equilibrium position. 19 // Plot position response to initial conditions
20 plt2 = Plot [x[ t ], { t , 0, 5}, PlotRange−>{−1.5, 1.5}, AxesLabel−>{Time, Position}]
10 / 34 11 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-2: (c/2m)2 = (k/m) Case-3: (c/2m)2 < (k/m)
Position 1.1. Differential Equations If the inequality (c/2m)2 < (k/m) is satisfied, then the eigenvalues are
152 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System a pair of complex conjugates;
2
c k c
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics λ1 = λ2 ∈ C ⇒ λ1,2 = − ±j −
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 15. 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2m m 2m
3. Unconstrained Dynamics 3. Unconstrained Dynamics So, linearly independent eigenvectors can be calculated;
. 52
√
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM Case-1 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
−c + j 4km − c2 / (2k)
3.3. State-Space Representation Case-0 3.3. State-Space Representation (λ1 I − A) η1 = 0 ⇒ η1 =
Time 1
4. Reduced Dynamics . 52 15 152 05 052 35 352 45 452 25 4. Reduced Dynamics √
-. 52
−c − j 4km − c2 / (2k)
4.2. Short-Period Mode 4.2. Short-Period Mode (λ2 I − A) η2 = 0 ⇒ η2 =
1
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
-15. By using these values, the solution can be formed;
x (t)
= c1 Re eλ1 t η1 + c2 Im eλ1 t η1
-152 v (t)
Figure 3: Position responses to the initial conditions where, x (t) and v (t) represent the position and velocity functions. The
The resulting behaviour is referred to as the critically damped motion, arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are found from initial conditions of the
which represents the boundary between the overdamped exponential motion.
x (0) = x0 , v (0) = v0
and the damped sinusoidal motions. As in the overdamped case, this
motion does not oscillate. Alternatively, the solution form can be rewritten in terms of sine and
cosine functions by using Euler’s formula;
e(a±jb)t = eat cos (bt) ± jeat sin (bt)
12 / 34 13 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
General Remarks
Case-3: (c/2m)2 < (k/m) Case-3: (c/2m)2 < (k/m)
Position
Listing 3: Mathematica Implementation 123
1 // Define system parameters, system matrix and characteristic polynomial
2 m = 1; c = 2; k = 10; 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 125
3 A = {{0, 1}, {−k/m, −c/m}}; I = IdentityMatrix [2];
4 p = Det[λ* I − A] ⇒ 10 + 2λ + λ2
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 523 Case-1
5 // Calculate eigenvalues
6 Roots[p == 0, λ] ⇒ λ == −1 − 3i||λ == −1 + 3i Case-0
7 λ1 = −1 − 3i; λ2 = −1 + 3i; Time
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics 523 12 123 02 023 .2 . 23 42 423 32
8 // Calculate eigenvectors
9 η1 = {{ η1x }, {η1v }}; η2 = {{ η2x }, {η2v }}; -523
10 Solve[(λ1 * I − A).η1 == 0, {η1x , η1v }] ⇒ {{η1v → (−1 − 3i)η1x }} Case-.
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 11 Solve[(λ2 * I − A).η2 == 0, {η2x , η2v }] ⇒ {{η2v → (−1 + 3i)η2x }} 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
12 η1x = (−1 + 3i)/10; η1v = 1; η2x = (−1 − 3i)/10; η2v = 1;
-125
14 x [t_] := c1 ∗ Re [Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1x ] + c2 ∗ Im [Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2x ] -123
15 v [t_] := c1 ∗ Re [Exp [λ1 ∗ t] ∗ η1v ] + c2 ∗ Im [Exp [λ2 ∗ t] ∗ η2v ] Figure 4: Position responses to the initial conditions
16 x0 = 1; v0 = −4;
17 Solve[x[0] == x0 && v[0] == v0 ,{c1 ,c2 }] ⇒ c1 → −4, c2 → −2 The resulting behaviour is referred to as the underdamped motion.
18 c1 = −4; c2 = −2;
19 // Plot position response to initial condition
20 plt3 = Plot [x[ t ], { t , 0, 5}, PlotRange−>{−1.5, 1.5}, AxesLabel−>{Time, Position}]
14 / 34 15 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Constrained Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Constrained Dynamics
Pure Pitching Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Pure Pitching Motion
Wind-Tunnel Model One Degree-of-Freedom Equation of Motion
1. General Remarks Consider the case in which the airplane’s center of gravity is constrained 1. General Remarks
The equation of motion for this constrained model of a pure pitching
to move in a straight line at a constant speed but the aircraft is free to motion can be given;
pitch about its center of gravity as illustrated in Fig. 5.
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics M = Iy θ̈ (13)
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
Eq. 13 can be expressed in perturbation form;
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM ∂M ∂M ∂M ∂M
Δα + Δα̇ + Δq + Δδe = Iy Δθ̈ (14)
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM ∂α ∂ α̇ ∂q ∂δe
For the restricted motion that we are examining, the variables are the
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics angle of attack, pitch angle, the time rate of change of these variables,
and the elevator angle. It is convenient to express Eq. 14 in terms of a
single variable, namely angle-of-attack. If we align the body and fixed
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn frames so they coincide at t = 0, the change in pitch angle and angle-
6. References 6. References of-attack are identical;
Δθ = Δα Δq = Δθ̇ = Δα̇
Substituting this information into Eq. 14 yields;
Δα̈ − (Mq + Mα̇ ) Δα̇ − Mα Δα = Mδe Δδe (15)
where,
1 ∂M 1 ∂M 1 ∂M 1 ∂M
Figure 5: Wind-tunnel model constrained to a pure pitching motion [1]
Mq = Mα̇ = Mα = M δe =
Iy ∂q Iy ∂ α̇ Iy ∂α Iy ∂δe
Eq. 15 is a nonhomogeneous second-order differential equation, having
constant coefficients.
16 / 34 17 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Constrained Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained Dynamics
Pure Pitching Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Nonlinear Coupled Equations of Motion
Step Response Force & Moment Equations
The solution for a step change in the elevator angle Δδe is illustrated in 1.1. Differential Equations
At previous chapter, the nonlinear force and moment equations were
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System Fig. 6. 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System derived by making
1. rigid body assumption,
2. constant mass assumption.
as given in Eq. 16 to Eq. 21.
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM Force Equations
3.3. State-Space Representation 3.3. State-Space Representation X − mgSθ = m (u̇ + qw − rv) (16)

Y + mgCθ SΦ = m (v̇ + ru − pw) (17)
4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode Z + mgCθ CΦ = m (ẇ + pv − qu) (18)
Moment Equations
L = Ix ṗ − Ixz ṙ − Ixz pq + (Iz − Iy ) qr (19)
6. References 6. References 2 2

M = Iy q̇ + (Ix − Iz ) pr + Ixz p − r (20)
N = −Ixz ṗ + Iz ṙ + (Iy − Ix ) pq + Ixz qr (21)
where,
Figure 6: Angle of attack time history for a pitching model [1] Cθ cos (θ) , Sθ sin (θ) , CΦ cos (Φ) , SΦ sin (Φ)

Mathematica Implementation Ix = y 2 +z 2 δm, Iy = x2 +z 2 δm, Iz = x2 +y 2 δm
Switch to Mathematica to derive angle-of-attack time history of Boeing-
Ixy = xyδm, Ixz = xzδm, Iyz = yzδm
747 for various elevator deflection functions (i.e., Step, Sine);
18 / 34 19 / 34
Unconstrained Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained Dynamics
Linearized Decoupled Equations of Motion Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
State-Space Representation
Longitudinal & Lateral Equations General & Simplified Cases
1. General Remarks
Also, these equations were decoupled and linearized by incorporating 1.1. Differential Equations
The linearized longitudinal equations can be written as a set of first-
1. small deviations from equilibrium flight assumption, 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System order differential equations, called the state-space or state variable
2. separable longitudinal and lateral motion assumption equations. The most general state-space representation of a linear
and obtained in perturbation form as given in Eq. 22 to Eq. 27. 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
system with p inputs, q outputs and n state variables is written in the
following form;
Longitudinal Equations 3. Unconstrained Dynamics

ẋ (t) = A (t) x (t) + B (t) u (t)
d
− Xu Δu − Xw Δw + gΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (22) 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
y (t) = C (t) x (t) + D (t) u (t)
where,

dt
d d x (.) state vector, x (t) ∈ Rn
−Zu Δu + (1 − Zẇ ) − Zw Δw − (u0 + Zq ) − g sin θ0 Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (23) 4. Reduced Dynamics
dt dt y (.) output vector, y (t) ∈ Rq

2
u (.) input (or control) vector, u (t) ∈ Rp
d d d 4.2. Short-Period Mode
−Mu Δu − Mẇ + Mw Δw + 2
− Mq Δθ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (24) A (.) state (or system) matrix, dim [A (.)] = n × n
dt dt dt
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn B (.) input matrix, dim [B (.)] = n × p
Lateral Equations

6. References C (.) output matrix, dim [C (.)] = q × n
d
− Yv Δv − Yp Δp + (u0 − Yr ) Δr − g cos (θ0 ) ΔΦ = Yδr Δδr (25) D (.) feedthrough (or feedforward) matrix, dim [D (.)] = q × p
dt

Note that the representation given above belongs to the time-variant
d Ixz d
−Lv Δv + − Lp Δp − + Lr Δr = Lδa Δδa + Lδr Δδr (26) system (i.e., A is function of time due to the variable mass assump-
dt

Ix dt

tion), however we will attend to time-invariant system (i.e., A does
Ixz d d
−Nv Δv − + Np Δp + − Nr Δr = Nδa Δδa + Nδr Δδr (27) not depend to time due to the constant mass assumption). Moreover,
Iz dt dt
feedthrough matrix is generally zero for the subject of aircraft dynamics.
where,
So, simplified representation for our case can be given as;
1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂N ẋ (t) = Ax (t) + Bu (t)
Xu , Xw , X δe , XδT , ..., N δr
m ∂u m ∂w m ∂δe m ∂δT Iz ∂δr
20 / 34 21 / 34 y (t) = Cx (t)
Unconstrained Dynamics Unconstrained Dynamics

State-Space Representation State-Space Representation
Rearranging Equations Leaving Δq̇ Alone
The linearized longitudinal set of equations developed earlier are repeated here; For leaving Δq̇ alone, multiply Eq. 35 by Mẇ and sum with Eq. 36;
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (28) −Zu Mẇ Δu + Mẇ Δẇ − Zw Mẇ Δw − u0 Mẇ Δq + Mẇ g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Mẇ Δδe + ZδT Mẇ ΔδT
−Zu Δu + (1 − Zẇ ) Δẇ − Zw Δw − (u0 + Zq ) Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (29) −Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δq̇ − Mq Δq = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT
+
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (30)
− (Zu Mẇ + Mu ) Δu − (Zw Mẇ + Mw ) Δw + Δq̇ − (u0 Mẇ + Mq ) Δq + g sin (θ0 ) Mẇ Δθ
where Δδe and ΔδT are the aerodynamic and propulsive controls, respectively.
= (Zδe Mẇ + Mδe ) Δδe + ZδT Mẇ + MδT ΔδT (37)
Neglecting Force Derivatives
In practice, the force derivatives Zq , and Zẇ usually are neglected because they contribute very
little to the aircraft response; Making Small Angle Assumption
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (31) By assuming small deviations from equilibrium flight, we can get rid of trigonometric terms;
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (32) θ0 ≈ 0 → sin (θ0 ) = 0, cos (θ0 ) = 1
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (33) Rearranging Equations
Reducing Equation Order Leaving derivative terms on the left side gives;
For reducing the order of Eq. 33, introduce a new state variable Δθ̇ = Δq and Δθ̈ = Δq̇ by Δu̇ = Xu Δu + Xw Δw − gΔθ + Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (38)
assuming that y-axis of body frame and earth frame is initially aligned. So, angular velocity at Δẇ = Zu Δu + Zw Δw + u0 Δq + Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (39)
y-axis according to the body frame is equivalent to pitch rate with respect to the inertial frame.
Δq̇ = (Zu Mẇ + Mu ) Δu + (Zw Mẇ + Mw ) Δw + (u0 Mẇ + Mq ) Δq
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (34)
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δq + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (35) + (Zδe Mẇ + Mδe ) Δδe + ZδT Mẇ + MδT ΔδT (40)
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δq̇ − Mq Δq = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (36) Δθ̇ = Δq (41)
22 / 34 23 / 34
Unconstrained Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
State-Space Representation Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Representing In Matrix Form Decomposition Into Low & High Frequency Responses
1. General Remarks
Rewriting the Eq. 38 to Eq. 41 in the state-space form yields; 1.1. Differential Equations
The natural response of most aircraft to longitudinal perturbations typi-
Δu̇
Xu Xw 0 −g
Δu
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System cally consists of two underdamped oscillatory modes having rather dif-
Δẇ Zu Zw u0 0 Δw ferent time scales as shown in Fig. 7.a and Fig. 7.b.
= 2. Constrained Dynamics
Δq̇ (Zu Mẇ + Mu ) (Zw Mẇ + Mw ) (u0 Mẇ + Mq ) 0 Δq 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
Δθ̇ 0 0 1 0 Δθ
⎡ ⎤ 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Xδe XδT
+⎣
Zδe Z δT ⎦ Δδe
(42)
(Zδe Mẇ + Mδe ) ZδT Mẇ + MδT ΔδT 3.3. State-Space Representation
0 0 4. Reduced Dynamics
4.2. Short-Period Mode Figure 7: When the controls are fixed, the longitudinal motion disturbed from
equilibrium condition are characterized by two oscillatory motions; a) long-period
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn
(phugoid) mode and b) short-period mode [1]
6. References
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode: Although the damping is very weak,
the period is so long that the pilot usually corrects for this motion without
being aware that the oscillation even exists.
Short-Period Mode: This heavily damped oscillation generally has pe-
riod of only a few seconds. Moreover, the time to damp the amplitude
to one-half of its initial value is usually on the order of 1 second.
These responses can be obtained by solving the fourth order charac-
teristic equation derived in the previous section and factorising it into
low and high frequency components. Alternatively, similar results can
24 / 34 25 / 34 be obtained more directly as explained in the remaining subsections.
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
Large-Amplitude Variation of Pitch Angle, Altitude, & Speed Gradual Interchange of Potential & Kinetic Energy
A phugoid is an aircraft motion in which the vehicle pitches up and 1.1. Differential Equations
Actually, the long-period mode is a gradual interchange of potential and
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System climbs, and then pitches down and descends, accompanied by speed- 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System kinetic energy about the equilibrium altitude and airspeed as the aircraft
ing up and slowing down as illustrated in Fig. 8. It can be seen that the attempts to re-establish the equilibrium level-flight condition from which
long-period mode is characterized by large-amplitude variation of pitch 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion
it had been disturbed. The motion is so slow that the effects of inertia
angle, altitude, and velocity at a nearly constant angle of attack. forces and damping forces are very low.

Figure 8: Schematic representation of long-period (phugoid) mode [2]

There is a great similarity between phugoid mode and roller coaster
movements, which does not change its angle with respect to the rails
(angle-of-attack) but has large angle differences with respect to the
Figure 9: Phugoid mode experiment by using balsa wood glider (link here)
26 / 34 ground (pitch angle). 27 / 34
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode
Fixed Aerodynamic Control & Zero Propulsive Control Constant Angle of Attack
1. General Remarks
Remember the linearized longitudinal equations again with neglected force derivatives Zq and Zẇ ; 1.1. Differential Equations
Also, approximation to the long-period mode involves assuming that the
change in angle of attack is zero;
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (43) 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System
α = tan−1 (w/u) → Small Angle Assumption → α = w/u
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = Zδe Δδe + ZδT ΔδT (44) 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion Remember the perturbation states;
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = Mδe Δδe + MδT ΔδT (45) 3. Unconstrained Dynamics α = 0 + Δα w = 0 + Δw u = u0 + Δu
Because there is no control action Δδe = 0 and ΔδT = 0, the equations reduce to; 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
Then;
3.3. State-Space Representation Δα = Δw/ (u0 + Δu) Δα = 0 → Δw = 0 (51)
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (46)
4. Reduced Dynamics Note that the altitude of the aircraft varies due to the changes in θ and
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (47) 4.1. Long-Period (or Phugoid) Mode u, but not w. At this point, roller coaster can be a good example for
−Mu Δu − Mẇ Δẇ − Mw Δw + Δθ̈ − Mq Δθ̇ = 0 (48) long-period mode of motion.
Matrix Form Representation
Neglected Pitching Moment 6. References Making these assumptions, the homogeneous longitudinal state equa-
An approximation to the long-period mode can be obtained by neglecting the pitching moment tions reduce to the following;
equation;
Δu̇ = Xu Δu − gΔθ (52)
Δu̇ − Xu Δu − Xw Δw + g cos (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (49)
−Zu
−Zu Δu + Δẇ − Zw Δw − u0 Δθ̇ + g sin (θ0 ) Δθ = 0 (50) Δθ̇ = Δu (53)
u0
In matrix form as;
Small Angle Assumption
Δu̇ Xu −g Δu
By assuming small deviations from equilibrium flight, we can get rid of trigonometric terms; = −Zu (54)
Δθ̇ 0 Δθ
θ0 ≈ 0 → sin (θ0 ) = 0, cos (θ0 ) = 1 u0
28 / 34 29 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Reduced Dynamics
Short-Period Mode Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
Short-Period Mode
Rapid Variation in Angle-of-Attack, Nearly Constant Air-Speed Matrix Form Representation
This motion can be characterized by rapid variation in angle-of-attack. 1.1. Differential Equations
An approximation to the short-period mode of motion can be obtained
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System The period is so short that the speed does not have time to change. 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System by assuming Δu = 0 and dropping the X-force equation. The longitu-
There is very little change in the trajectory over the time it takes for the dinal state-space equations reduce to the following;
oscillation to damp out.
2.1. Pure Pitching Motion 2.1. Pure Pitching Motion Δẇ Zw u0 Δw
= (55)
Δq̇ Mw + Mẇ Zw Mq + Mẇ u0 Δq
3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM 3.1. Nonlinear Coupled EoM This equation can be written in terms of the angle of attack by using the
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM relationship;
3.3. State-Space Representation 3.3. State-Space Representation Δw
Δα = ⇒ Δw = u0 Δα, Δẇ = u0 Δα̇
4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics u0
In addition, the derivatives due to w and ẇ can be replaced with deriva-
tives due to α and α̇ by using the following equations. For example, the
5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn moment derivative Mw can be expressed;
6. References 6. References 1 ∂M 1 ∂M 1 1 ∂M 1
Mw = = = = Mα
Iy ∂w Iy ∂ (u0 α) u0 Iy ∂α u0
In a similar way, other derivatives can be obtained;
Figure 10: Visualized simulation results for short-period mode (link here) 1 1
Zw = Zα Mẇ = Mα̇
It arises from the tendency of a stable aircraft to point in the general u0 u0
direction of flight. A short input (in control systems terminology an im- Using these expressions, the state equations for the short-period ap-
pulse) in pitch will generally lead to overshoots about the trimmed con- proximation can be rewritten in terms of Δα and Δq;
dition. The transition is characterised by a damped simple harmonic Zα

Δα̇ u0
1 Δα
motion about the new trim. = (56)
Δq̇ Mα + Mα̇ Zα
Mq + Mα̇ Δq
30 / 34 31 / 34 u0
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained vs Reduced Dynamics CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Unconstrained vs Reduced Dynamics
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
State-Space Representation & Eigenvalue Locations Initial Condition Responses
By assuming power approach configuration with stick-fixed control, the 1.1. Differential Equations
For the unconstrained and reduced dynamics, the system responses to
1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System state-space representation is obtained for Boeing-747 type wide-body 1.2. Ex: Mass-Spring-Damper System the initial conditions are calculated as follows;
commercial
jet airliner
at standard sea-level with 0.25 Mach
Speed;
Forward Velocity (u) Vertical Velocity (w) Pitch Rate (q) Pitch Angle (θ)
2. Constrained Dynamics 2. Constrained Dynamics X Z T Q
/RQJ3HULRG0RGH
Δu̇ - 0.0225 0.0467 0 - 9.8100 Δu
Δẇ - 0.2241 - 0.5678 80.0015 0 Δw
=
3. Unconstrained Dynamics Δq̇ 0.0015 - 0.0023 - 0.9309 0 Δq 3. Unconstrained Dynamics
Δθ̇ 0 0 1 0 Δθ
3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM The
reduced form
dynamics are alsoconstituted
for long-period mode; 3.2. Linearized Decoupled EoM
3.3. State-Space Representation Δu̇ - 0.0225 - 9.8100 Δu 3.3. State-Space Representation
=
Δθ̇ 0.0028 0 Δθ
and for short-period
mode;
8QFRQVWUDLQHG'\QDPLFV
4.2. Short-Period Mode Δẇ - 0.5678 80.0015 Δw 4.2. Short-Period Mode
=
Δq̇ - 0.0023 - 0.9309 Δq
The eigenvalue locations are marked as follows; 0 600 0 600 0 600 0 600
6. References -0.7557 -0.0049 6. References X Z T Q
0.8
8QFRQVWUDLQHG'\QDPLFV 0.6
0.3917
× 6KRUW-3HULRG /RQJ-3HULRG
×
×
Imaginary
6KRUW3HULRG0RGH
0.1348
8QFRQVWUDLQHG'\QDPLFV
×
×
o
-0.1348
-0.3917
× -0.6
-0.
Real 0 120 0 120 0 120 0 120
32 / 34 -1.0-0.9-0.8-0.7-0.6-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.1 0.0 0.1 33 / 34
CHAPTER 4
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
References
[1] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.
1. General Remarks
1.1. Differential Equations [2] A. K. Ghosh, Y. Singh, and D. Philip, “Aircraft performance, stability and control with experiments in flight
lecture notes, module 7, lecture 34,” 2015.
3. Unconstrained Dynamics
4. Reduced Dynamics
6. References
34 / 34

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CHAPTER 4

November 17, 2019

where, F (t) is forcing function.

4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics

Unconstrained Dynamics Unconstrained Dynamics

4. Reduced Dynamics 4. Reduced Dynamics

5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn 5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn

Figure 8: Schematic representation of long-period (phugoid) mode [2]

5. Unconstrained vs Reduced Dyn

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