Unit I-1 (IM) Propositional Logic

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic
September 9, 2022

Logic and Proof Methods
Study of how to find the truth value of

complex statements and how to validate
claims or arguments using inferences

Proposition
A declarative sentence that is true or false

but not both.

Proposition

but not both.
For example,
• Kathmandu is the capital city of Nepal.

Proposition

but not both.
For example,
• 2 + 2 = 4.

Proposition

but not both.
For example,
• 2 + 2 = 4.
• The Earth is flat.

Proposition

but not both.
For example,
• 2 + 2 = 4.
• The Earth is flat.
• 2 + 3 = 6.

Proposition (Contd.)
What about these?

What about these?

• What time is it?

What about these?

Not a proposition because not a

declarative sentence

What about these?


• 2x = 4.

What about these?


• 2x = 4.
Not a proposition because don’t know if

it is true or false

What about these?


• 2x = 4.
Not a proposition because don’t know if

it is true or false
Small-case letters such as p, q, r · · ·
commonly used to denote arbitrary
propositions.
Truth Value
• Truth or falsity of a given proposition.

Truth Value

• For true propositions, truth value is
‘True’ denoted by T .

Truth Value

• For false propositions, truth value is
‘False’ denoted by F .

Truth Value

• 1 and 0 also used instead of T and F .

Truth Value

• 1 and 0 also used instead of T and F .
• e.g., T , T , F and F are truth values of
propositions in above example.
Compound Proposition
• A proposition formed by combining one

or more existing propositions.


• Propositions participating to form a
compound proposition are component
propositions.


• Propositions participating to form a
compound proposition are component
propositions.
• Elements used to combine these
component propositions are logical
operators or connectives.

Truth Table
• A table that shows the truth value of a

compound proposition in terms of every
possible combination of truth value of
component propositions.

Truth Table
• A table that shows the truth value of a

compound proposition in terms of every
possible combination of truth value of
component propositions.
• Table depends upon the logical operator
used and the component propositions.

Types of Logical Operators: Negation
• Negation of proposition p is the

proposition “It is not the case that p.”


• Denoted by ¬p and is read as “not p”.


• Truth table of Negation


• Truth table of Negation
p ¬p
T F
F T

Negation (Contd.)
For example
• p: The Earth is flat.

Negation (Contd.)
For example
¬p:

Negation (Contd.)
For example
¬p: It is not the case that the Earth is

flat.

Negation (Contd.)
For example

flat. OR simply “The Earth is not flat”.

Negation (Contd.)
For example

• p: 2 + 2 = 4

Negation (Contd.)
For example

• p: 2 + 2 = 4
¬p:

Negation (Contd.)
For example

• p: 2 + 2 = 4
¬p: 2 + 2 6= 4.

Types of Logical Operator: Conjunction
• Conjunction of two propositions p and q

is the proposition that is true when both
p and q are true and false otherwise.


• Denoted by p ∧ q and read as “p and q”.


• Truth table of Conjunction


• Truth table of Conjunction
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Conjunction (Contd.)
For example

For example
• p: It is cold.

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
p ∧ q:

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
p ∧ q: It is cold and it is raining.

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
p ∧ q: It is cold and it is raining. OR
simply “It is cold and raining”.

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
• p: 3 + 7 = 10

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
• p: 3 + 7 = 10
q: 2 is an odd number.

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
• p: 3 + 7 = 10
p ∧ q:

For example
• p: It is cold.
q: It is raining.
• p: 3 + 7 = 10
p ∧ q: 3 + 7 = 10 and 2 is an odd
number.
Types of Logical Operator: Disjunction
• Disjunction of two propositions p and q

is the proposition that is false when both
p and q are false and true otherwise.


• Denoted by p ∨ q and read as “p or q”.


• Truth table of Disjunction


• Truth table of Disjunction
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Disjunction (Contd.)
For example

For example

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.
p ∨ q:

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.
p ∨ q: The Earth is flat or 2 + 2 = 4.

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.
• p: Today is Friday.

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.
q: Tomorrow is holiday.

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.
p ∨ q:

For example
q: 2 + 2 = 4.
p ∨ q: Today is Friday or tomorrow is
holiday.

Types of Logical Operator: Exclusive Or
• Exclusive or of two propositions p and q

is the proposition that is true when p
and q have opposite truth values and
false otherwise.


false otherwise.
• Denoted by p ⊕ q and read as “p xor q”.


false otherwise.
• Truth table of Exclusive Or


false otherwise.
• Truth table of Exclusive Or
p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Types of Logical Operator: Implication
• Implication of two propositions p and q

is the proposition that is false when p is
true and q is false and true otherwise.


• Denoted by p → q.


• p is called hypothesis or antecedent.


• q is called conclusion or consequent.


• p → q is read as


• if p, then q


• if p, then q
• p implies q


• if p, then q
• p implies q
• p only if q


• if p, then q
• p implies q
• p only if q
• q if p


• if p, then q
• p implies q
• p only if q
• q if p
• p is sufficient for q


• if p, then q
• p implies q
• p only if q
• q if p
• p is sufficient for q
• q is necessary for p
Implication (Contd.)
• Truth table of Implication

• Truth table of Implication

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

For example

For example
• p: I am hungry.

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.
p → q:

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.
p → q: If I am hungry, then I will eat.

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.
• p: 2 + 3 = 7.

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.
• p: 2 + 3 = 7.
q: The Earth is flat.

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.
• p: 2 + 3 = 7.

p → q:

For example
• p: I am hungry.
q: I will eat.
• p: 2 + 3 = 7.

p → q: If 2 + 3 = 7, then the Earth is
flat.

Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
Given an implication p → q, we can form 3

new implications as follows:


• Converse: q → p


• Inverse: ¬p → ¬q


• Inverse: ¬p → ¬q
• Contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p

Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive (Contd.)
For example,

For example,
• p → q: If 2 + 3 = 7, then the Earth is
flat.
• q → p:

For example,
flat.
• q → p: If the Earth is flat then
2 + 3 = 7.

For example,
flat.
2 + 3 = 7.
• ¬p → ¬q:

For example,
flat.
2 + 3 = 7.
• ¬p → ¬q: If 2 + 3 6= 7 then the Earth is
not flat.

For example,
flat.
2 + 3 = 7.
not flat.
• ¬q → ¬p:

For example,
flat.
2 + 3 = 7.
not flat.
• ¬q → ¬p: If the Earth is not flat then
2 + 3 6= 7.
Truth table of implication, its converse,

inverse and contrapositive:

Truth table of implication, its converse,

inverse and contrapositive:
p q ¬p ¬q p→q q→p ¬p → ¬q ¬q → ¬p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

Types of Logical Operator: Biconditional
• Biconditional of two propositions p and q

p and q have same truth values and false
otherwise.


otherwise.
• Denoted by p ↔ q and read as


otherwise.
• p if and only if q


otherwise.
• p iff q


otherwise.
• p iff q
• p is necessary and sufficient for q

Biconditional (Contd.)
• Truth table of Biconditional

• Truth table of Biconditional

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

For example,

For example,
• p: I will eat.

For example,
• p: I will eat.
q: I am hungry.

For example,
• p: I will eat.
q: I am hungry.
p ↔ q: I will eat if and only if I am
hungry.

For example,
• p: I will eat.
q: I am hungry.
hungry.
• p: The alarm goes off.

For example,
• p: I will eat.
q: I am hungry.
hungry.
q: Smoke is detected.

For example,
• p: I will eat.
q: I am hungry.
hungry.
q: Smoke is detected.
p ↔ q: The alarm goes off if and only if
smoke is detected.
Converting propositions into symbolic form
Express the following sentences in logical or

symbolic form:
• I will not go to the movie and I will
study a novel.


symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let


symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let
p: I will go to the movie.


symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let
q: I will study a novel.


symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let
Then the given proposition can be
written symbolically as

symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let
written symbolically as ¬p

symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let
written symbolically as ¬p ∧

symbolic form:
study a novel.
Solution: Let
written symbolically as ¬p ∧ q.
Converting propositions into symbolic form (Contd.)
• If Peter is not in the library then he is

playing tennis.


playing tennis.
Solution: Let


playing tennis.
Solution: Let
p: Peter is in the library.


playing tennis.
Solution: Let
q: Peter is playing tennis.


playing tennis.
Solution: Let
written in the form


playing tennis.
Solution: Let
written in the form ¬p


playing tennis.
Solution: Let
written in the form ¬p →


playing tennis.
Solution: Let
written in the form ¬p → q.

• You can access the Internet from campus

only if you are a computer science major
or you are not a freshman.


Solution: Let


Solution: Let
p: You can access the Internet from
campus.


Solution: Let
campus.
q: You are a computer science major.


Solution: Let
campus.
q: You are a computer science major.
r: You are a freshman.


symbolically written in the form


p


p→


p→q


p→q∨


p → q ∨ ¬r


p → q ∨ ¬r (WRONG!!!)


p → q ∨ ¬r (WRONG!!!)
p → (q ∨ ¬r) (RIGHT!!!).

• Getting an A on the final exam and

doing every assignment is sufficient for
getting an A in this class.


Solution: Let


Solution: Let
p: You get an A on the final exam.


Solution: Let
q: You do every assignment.


Solution: Let
q: You do every assignment.
r: You get an A in this class.




(p ∧ q) → r

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Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

Study of how to find the truth value of

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

A declarative sentence that is true or false

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

A declarative sentence that is true or false

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

A declarative sentence that is true or false

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

A declarative sentence that is true or false

• The Earth is flat.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

A declarative sentence that is true or false

• The Earth is flat.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

What about these?

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

What about these?

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

What about these?

Not a proposition because not a

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

What about these?

Not a proposition because not a

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

What about these?

Not a proposition because not a

Not a proposition because don’t know if

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

What about these?

Not a proposition because not a

Not a proposition because don’t know if

• Truth or falsity of a given proposition.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Truth or falsity of a given proposition.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Truth or falsity of a given proposition.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Truth or falsity of a given proposition.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Truth or falsity of a given proposition.

• A proposition formed by combining one

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• A proposition formed by combining one

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• A proposition formed by combining one

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• A table that shows the truth value of a

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• A table that shows the truth value of a

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Negation of proposition p is the

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Negation of proposition p is the

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Negation of proposition p is the

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

• Negation of proposition p is the

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

Unit I: Logic and Proofs - Propositional Logic

¬p: It is not the case that the Earth is