255–256 Aspect 295

imperfectives describing the scene and the perfectives advancing the

action:
Он снял (pf.) пальт", стола (impf.) спин"й ко мне и
шелестла (impf.) бумгами (Kazakov)
She took off her coat and stood with her back to me, rustling the
papers
(iv) An imperfective describing an action in progress can be succeeded
by a perfective which denotes successful completion of that action:
Он д"лго догонл (impf.) мен и, наконц, догнл (pf.)
He chased me for a long time and finally caught me up
This exemplifies the comparison which has been made between the use
of imperfectives and the filming of a scene, and between the use of some
perfectives and a snapshot.
(v) The perfective tends to combine with conjunctions which imply the
completion or the suddenness of an action (до тог# как ‘before’, как
т#лько ‘as soon as’, после тог# как ‘after’ etc.), and with adverbs which
imply immediacy or unexpectedness (внезпно ‘suddenly’, срзу
‘immediately’, чуть не ‘almost, within an ace of’ etc.).
(vi) Unlike the imperfective past, which is totally rooted in past time, the
perfective may have implications for the present. This occurs when a present
state results from a past perfective action or process (the so-called ‘pure
perfect’):
Я заб1л (pf.) I have forgotten, I forget
Он опоздл (pf.) He is late (but has arrived; cf. Он
опздывает (impf.) ‘He is late’ (and
has not yet arrived))
Я прив1к к Iтому (pf.) I am used to this
Он )мер (pf.) He is dead (has died)

256 Aspect in the present tense

(1) The present tense has only one form, the imperfective.
(2) The present tense is used:
(i) To denote actions in progress:
Сейчс я пиш) письм"
At the moment I am writing a letter
296 The Verb 256

(ii) To denote habitual actions:

По воскресньям он л#вит р$бу в рек
On Sundays he fishes in the river
(iii) To make general statements:
земл вращется вокрг С"лнца
The Earth revolves around the Sun
(iv) To denote capabilities and qualities:
З"лото не ржвеет
Gold does not tarnish

Note
Except for verbs of motion (see 315–325), the present tense does not
distinguish durative from habitual actions, thus: Я гот#влю жин ‘I am
preparing/prepare supper’
(v) To express intention to perform an action in the not too distant future.
The verb involved is often a simple or compound verb of motion in the
first-person singular or plural:
Сег"дня вчером ид) в кин"
I am going to the cinema this evening
Бдущей зим"й уезжем за гранцу
We are going abroad next winter

Note
Other verbs found in this meaning include возвращться ‘to return’,
встречть ‘to meet’, начинть ‘to begin’ etc.
(vi) As a ‘historic present’. The use of the present tense with past
meaning brings the action more graphically before the mind’s eye of the
reader or listener. It is a device commonly found in literary works and is
much more widely used in Russian than in English:
Приходл он к нам чсто. Сид т, бывло, и расскзывает
He would often come to see us. He would sit and tell us stories
(vii) To describe an action or state that began in the past and continues
into the present (the ‘continuous present’):
Я раб#таю здесь с пр"шлого г"да
I have been working/have worked here since last year
 256 Aspect 297

Note
The use of the past tense in such contexts would be rendered by an English
pluperfect: Он был змужем уж 10 лет ‘She had been married for
ten years’.
(viii) In reported speech (see also 265).
(a) In reporting a statement, the same tense is used as in direct speech.
Thus the statement Я люблA её ‘I love her’ is reported as:
Я сказл, что люблA её
I said I loved her
or
Он сказл, что лAбит её
He said he loved her
(b) This contrasts with English, where a past tense in the main clause (‘he
said’) generates a past tense in the subordinate clause: ‘He said he loved
her’. To use a past tense here in Russian would imply that the direct statement
had contained a past tense. Thus, Он сказл, что люб л её means ‘He
said he had loved her/used to love her’.
(c) The construction extends to reported knowing, asking, hoping etc., and
can be introduced by д)мать ‘to think’, знать ‘to know’, надяться ‘to
hope’, обещть ‘to promise’, спрос ть ‘to ask’ etc.:
Ей казлось, что мльчик спит
She thought the child was asleep
Он писл, что пров#дит лто в Волгогрде
He wrote that he was spending the summer in Volgograd
(d) The same principles of tense sequence apply, though less rigidly, to
verbs of perception, cf. use of the present tense in
Шрка сл$шал, как в темнот бгает ёж (Vasilev)
Shurka heard a hedgehog running about in the dark
and the past tense in
Сл$шно б$ло, как мурл1кал Кстик (Belov)
You could hear Kustik purring
Б$ло вдно, что он не болся хол"дной вод$ (Fadeev)
It was obvious that he was not afraid of cold water
In such contexts, the present tense is said to be more ‘vivid’ than the past.
298 The Verb 257

257 Aspect in the past tense

(1) The durative meaning

(i) Past durative meanings, that is, descriptions of actions as they
develop, are invariably rendered by the imperfective aspect:
Мы составлли (impf.) телегрмму в Москв
We were composing a telegram to send to Moscow
(ii) Passage of time may be indicated by an appropriate adverb or
adverbial phrase:
Чтверть вка он собирл (impf.) всё, что относлось (impf.) к
ист"рии кря (Granin)
He spent a quarter of a century collecting everything that related to
the history of the area

(2) Endeavour contrasted with successful completion

(i) An action in progress (impf.) can be contrasted with its successful
completion (pf.):
Мы д"лго решли (impf.) задчу — и наконц реш ли (pf.) её
We spent a long time solving the task and finally solved it
(ii) The imperfective denotes an attempt which may either:
(a) Fail:
Он убеждл (impf.) мен, что без соглсия родтелей мы всё
равн" не см"жем быть счстливы (Russia Today)
He tried to convince me that we could not be happy anyway without
our parents’ consent
(b) Succeed, achievement being expressed by a perfective:
Я пробивлся (impf.) к нем р"вно недлю и наконц проб лся
(pf.)
I spent exactly a week trying to force my way into his office, and finally
succeeded in doing so
(iii) Some aspectival pairs consist of imperfectives which denote attempt
to achieve and perfectives which denote successful achievement:
Imperfective Perfective
добивться ‘to try to achieve’ доб ться ‘to achieve’
 257 Aspect 299

докзывать ‘to contend’ доказть ‘to prove’

лов ть ‘to try to catch’ поймть ‘to catch’
решть ‘to tackle’ реш ть ‘to solve’
сдавть ‘to take’ сдать ‘to pass’
(an examination) (an examination)
уверть ‘to try to assure’ уврить ‘to assure’
уговривать ‘to try to persuade’ уговор ть ‘to persuade’

(3) Repeated actions in the past

(i) Repeated actions are normally expressed by the imperfective:
Он звон л (impf.) нам по вечерм
He used to ring us in the evenings
Бывло is sometimes added to emphasize repetition:
Он, бывло, звонл (impf.) нам по вечерм
He was in the habit of ringing us in the evenings
(ii) Frequency may also be stressed by an adverb or adverbial phrase
of time: всегд ‘always’, иногд ‘sometimes’, никогд ‘never’, раз в
недлю ‘once a week’, чсто ‘often’:
Пот"м он чще всег#, не разогревя, сьедл (impf.) оствленный
мтерью обд (Vanshenkin)
Then, more often than not, he would eat the lunch left by his mother,
without heating it up

Note
Secondary imperfectives (here, сьедть) are often preferred to primary
imperfectives (cf. есть ‘to eat’) in frequentative constructions, in view
of the durative connotations which adhere to primaries, cf. Он сидл
(primary impf.) над статьёй не мнее трёх час"в ‘He pored over the
article for no less than three hours’, a reference to one durative action,
and Он прос живал (secondary impf.) над статьёй не мнее трёх час"в
‘He would pore over the article for not less than three hours at a time’,
a reference to a series of actions.
(iii) When reference is made to the number of times an action occurs:
(a) The imperfective is preferred when the actions are repeated at
irregular and spaced-out intervals:
Три рза он покидли (impf.) борт стнции и выход ли (impf.)
в откр$тый к"смос (Russia Today)
Three times they left the space station and walked in space
300 The Verb 257–258

Нсколько раз я прогонл (impf.) ег". Он сад лся (impf.) в

отдалнии, немн"го пережидл (impf.) и сн"ва бежл (impf.) за
мной (Kazakov)
Several times I chased him away. He would sit down at a distance, bide
his time and run after me again
(b) The perfective is preferred when a series of identical actions,
repeated in swift succession, can be interpreted as components of one
multiple action:
В$лез (pf.) из-под кр$ши крпный воробй, чир кнул (pf.)
двжды и улетл (pf.) (Belov)
A large sparrow emerged from under the eaves, chirped twice and
flew off
Приблзившись к нем, он достла (pf.) из смочки пистолт и
три рза в1стрелила (pf.) в уп"р
Approaching him she took a pistol from her bag and fired three times
at point-blank range

Note
The imperfective is preferred for verbs of beginning, however, even when
a number of actions occur in swift succession:
Он начинл (impf.) письм" раз двендцать, рвал (impf.) лист$,
изнрвничался (pf.), испсиховлся (pf.) (Shukshin)
He began the letter about a dozen times, kept tearing up the sheets, got
all hot and bothered, almost blew a fuse

258 Use of the imperfective past to express a ‘statement

of fact’

— Вы звон ли (impf.) ем? ‘Have you rung him?’

— Да, звон л (impf.) ‘Yes, I have’
— Я гд-то в дел (impf.) вас ‘I have seen you somewhere’
— Вы читли (impf.) «Цемнт»? ‘Have you read Cement?’
— Да, читл (impf.) ‘Yes, I have’
(1) The imperfective is used in the above examples to denote an action
in isolation, with no emphasis on its completion or non-completion, the
circumstances in which it occurred, or other detail. The statements and
responses show that a phone call has been made, that two people have
met before, that Cement is one of the books read by a particular person.
These are bald statements of fact, with no fleshing-out of the context
 258 Aspect 301

and no stress on the achievement of a result. This ‘submeaning’ of the

imperfective is known as констатция фкта ‘statement of fact’. It is
particularly common in the past tense and is usually set in the vaguest of
contexts:
— 3тот человк вам знак"м?
‘Do you know that man?’
— Да, я однжды встречл (impf.) ег"
‘Yes, I met him once’
(2) The ‘statement of fact’ is common:
(i) In the imprecise context of an interrogative or in a situation where, for
example, a check is being made to see whether a particular action has been
carried out:
Вы провтривали (impf.) к"мнату?
Have you aired the room?
(ii) In enquiring about someone’s whereabouts:
Вы не в дели (impf.) Лну?
Have you seen Lena?
(iii) In delivering a reminder:
Но ведь я говор л (impf.) вам об Iтом!
But I told you about this!
(3) As the context is firmed up, however, or a result emphasized, the
perfective comes into contention. Compare:
(i) Use of the imperfective in:
Я писл (impf.) ей I wrote to her
Я расскзывал (impf.) вам об Iтом I told you about that
Я звон л (impf.) ем I have rung him
Мы уж встречлись (impf.) We have already met
Я читл (impf.) «Чапева» в шк"ле I read Chapaev at school
(ii) Use of the perfective as the context is filled in:
Я написл (pf.) ей письм#
I wrote her a letter
Я т#лько что сказл (pf.) вам об Iтом
I have only just told you about this
Я позвонл (pf.) ем, чтBбы нап#мнить ем) о вчере
I rang him to remind him about the party
302 The Verb 258–259

Я встртил (pf.) ег" в пр#шлом год) на Чёрном м#ре

I met him last year on the Black Sea
(4) It will be clear from the above examples that the imperfective is preferred
where a fact is placed in a contextual vacuum, and that the perfective is
preferred when the context is filled in, in terms of what action was carried
out, when, where or for what purpose, or if the result or completion of
an action is stressed. Thus, the question — Вы прочитли (pf.)
«Наканне»? can be rendered as ‘Have you finished On the Eve?’ —
completion of the action is important since, say, the person asking the
question is waiting to read the novel. The answer to this question might
be Прочитл (pf.), возьмте, пожлуйста ‘Yes, I have; here you are’.
The perfective would also be used if someone had been told to read the
novel: Вы прочитли (pf.) «Наканне»? ‘Did you read On the Eve?’
(i.e. as you were told to).

259 Use of the imperfective past to denote an action and

its reverse

(1) The imperfective past may be used to denote an action and its
reverse:
Он брал (impf.) кнгу в библиотке
She had a book out of the library (and has now returned it)
Similarly, открывл (impf.) can mean ‘opened and closed again’:
У мен в к"мнате так х"лодно сег"дня. Наврное, кт"-то
открывл (impf.) здесь окн#
It is so cold in my room today. Someone has probably had the window
open in here
The implication of this example is that the window has been opened but
is now shut again. By contrast, Кт"-то откр1л (pf.) окн" means that
the window is still open ‘Someone has opened the window’, or refers to
the single act of opening ‘Someone opened the window’.
(2) Other imperfective past forms of this type include:
включл ‘switched on’ (and off again)
вставл ‘got up’ (and sat or lay down again)
выключл ‘switched off’ (and on again)
давл ‘gave’ (and received back again)
закрывл ‘closed’ (and opened again)
клал ‘put down’ (and took up again)
 259–260 Aspect 303

лож лся ‘lay down’ (and got up again)

надевл ‘put on’ (and took off again)
поднимлся ‘ascended’ (and came down again)
спусклся ‘descended’ (and went up again):
Он вставл (impf.) н"чью
He got up in the night (and went back to bed again)
Ребёнок просыплся (impf.), но сейчс он опть спит
The child woke up, but now he is asleep again
(3) In fact, the imperfective past of any verb denoting an action which
has an opposite action may be used in this way:
Одн из них п#днял (pf.) рку. Их лца понрвились мне, и я
остановлся. Тот, кто поднимл (impf.) рку, проснул в машну
смглое лиц" (Strugatskys)
One of them raised his arm. I liked the look of them and stopped. The
one who had raised his arm thrust a dark-skinned face through the car
window
Here, the perfective denotes a one-way action (п#днял рку ‘raised his
arm’) and the imperfective a two-way action, the action and its reverse
(поднимл рку ‘raised his arm and lowered it again’).

260 Aspectival usage when emphasis is on the identity of

the person performing the action

(1) If we examine the examples

Кто мыл (impf.) посду? Who washed the dishes?
Кто убирл (impf.) к"мнату? Who tidied the room?
then it is clear that the washing up has been done and the room tidied.
Emphasis centres not on the action, but on the identity of the person who
performed it. In such circumstances the imperfective is preferred:
Тня, Iто ты разбирла (impf.) кнги в шкаф?
Tanya, was it you who sorted the books in the cupboard?
Use of the imperfective may also imply that something (usually untoward)
happened while the action was being carried out (e.g. papers were
mislaid).
Вы не знете, кто открывл (impf.) окн"? На подок"ннике
лежли мо бумги.
304 The Verb 260

Do you know who opened the window? My papers were lying on the
window-sill.

(2) The perfective is preferred, however:

(i) When the quality of the action is stressed:

Кто так хорош# убрл (pf.) кнги в шкаф?

Who made such a good job of tidying the books into the cupboard?

or when the result is specially emphasized:

В к"мнате так чсто. Интерсно, кто убрл (pf) её?

The room is beautifully clean. I wonder who tidied it?

(ii) When the verb denotes ‘discovery’:

Кто изобрёл (pf.) рдио?

Who invented radio?

Кто откр1л (pf.) Амрику?

Who discovered America?

Кто нашёл (pf.) ключ?

Who found the keys?

(iii) When the action involved is not deliberate or has an untoward

result:

Кто разб л (pf.) чшку?

Who broke the cup?

(3) The imperfective is also used when attention is directed to the place
or time of an action rather than to the action itself:

Где вы покупли (impf.) «Вечёрку»?

Where did you buy the evening paper?

— Я показл (pf.) ем чертёж

‘I showed him the blueprint’
— Когд ты покзывал (impf.)?
‘When did you show it to him?’

In these examples the questioner is interested in the place and time of the
actions, not in their completion, which is in any case clear from the context
(as in the first example) or explicitly stated (as in the second).