Soils are capable of Providing ecosystem

services:
Ecosystem services- Products of natural
ecosystems that support and fulfill the
needs of human beings.
• provisioning (providing goods such as water, food,
medicines, lumber, etc.)
• regulating (processes that purify water, decompose
wastes, control pests, or modify atmospheric gases)
• supportive (assisting with nutrient cycling, seed dispersal,
primary biomass production, etc.)
• cultural (providing spiritual uplift, scenic views, and outdoor
recreation opportunities).
Plant obtains from the soil the following:

• physical support, air, water, temperature

moderation,
• protection from toxins and nutrient
elements.
 It is a science that deals with study of
the soil as a natural resource on the
surface of the earth which includes:
 soil formation
 classification and mapping
 physical properties
 chemical, biological and fertility properties
 properties in relation to their management
for crop production
1.Pedological approach
 It considers soil as a natural body with major
emphasis on its genesis and classification as
it occurs in the environment

2. Edaphological approach
 It deals with the influence of soils on living
things, particularly plants, including human
use of land for plant growth.
  A resource is
a material from which human needs are obtained
 outermost layer of the earth

 depth: about 16 km or 10 miles

 Igneous rocks = 95 %  Shale = 4 %

 Sandstone = 0.75 %  Limestone = 0.25 %

Element % by weight Oxide % by weight
O 46.60 SiO2 59.07
Si 27.70 Al2O3 15.22
Al 8.10 Fe2O3 3.10
Fe 5.00 FeO 3.10
Cao 5.10
Ca 3.60
MgO 3.45
Mg 2.10
Na2O 3.71
Na 2.80
K2O 3.11
K 2.60
TiO2 1.03
Ti 0.50 P2O5 0.30
H 0.14 MnO 0.11
P 0.11
Mn 0.09
S 0.03
  inorganic or non-living

 from living things

 water in the soil

 gases present in the soil

Optimal soil Clay soil Sandy soil
 o.m.  5%  o.m.  5%  o.m.  5%
 m.m.  45%  m.m.  45%  m.m.  45%
 H2O  25%  H2O > 25%  H2O < 25%
 air  25%  air < 25%  air > 25%
 Normally composed of small rock
fragments and minerals

 formed by weathering

 variable in sizes
 decomposed organic materials by the
action of microorganisms

 humus – black substance which is the

end- product of o.m. decomposition

 usually black or dark brown brown in

color and colloidal in nature
 a soil that contains < 20% (by weight)
organic matter

 a soil that contains ≥ 20% (by

weight) organic matter
 occupies the pore space
 performs the following functions :
 universal solvent
 nutrient carrier
 nutrient in itself
 stabilizes soil temperature
 occupies the pore spaces
not occupied by water

 principal gases present are: N2, O2

and CO2
N2

O2

CO2 
 resistance to scratching;
Moh’s scale
Hardness Mineral Chemical
Composition
1 Talc H2Mg3Si4O12 very soft, easily scratched by
fingernail
2 Gypsum CaSO4H2O soft, just barely scratched by the
fingernail
3 Calcite CaCO3 can be scratched by copper coin
but not with fingernail
4 Flourite CaF2 hard, not scratch by copper coin
but scratched easily by pen knife,
soft iron scratches it
5 Apatite Ca3(PO4)3.F hard, barely scratches glass, can
be scratched by a steel knife blade
6 Orthoclas KAlSiO3O8 very hard, scratches glass and
e steel easily
7 Quartz SiO4 very hard, no common tool for
8 Topaz AlSiO.F2 measurement
9 Corundum Al2O3
10 Diamond C
  smooth surface
of breakage
 rough surface of
breakage

 ratio of weight of substance

to that of an equal volume of water
Gypsum = 2.2 g/cm3
Quartz = 2.65g/cm3
Olivine = 3.2 g/cm3
 wavelength of light
absorbed by the mineral

 color of finely
powdered minerals
  reflection of ordinary light

 the luster of a metal as gold, tin, Cu

 imperfect luster of the kind

 resistance to breaking or
bending
1.Brittle – a mineral that breaks or powders
easily
2. Malleable – a mineral that can be
hammered into thin sheet
3. Suctile – a mineral that can be shaved with
a knife
4. Ductile – a mineral that can be drawn into
wire
5. Flexible – a mineral that bends and does
not resume its original position upon release
of a pressure
6. Plastic – a mineral that bends and resumes
its original position upon the release of
pressure
Quartz  SiO2

 colorless when pure

 hardness of 7.0 (Moh’s scale)

 very resistant to chemical

weathering- 2nd most abundant
mineral on earths crust
 density of 2.65 g/cm3
  aluminosilicates- most
Feldspars
abundant minerals
 Orthoclase or potash feldspars (KAlSi3O8)
hydrolysis
KAlSi3O8+ H2O KOH + HAlSi3O8
Clay precursor

 Plagioclase feldspars
Albite (NaAlSi3O8)
Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8)
 hardness of 6.0 (Moh’s scale)
 density of 2.63 g/cm3
 Micas  complex K aluminosilicates
 Muscovite - H2KAl3(SiO4)3  white
mica
 Biotite - K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2
 black mica

 very soft minerals (hardness of 2.0 to 2.5)

 Source of nutrients
 Source of silicate clays
 Amphibole-pyroxene group
 silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium
 Hornblende - Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3Si6O22(OH)2

 black colored amphibole

 Augite - Ca2(Al,Fe)4(Mg,Fe)4Si6O24
 dull green pyroxene
 with hardness of 5.0 to 6.0
 with distinct cleavage
 Apatite  calcium phosphate minerals
 Ca
Ca1010(PO
CO3(PO
4)6 4)6 ⇨ Carbonatoapatite
 Ca10SO4(PO4)6 ⇨ Sulfatoapatite
 Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6 ⇨ Hydroxyapatite
 Ca10(Cl)2(PO4)6 ⇨ Chloroapatite
 Ca10(F)2(PO4)6 ⇨ Fluoroapatite
 primary mineral-carrier of P
 with hardness of 5.0
 Carbonate group  carbonates of Ca & Mg
 Calcite - CaCO3
 Dolomite - CaMg(CO3)2
 source of Ca, Mg

 source of lime

 with hardness of 3.0 – 4.0

 density of 2.72 – 2.85 g/cm3

 Primary Minerals Secondary Minerals
Goethite FeOOH Most
Hematite Fe2O3 Resistant
Gibbsite Al2O3.3H2O
Quartz SiO4 Clay Minerals All Silicates
Muscovite KAlSi3O10(OH)2
Microcline KAlSi3O8
Orthoclase KAlSi3O8
Biotite KA(Mg,Fe)3lSi3O10(OH)2
Albite NaAlSi3O8
Hornblende Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3Si6O22(OH)2
Augite Ca2(Al,Fe)4(Mg,Fe)4Si6O24
Anothite CaAlSi3O8
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Dolomite
Clacite
Gypsum

Least
Resistant
 Iron group  oxides of Fe in several
states of hydration
 Hematite - Fe2O3
 Limonite - 2Fe2O3.3H2O
 imparts red color to soils
 largely found in highly weathered soils
 in old/infertile soils
 in acidic soils
 Aluminum group  oxides of Al in
several states of hydration
 Corundum - Al2O3
 Hardness of 9
 Boehmite - AlOOH
 Gibbsite - Al(OH)3
 also largely found in highly weathered
soils
 in old/infertile soils
 in acidic soils
 Gypsum  CaSO4.2H2O

 Hardness of 2.0

 source of Ca and S

 can be used as soil

ameliorant

 used as retarder in
cement
 Clay group  hydrated aluminosilicates
 come from micas and feldspars
 Kaolin group - Al4Si4O10(OH)8
 kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, anauxite

 Montmorillonite group Al4Si8O20(OH)4

-  montmorillonite, beidellite, vermiculite,
nontronite
 Hydrous mica group - illite
 Colloidal in nature
>65% SiO2

<50% SiO2

50-65% SiO2
are formed at the earth's surface as a
result of the partial melting of rocks
within the mantle and crust
are formed from magma that cools and
solidifies within the earth
 rocks formed through lithification

 mechanical accumulation of grains

 from chemical precipitation

 Fossils of animals and plants
metamorphism
 Metamorphism

Lithification and diagnesis

 consists of A and C horizons only above the bedrock

 consists of A, B and C horizons above the

bedrock

 consists of sub-layers in A and B horizons

Parent Material-Transported

Agents Deposited in or by Name of Deposit

Stream/River Alluvium
Water Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine
Ice Till, Moraine
Ice Melt water Alluvium
Lacustrine
Loess (particle
Wind Wind <0.05mm)
Dune (>0.05mm)
Volcanic ash
Gravity Gravity Colluvium
- - Cumulose (OM)/ Talus
Topography

-is characterized by the inclination (slope), elevation,

and orientation of the terrain. It determines the rate of
precipitation or runoff and rate of formation or erosion
of the surface soil profile. It is also known as the relief.
(1) Summit and (2) Shoulder- develop horizon the
fastest
(3) Backslope- slower development of soils
because:
a) rainfall will run faster this in this
position
b) more erosion
c) less leaching
(4) Footslope- slow down soil development due to
burying of sediments.
Landscape Position
Climate

Two general components that affect the rate of

weathering are effective precipitation (means precipitation
minus evapotranspiration) and temperature. The greater
the depth of water penetration, the greater is the depth of
weathering soil and development. Temperature and
moisture both influence organic matter content of the soil
since it balances microbial decomposition and plant
growth.

The direct influences of climate include:

a) A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas

b) Formation of acid soils in humid areas
c) Erosion of soils on steep hillsides
d) Deposition of eroded materials downstream
e) Very intense chemical weathering, leaching, and erosion
in warm and humid regions where soil does not freeze
Organisms/Biota
Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil formation. Both
macroorganisms such as mesofaunae and microorganisms mix soils to form
burrows and pores, allowing moisture and gases to move about. In the same
way, plant roots open channels in soils. It penetrates to the depth horizon and
brings out nutrients up.

Some activities of the organisms:

a) Organic matter accumulation

b) Biochemical weathering
c) Profile mixing
d) Nutrient cycling
e) Aggregate stability

Role of natural vegetation:

a) the kind of vegetation gives rise to soil bodies with varying soil
characteristics.
b) cation cycling by trees- ie. Conifers allow more of the base forming
cations to be loss through leaching thus more acid soil is developed.
  A physical and chemical
disintegration and decomposition of rocks and
minerals to produce the earth’s crust including
the soil

 Decrease in size of
rocks

 Change in chemical
composition
  due to external agents :
water, plant roots, ice
 due to temperature
fluctuations, the rocks chemical
compositions alternately expand and
contract causing differential stresses
 Exfoliation - peeling away of rock surface from the
parent mass
3. Abrasion by wind, water, or ice- water when
loaded with sediments has tremendous cutting power.
The rounding of riverbed rocks and beach sand
grains is further evidence of abrasion. On the other
hand, rounded rock formation in arid regions
Biological weathering- roots of plants enter
cracks in rock and pry them apart.
Burrowing animals may also help in
disintegrating rocks somewhat.
KAlSi3O8 + H2O KOH + HAlSi3O8
K orthoclase Clay precursor

K+ + OH-
5Fe2O3 + 9H2O Fe10O15.9H2O
Hematite Ferrihydrite

CaSO4 + 2H2O Ca2+ + SO42- + 2H2O

 CO2 + H2O H2CO3
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca2+ + 2HCO32-

4FeO + O2 + 2H2O 4FeOOH

 Oxidation  loss of electron
 decrease in size of ion
 increase in valence
 Reduction  gain of electron
 increase in size of ion
 decrease in valence
  organic acids produced from
biological processes may form organic
complexes (chelates) with Al3+

citric, oxalic, tartaric,

fulvic and humic

 provide H+ ions that help solubilize Al and Si

KAlSi3O10(OH)2 + 2H O K+ OH- + C2O4Al + 3Si (OH)4
2
 horizontal layers of soil differentiation

 organic layer (upland)

 surface layer
 eluviation layer
 sub-surface layer or subsoil
 parent material
 solid bedrock
Suffixes Distinction
a sapric or totally decomposed
b buried soil
c accumulation of concretory form
e hemic or ½ decomposed
g mottling
h accumulation of OM
i fibric or less 1/3 decomposed
j Jarosite
k accumulation of calcium carbonate
m strongly cemented, consolidated, indurated
n accumulation of sodium
p disturb by plowing
q accumulation of silica
r strong reduction as a result of groundwater influence
s accumulation of sesquioxide (oxide containing a ratio of three atoms
oxygen and two atoms of another element)
t illuvial accumulation of clay
u unspecified
w in situ alteration as evidence by clay, color, etc
x occurrence of fragipan
y accumulation of gypsum
z accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum
 Eluviation ?
O-horizon
 removal;
A-horizon suspension
Topsoil form
E-horizon Leaching ?
 zone of
solum  removal;
eluviation
(true soil) solution
B-horizon regolith form
subsoil Illuviation ?
 zone of
illuviation
 deposition
of materials
C-horizon Parent
material

R or D- Solid
horizon bedrock
1. The total land area of the Philippines is
a. 30M square km c. 30M hectares
b. 30M square miles d. 30M acres

2. The most abundant rock component of the earth’s

crust
a. limestone c. Shale
b. Igneous rocks d. sandstone

3. The most abundant element found in the earth’s crust

a. nitrogen c. oxygen
b. phosphorus d. silicon
4. The percentages of the four major components of the
ideal/optimal soil are
a. 25% mineral matter, 25% organic, 5% air and 45% H2O
b. 45% organic matter, 5% mineral matter, 25% air and 25% H2O
c. 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter, 25% air and 25% H2O
d. 25% mineral matter, 25% organic matter, 45% air and 5% H2O
5. Under ideal soil conditions, the volume composition of
soil is
a. 50% PS and 50% solid c. 25% air and 75% water
b. 75% air and 25% water d. 40% PS and 60% solid
6. The portion of the soil occupied by water and air
a. Bulk density c. Solid space
b. Mineral matter d. Pore space
7. The following are functions of soil organic matter except
a. Promotes granulation or aggregation
b. Stabilizes the soil temperature
c. Increases the water holding capacity
d. Major source of N, P and S
8. A term for a soil that contains < 20% organic C by weight
a. Mineral soil c. Organic soil
b. Clay soil d. Loamy soil
9. An organic soil contains
a. at least 20% mineral matter c. less than 20% organic C
b. at least 20% organic C d. less than 20% mineral
matter
10. The principal gases found in the soil air
a. N, P and S c. N2, O2 and CO2
b. N, O2 and CO d. N, CO2 and S
11. Soil air compared to atmospheric air has higher
content of
a. N2 b. O2 c. CO2 d. He
12. A soil consists of 3 components; namely: solid,
liquid and gas
a. The solid is composed of air and water
b. The liquid is about 80% nitrogen gas (N2)
c. The gas component a solution with dissolved ions in it
d. The solid is composed of inorganic matter and organic matter
13. A soil consists of 3 components; namely: solid,
liquid and gas
a. The solid is composed of inorganic matter only
b. The liquid is a solution with dissolved ions in it
c. The gaseous phase is 80% oxygen gas (O2)
d. The gaseous phase is 20% nitrogen gas (N2)
14. A soil consists of the 3 components; namely: solid,
liquid and gas
a. The solid is composed of inorganic matter only
b. The liquid is a pure water
c. The gaseous phase has 20% oxygen gas (O2)
d. The gaseous phase is 21% nitrogen gas (N2)
15. The soil component that act as universal solvent,
nutrient carrier, and stabilizes soil temperature
a. organic matter c. air
b. mineral matter d. water

16. Under its natural occurrence a soil is aggregated

and porous
a. An aggregate is composed of one particle only
b. Water and air occupy the solid fraction
c. The pores are occupied by organic matter and inorganic
matter
d. The pores are interconnected channels to other pores
17. The solid particles of a soil vary in composition, size
and shape
a. The solid is composed of fragments of rocks
b. The solid is composed of soil separates called sand, silt and
clay

c. All solid particles would feel gritty

d. The biggest soil particles have diameter of 2 cm.

18. The inorganic solid particles vary in size which are

classified as soil separates
a. The size range of soil particles is ≤ 5 mm
b. Sand is medium sized soil separate
c. Clay is the smallest or the finest soil separate
d. Silt is the largest soil separate
19. The hardest soil forming mineral
a. diamond c. topaz
b. quartz d. corundum

20. A property of a mineral that enables it to leave a

smooth surface of breakage
a. hardness b. tenacity c. cleavage d. fracture

21. A property of a mineral that enables it to leave a rough

surface of breakage
a. hardness b. tenacity c. cleavage d. fracture

22. The minerals that persist from the original rocks and
appear prominently in the soil
a. sedimentary c. quarternary
b. secondary d. primary
23. Mineral that is the primary source of phosphorus
a. quartz c. feldspar
b. apatite d. mica
24. Process of soil mixing by the action of animals as
earthworms, insects
a. dispersion c. flocculation
b. aggregation d. pedoturbation

25. Soils on steep slopes will have

a. thinner solum; more o.m. c. thicker solum; less o.m.

b. thinner solum; less o.m. d. thicker solum; more o.m.

26. The soils in the low-lying areas will have

a. thinner solum; less o.m. c. thicker solum; more o.m.
b. thinner solum; more o.m. d. thicker solum; less o.m.
27. Soil formation in the arctic region will be slower due to
a. Low temperature c. Lack of water
b. High temperature d. High rainfall
28. The Russian pedologist who first published a soil
forming factor equation
a. Aristotle c. Stoke
b. Dokuchaev d. Ross
29. Rainfall and temperature belong to this factor of soil
formation
a. climate c. parent material
b. biotic factors d. relief
30. Bacteria belong to this factor of soil formation
a. climate c. time
b. living organisms d. parent material
31. A term that is used synonymously with topography
a. time c. parent material
b. relief d. climate
32. The following are factors of soil formation except
a. climate c. hydrolysis
b. time d. relief
33. The hillslope element where soil development is very slow
due to more soil erosion
a. shoulder c. footslope
b. backslope d. toeslope

34. Synthesis of clay is faster in areas with

a. high temperature and c. high temperature and high
low rainfall rainfall
b. low rainfall and d. low temperature and
low temperature high rainfall
35. The most likely characteristic of the soil formed with
sandstone as the parent material
a. coarse-textured c. medium-textured
b. moderately fine textured d. fine-textured

36. A soil that is formed from limestone would likely have

this soil reaction
a. strongly acidic c. slightly acidic
b. moderately acidic d. moderately alkaline

37. The most likely texture of the soil formed with limestone
as the parent material
a. coarse-textured c. medium-textured
b. moderately coarse textured d. fine-textured
38. A soil that is characterized as strongly acidic, severely
weathered, low organic matter content and with sub-
divisions in the major horizons
a. young soil c. immature soil
b. old soil d. mature soil
39. A soil that is characterized by o.m. accumulation in the
surface soil and little weathering, leaching or
translocation
a. young soil c. immature soil
b. old soil d. mature soil
40. Wind-deposited dust or particles with grain size less than
0.05mm
a. loess c. glacier
b. dune d. losses
41. A parent material that is formed or developed in place
a. sedimentary c. residual
b. alluvial d. colluvial
42. A parent material that has been transported by a river
or stream
a. colluvial b. marine c. glacier d. alluvial
43. Horizontal layers of soil differentiation
a. concretions c. horizons
b. structure d. hardpans

44. A square meter of land dug to a depth that nearly

touches the bedrock
a. profile c. pedon
b. parent material d. aquifer
45. Mature soils have the following horizons
a. AB b. ABC c. BC d. AC

46. Young soils have the following horizons

a. AB b. ABC c. BC d. AC

47. The solum is composed of these horizons

a. ABC b. BC c. ABCR d. AB

48. The regolith is made up of these horizons

a. AB b. BC c. ABC d. ABCR

49. The topsoil refers to this horizon

a. AB b. A c. B d. C
50. The subsoil refers to this horizon
a. AB b. A c. B d. C

51. Vertical section of the soil through all its horizons

a. soil profile c. sub-soil
b. regolith d. solum

52. Blocks of each soil horizon pasted on a hard board

a. regolith c. litolith
b. monolith d. pedon

53. The zone of eluviation is

a. A horizon c. C horizon
b. B horizon d. E horizon
54. The zone of illuviation is
a. A horizon c. C horizon
b. B horizon d. E horizon

55. The government agency in charge of the survey and

classification of soils in the Philippines
a. BPI c. BSWM
b. NAFC d. DPWH

56. A simple test for determining limestone parent

materials
a. H2SO4 reaction c. brittleness
b. HCl reaction d. stickiness
57. Soils dominated by oxides of iron and aluminum are
a. young soil c. old soil
b. mature soil d. immature soil

58. A parent material formed by deposition of materials

brought down by gravity
a. alluvial c. aeolian
b. colluvial d. Glacial

59. Removal of materials in the form of suspension from

the soil
a. run off c. eluviation
b. leaching d. illuviation
60. A group of related soils that differ due to parent
material
a. chronosequence c. climosequence
b. lithosequence d. biosequence

61. A group of soils that differ due to variations in soil

organisms
a. chronosequence c. climosequence
b. lithosequence d. biosequence

62. A group of soils that differ on drainage due to

variations in relief
a. catenas c. climosequence
b. lithosequence d. biosequence
63. A sequence of soils that differ due to changes in
climate
a. chronosequence c. climosequence
b. lithosequence d. biosequence

64. A sequence of soils that differ in some properties as a

result of time as a soil-forming factor
a. chronosequence c. climosequence
b. lithosequence d. biosequence

65. The peeling off or splitting of exposed surface of rocks

a. exfoliation c. hydration
b. decomposition d. pedoturbation