2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 2.4. Pressure of a fluid hen a fluid is c (and top) of the contai If P= the fo: exerts for it area is ints © led pressure ‘A = area on which the force acts; then intensity of pressure, pot 24) The pressure of a fluid on 2 surface will always act normal 10, the surfé 22. Pressure Head of a Liquid A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight, this pressure i of the liquid increases Consider a vessel containing liquid, as shown in Fig. 2-1. The liquid will exert pressure on all sides and bottom of the vessel. Now, let cylinder be made to stand in the liquid, as shown in the figure. Let h = height of liquid in the cylinder, A = area of the cylinder base, w = specific weight of the liquid. and p = intensity of pressure. Fig. 21. Pressure bead. Now, total pressure on the base of the cylinder = weight of liquid in the cylinder hen pA. = wah wah A =wh ie, p=wh 22) As p=wh, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due 10 its depth will vary directly with ‘As the pressure at any point in a liquid depends on height of the tree surface above that point, it is sometimes convenient to express a liquid pressure by the height of the free surface which would cause the pressure, i.e, 39es * 40 {from cay pre mas the static head at thy ove any point is know The height of the free surface abi lv this case, static head is Hence the intensity of pressure of ie, N/min?, N/m” as metres, mm ressed in the following ty, a figuidl may be exp and or cm of liquid). 1. As a force per unit ai 2. As an equivalent static head (i. Alternatively : Pressure Variation in Fluid at Rest In order to determine the pressure al any point ina Quid at rest “hydrostatic law" is used; the law states as follows “The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.” The proof of the law is as follows. Refer Fig. 2.2 Let, p = intensity of pressure on face LM; - AA = cross-sectional area of the element; I Z = distance of the fluid element from free (-Baqoa surface; = AZ = height of the fluid element, The forces acting on the element are: (# Pressure force on the face LM = px AA ... (acting downward) Fi resé ie. Fig. 2.2 Forces acting on a fluid element i) Pr fe =(p+4 i (ii) Pressure force on the face ST (+2. az) x AA... (Acting upward) (cit) Weight of the fluid element = weight density x volume eb cL ; = wx (A4 x AZ) iv) Pressure forces on surfaces MT and LS i For equilibrium of the Muid element, we have tial ahd opposite. prat-[p + Bal ads wx torn any cg Soimamnetcn px 44-~ ena or -2 Ax M tw Ad x age az ~ © (cancelling AZx A.4 fro ™ both the sid les) as or De oxe(s we a eZ Cows px gy 5 at Eqn. (2.3.) states that rate of i density of the fluid at that point, Thea of Pre On integrating the eqn. (2.3), Jap = Jee.az or P= pgZ(= wz) Pres SSure in ¢ nay c Wdrostatic lay 2 rtical direction is equal t0 wit ° We getMeasurement where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure. From eqn. (2.4), we have z= a - 2) we (2.5) Here Z is known as pressure head. Example 2-1. Find the pressure at a depth of 15 m below the free surface of water in a reservoir. Sol. Depth of water, = 15m Specific weight of water, w= 9-81 kN/m’ Pressure, p: We know that p=wh =9-81 x 15 = 147-15 kN/m? ie, p = 147-15 KN/m? = 147-15 kPa (Ans,) Example 2:2. Find the height of water column corresponding to a pressure of 54 kN/m? Sol. Intensity of pressure, p = 54kN/m? Specific weight of water, w= 9-81 kN/m?* Height of water column, 54 Using the relation: p = wh; h 5:5 m(Ans.) 2:3. Pascal’s Law The Pascal’s law states as follows ; “The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest, is the same in all directions’. Proof. Let us consider a very small wedge shaped element LMN of a liquid, as shown in Fig. 23. Let p, Py element of liquid, W intensity of horizontal pressure on the clement of liquid, u intensity of vertical pressure on the Peres Pz intensity of pressure on the diagonal of the _right-angled triangular element, a= angle of the element of the Pe liquid, M total pressure on the vertical side LN of the liquid, Fig, 23 Pressure on a fluid element at rest p,= total pressure on the horizontal side MN of the liquid, and P, = (otal pressure on the diagonal LAf of the liquid, Now, P,=p,xLN and P,=pyxMN and P.=p,* LM : iii) As the clerrent of the liquid is at rest, therefore the sum of horizontal and vertical components of the liquid pressures must be equal to zero. Resolving the forces horizontally: P, sina = p, LM sina =p,-LN (*. P,=p,- LM) But £M-sina=LN From Fig. 2:3ves and Hydraulic Machine, chan’ Mec Fluid J n 3 pai - Resolving the forces vertically peas how fovhere W = weight of the lis : ° cmp cement i Vt) S816 BY a cos =P” monte ol) P,cosa =P, But La eos = MN PEP From (iv) and (W). We Be P. wh is indeed dat rest he intensity oF pressure is exerted equally in all Hence, at any point ina rections, which is called Paseal's Law. : “ ‘Eyaple 23. The diameters of ram and plunger of an hy 30 mm respectively. Find the weight planger 400 X. iL. Diameter of the ram, D=200mm=02m Diameter of the plunger, d=30mm=003 m on the plunger, Fs400N Load lifted, W: Area of ram, draulic press are 200 mm and ied by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the F=400N Ras [7 Plunger Ry As TD =n/4x02'= 00314 me Area of plunger, 068% 10° my Intensity of pressure due to plunger, Hydra pres, pat, 40 4” F681 = 568% 10° N/m? Fig. 24 _ Since the intens the imtensity of pres ity of pressure SUF At the ram me equal ly transmj is also ‘ansmitted (due t0 Pascat's law), therefor | : = ae rae & Ws 0031 ca “tom N/m? te i ret ea or rar ence! r AAtea of smat mi S00 ‘ston, ‘ene ed by a a FoR 4 6b oePressure Measurement a F = 400N ‘Small piston ey | | Va Large piston Liquid Va Fig. 25 100mm =0-1 m 2/4 x 0-12 = 7-854 107? m? meter of the large piston, D =n/4 00 N Area of large piston, Force on small piston, Load lifted, W: ns Pressure intensity on small piston, p =~ 400 __ 5.66 x 10° N/m? a 7.068 x 10" Pressure intensity at section LL, cE Pu =G + pressure intensity due to height of 300 mm of liquid Fg wh= 566% 108 +9810% 200, = 5.66 x 10° +2943 = 5-689 x 10° N/m? | Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 5-689 x 10° N/m? Force on the large piston = pressure intensity x area of large piston 1 25.689 x 108 x 7-854 x 10” = 4468 N Hence load lifted by the large piston = 4468 N (Ans.) | 2-4, Absolute and Gauge Pressures ‘Atmospheric pressure: ‘The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact, and itis known as atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is also known as Barometric pressure. ‘The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute zero) is called standard atmospheric pressure, Note, The local atmospheric pressure may be a little lower than these values if the place under question is higher than sea level, and higher values if the place is lower than sea level, due to the corresponding decrease or increase of the column of air standing, respectively. Gauge pressure: Tt is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero. Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the difference in pressure of the liquid to which they are connected and that of surrounding air. E =o+wijanice ae Fluid Mech! 44 sure, then the gauge 1s desig eric pres ae al atmosphere Mount by which the pressure of idicates the . nd pressure ‘amospheric pressure) IY the pressure of the liquid is below the loc i as “vacuum gauge’ and the recorded value INT liquid is befow local atmospheric CoeGeie ‘below the (Vacuum pressure is defined as the : s endent of the o Absolute pressure: re scale which is indep henge, It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure * in exist only in complete vacuum, tae ¢ of absolute 2670 4 mig termed as an‘ im aimospheri presume Apress ae ser of pressure 18 termed 68 a “yay ny pressure measured above the pressure’ yum pressure and the absoly ‘A schematic diagram showing the gauge pressure, vacuum PI ’ Pressure is given in Mathematically: y je pressure + gauge pressure 1, Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge P! sive ig. 26 hey Pads = Parm * Peauge 2. Vacuum pressure Units for pressure: feel The fundamental S.1. unit of pressure is newton per square metre (N/m°). This is aly atmospheric pressure - absolute pressure known as Pascal. Low pressures are : often expressed in terms of mm of water or mm of Fouls paige ‘Atmosptetie mercury. This is an pee pressure abbreviated way of saying that the pressure is such that will support a liquid Negative gauge column of stated height, 2 pressure or vacuum Note. When the local © atmospheric pressure is not Absolute given in a problem, it is pressure taken as 160 KN/m?or 10 m of water for simplicity of calculations, Standard atmospheric pressure has the following equivalent values: Fig. 26. Relationship between pressures, 101-3kN/m? or 101-3 kPa; 103 m of wate i er, a = 1 bar = 100 kPa=10°N/m?, 760 mm of mercury, 1013 mb (mnillibs: Example 2-5. Given thar: ‘ Barometer reading = 740 mm of mereu Specific gravity of mercury = 1346, 1, Intensit Express the intensity of pressure in §, fle Toke Sol. Intensity of pressure, p = 4 kPa Poth gauge and absolute. Gauge Pressure: (i) p= 40 kPa 40kN/m? =0.4 x 195 (1 bar= 10° N/m?) Zero absolute pressure —___,. N/m? = W's 04 bar (Ans,Ss 1) gory in of water (An) w ost 2 vas BSENST A Lhe Wheve = spect weight 0299 AC OF mercury MN Free water we ONTRN a! Lor metouny e O8 ES ON an! Absolute pressueys Barometer reachiny (atmosphere pressured MOE OL MEIN HOS TV mm af water HON 16 woo Abvolitte pressure (a) atmospheri pressure ( 106m ot water Y¥ pauye prenwure (y 1000 EOP? LIT of water (Ans) METRO STS LOY 6 EARN TON in? (Anns) wh) LAS bar (Ans) Ch bare 10" Nin’) 4a? EELS 1039 m ot merenry. (ns) Measurement of Pressure The prevsure of a tluat may be measured by the follow ing devivess 1, Manometers: nometers are defined as the devi cing the « as follows (a) Simple manometery () Piezometer, (4) Ustub 4 wvedd for measuring the pressure ata point inva fluld fen of Mund by the same or another umn of liquid. These are classified manometer, and (iii) Single column manometer, (2) Ditferential manometers 2. Mechanical gau These are the devices in which the pressure is measured by balancing the fluid column by wring (elastic element) or dead weight, Generally these gauges are used for measuring high pressure and where high precision is not required, Some commonly used mechanical gauges are: (0 Bourdon tube pressure gauge — Gi) Diaphragm pressure gauge Gi) Bellow pressure gauge, and — (iv) Deadweight pressure gauge, 1, Manometers 28-11, Simple Mai A simple manometer is one which consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to ® point where pressure is to be incasured and the other end remains open to atmosphere, Common types of simple manometers are discussed below + |. Plezomete A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring mmaterate pressures at liquids. It consists of & glass tube (Fig. 2:7) inserted in the wall of Vessel oF of a pipe, contatning liquid whose pressure is to be measused. The tube extends Nentically apwant to such a height that liquid ean freely tise in it without overflowing. ‘The | Pressure at any pomt im the liquid as indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube above that Poin which can be cead on the scale attached to it Thus, if wis the specific weight of theoo n the pressure at point 4 (7) § pawh Piezometers measure gauge pressure only (at the surface of the liquid), since the surface of the liquid in the tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure. A piezometer tube is Mol suitable for measuring negative pressure; as in such a case the air will enter in pipe through the tube. 2. U-tube manometer Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be measured, since this would require very long mbes, which cannot be handled conveniently. Further- more gas pressures cannot be measured by the piezometers because a gas forms no free atmospheric surface. These limitations can be overcome by the use of U-tube manometers. Piezometer tube Pipe ‘A U-tube manometer consists of a a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of Fig. 2-7. (a) Piezometer tube fitted to open vessel. which is connected to a point at which ( Piecometer tube fitted 10 a closed pipe. pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2:8. (i) For positive pressure : Refer Fig. 2-8(a). ee be the point at which pressure is to be measured. X-X' is the datum line as shows in Fig. 2-7. Let hy = height of the light liquid in the left limb above the datum line, hy = height of the heavy liquid in the right limb above the datum line, A = pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of head, S, = specific gravity of the light liquid, and Sy) = specific vity of the heavy a ay fuid 28, Usube manometer ‘The pressures inthe lef limb and vight tint above ay ve themen 47 re Mi ' Hite at the cane bevel ina continuous homogeneous liquid are equal). sive Uwendl wleves NocN ioe tte Heft fils f+ iy Sy fA an the rine Mate = hy by Haguating hese fre presuutes, ve jot Hv hy Sy hyS) or hel, 8, ~ hy 3, (2-6) (i) For neyative presses theter Fig 2D Hreasure head above XOX in the Left Hons = It hy 54 hy Sy Vaeasure heal luvv NOX ine the eight finn = 0 Haquating these twee pressunes, we ger WANS Hh S90 or hen hy 5) + hy Sy) (2-7) Vanmple 2.60 br a pipeline water ts flowing A manometer is used to measure the pressure | trop for flow through the pipe The difference in level was found to be 20 em. If the manometric | ud in CCl, fird the pressure drop in SL units density of CCl, = 1.596 g/cm’) If the manomenic fluid (changed tw mercury (p= 13.6 gmfem') what will be the difference in (AMIE Winter, 1996) level? Sol, Given h, Mem = 0.2m, py = 1.596 g/om? | 1.590 7 10" ky/n? | Pig = 13.67% 10" ky/m! T | Pressure drop, AM = Po) Kec, h | © 1.596% 10" 7 9.81 40.2 N/mm? if | MSLIN/m? or Pa = 3.131k Pa (Ans.) The difference in level with mercury, % 96% 10" Iny = Nec, % AE = 0.20 % 16x10 Oy 13.6% 10° Fig. 29 = 0.023471m or 2.347¢m (Ans. ) Example 27. A U-tube manometer is used 10 measure the pressure of oil of specific gravity 085 flowing in a pipe line, M3 left end is connected to the pipe and the right-limb is open ta the atmosphere. The centre of the pipe ts 100 mn below the level of mercury (specific gravity = 14-6) in the right limb. If Liquid (S, = 0.85) the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 160 ‘nm, determine the absolute pressure of the oil in the pipe, 100 ma, Sol. Specific gravity of oil, 5, = 0-85 Specific gravity of mercury, 5)= 13-6 Height of the oil in the left fimb, hy = 160 100 60 min = 0-06 m Difference of mercury level, hy = 160 mm = 046m. Abvolute pressure of oll: Let iy = gauge pressure in the pipe in terms of Mercary (S; © 13.6) Fig 210rinid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machin, 48 head of water, and Zl P = gauge pressure in terms of KN/m ne Equating the pressure heads above the datum line X-X, ht hy Sy = hy Sy or h+ 0.06 x 0:85 = 0-16 x 13-6=2:125m The pressure p is given by p=wh = 981 x 2125 KN/m? = 2084 kPa ("w= 9-81 KN/m’ in S.1. units) we get Absolute pressure of oil in the tube, Pats = Powm * Peouge = +205 84 kPa (Ans.} pressure in the pipe, containing water. The right limb was open to the atmosphere, Find th vacuwn pressure in the pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs was 100 mm and height of water in the left limb from the centre of the pipe was found to be 40 mm belay, Sol. Specific gravity of water, 5, Specific gravity of mercury, S, = 13-6 Height of water in the left limb, g hy =40 mm = 0.04 m Water (5) = 1.0) 2 Height of mercury in the left limb, hy = 100. mm = 0-1 m Let i = pressure in the pipe in terms of head of water (below the atmosphere). Equating the pressure heads above the datum line XOX, we get hth, S)+hy S,=0 or == (hh, $+ hy Sy) =~ (004% 140-1 x 136) =~ 14 m of water Pressure p is given by Mercury (Sy = 38 Fig. 241 Ja = 100 mm p=wh = 9-81 x (~ 14) KN/m? =~ 13-73 kPa = 13-73 kPa (vacuum) (Ans) Example 2.9. A simple U-tube manometer is manometer is filled with mercury (sp, gravity ee) anda an orifcemeer. T carbon tetrachloride (sp. gravity = 1.6). The manometer reads Does weOve the mercury difference over the manometer in newions per square mere mmm. What is the pressitt Sol. Specific gravity of heavier liquid, 5) = 13.6 (AMIE summer, 199 Specific gravity of lighter liquid, Sy = 16 Reading of the manometer, y = 200 mm Pressure difference over the manometer ; Djfferential head, ofe Measurement au Prev Nw hove Mw Ie 200) 1) 1800 int af caciit tetiaetitaride 0 Pressure difference aver niamneter too , Poe wh © (0 OIG) « vin} Wu or pe USANA! (Anas Example 2100 Mn Fi 210 0 how a contoal vessel having 10 aidtet at L te vehie Wt the manometer t connected The reading af the manometer piven in flue dave when the erseel is empty Fund the readin, of the rnancnurter when the vessel de Comyileteby bead vet water Sol, When vessel Is emptys (eter Pre 212) Let hy © height of water abe Specific pravity of water, 4) ~ 10 Specific pravity of mereury, Equating the pressure heads about dhe datum fine XX, we get IW Spey, or hy ZNO VSO 186 or hy = 2040 000 When vessel Is full of water: 13m Wig 142. Vevoet is eragny Ketes Fig. 112. Comeiter the vowel ta yy ie ory Newel ah wy try fhe satne xtteauset se ther te OD ty 734 hoa ye PIswe TSN LB + 208 . aid Hence. : Sol. Cross-sectional area of €4 Specific gravity of wat Pressure head above X. Pressure head above MIL Fis. Dud shows Example 21 h of the bulb gravity of the liquid. S ht of water above } tof liquid. (S. Y in the left limb = i, V-in the right limb Eguating the pressure heads above X-N, we When the pressure on the surfa separation level fall By an amount eg) Now. AX fall in sey ‘Paratic Fill in separation level ig py so in buy fy u ce in bulb M is increased by 20 mm wal to y. Then Z~Z is the new separation leye Measurement Also fall in separation level in bulb M = rise in surface level of L = 35 30 Considering pressure heads above Z-Z, we have Pressure head in the left limb [zs +hy+ r| y Pressure head in the right limb ={ hy-+ y= \xo9+20 Equating the pressure heads, we get y [ener] uver- ove y 39; or 4g 1 OM + Y= Oly + x09 + 20 (5 N= 0-9 hy) or == 19420 or ° 0 Tay 809420 or or 1.025y = 0-877y=20 or y= 135-1mm Hence displacement of the surface of separation = 135-1 mm (Ans.) ingle column manometer (mnicro-manometer): The U-tube manometer described above usually requires reading of fluid levels at two or more points since a change in pressure causes a rise of liquid in one limb of the manonteter and 2 drop in the other. This difficulty is however overcome by using single column manometers. A single column manometer iy a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a shallow servoir having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the atea of the tube is connected 10 one limb of the manometer, as shown in Fig, 2-18. For any variation an pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be so small that it may be neg the pressure is indicated by the height of the liquid in the other limb. As such only one in the narrow limb of the snometer need be taken for all pressure esurements. The narrow limb may be J of inclined. ‘Thus there are wo types of single column manometer ay below: lected, {Light tiga Vertical single column mano: meter, and (b) loclined single column mano: sneter (a) Vertical single column mano: meters Reter Fig. V5. Lat X-% be the datum dine in the when the tingle eoluinn vonpetes is 1 ted the pipe, New comider that the manumneter ty (revered ta 4 pipe containing light Siquid unedes a very high pressure ‘The Peewee tn the pipe vill force the Aight Niu tw patshe the heavy Aqui Aa ty drmviards. fe te ave of the reservar is very lunge, the fall at the he Mery small Vis, dined mowerwent ol tlie Leavy thin, i the envesatsbe rine al she Weavy Soul I Hie chit Hit = Meany taguit Hie 21 Vertical atngle cota wvanneter © veservon YY aris Level will be teeervoll Will cane @mechanics GNeU” Fluid ® . o XN ye above in = centre of the PIE ne right Hie L = height of the €¢ i (after eM arynent) tt se of heavy Tiguid , amet fall heavy’ Hig hevet in the ead of wales, all of hea ed in terms ¢ arse tthe pape, expressed ors dea of the FESCTVONTS A = erass-sectional re ett Lin ea of the area of pipe a? of hight Fiquict it eavy liquid reservoir willl 68 enyss-sevtional ecitie gravity gravity of the bi ar rie use a tise of heavy lid let, n of heavy liquid i We know that fall of heavy the right limb. oe AX Sh hy or Sh=— lh : eo Z-Z as shown in Fig. 2 vet us now conser prosure heals above the daca 1 8. 25 et us now consid pre Pressure head in the left fimds = he (hy io) i Pressure head in the right limb = (hy + 31) 8; Squating the pressure heads, We get | 7 — he (hy + 8H) S, = (ig HDS, oF = (hy + HN) Sy ~ Uy 3H S b+ (hy + 5K) S, = (hs 5 = 8h (Sy $)) + MySy— Mh Sy . vol Eqn. (il y= 8) + hySy = hyS} in od When the area A is very large as compared to a, then the ratio a becomes very small, an) thus is neglected. Then the above equation becomes hs hySy-hS, wl29) (O) Inclined single column manometer: This type of manometer is u ive than the vertical tube type, in the right limb is more. Let! = length of the heavy li @= inclination of right limb with honzontal, ettical rise of liquid in right timb from et Ly hy = tin Putting the 72 value of Ay in eqn, gy 29, we get ful for the me: . surement of small pressures and is mort we (0 inclination the distance moved by the heavy liguil iquid moved in right limb, "sle volumn manometer, shy, Example, 242. Fig containing liquid of specific gravin ¢ Sravity Oy, is 100 Find the pressure in the pipe . 310) Column yy, 0 of 7 anometer connected 10 4 f of area of Y connected 4 PP, the reservoir to that of he!Pressure Measurement Take specific gravity of mercury as 13:6, Sol. Specific gravity of liquid in the pipe, 5, = 0:8. Specific gravity of mercury, $= 13-6 Areaof reservoir 4 100 Area of rightlimb ~ a Height of the liquid in the left limb, hh, =300 mm Height of mercury in the right limb, Liquid hy = 500 min Let h = pressure head in the pipe. Using the relation: Gc f= Shy (Sy Sy) + NSy— WS 1 or h= 799 * 500 (13-6 - 08) + 500 x 13-6 - 300 x 0-8 mm of water 4 + 6800 - 240 = 6624 mm of water Rei or 6-624 m of water (S, = 13.6) Pressure, p= wh = 9-81 x 6-624 ‘ 64.98 kN/m? or 64:98 kPa Fig. 217 4-98 kPa (Ans.) ie, Pp 25:1-2, Differential Manometers A differential manometer is used to measure the difference in pressures between two points in a pipe. or in two different pipes. In its simplest form a differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressures is required to be found out. Following are the most commonly used types of differential manometers. 1. U-tube differential manometer. 2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer. 1. Ustube differential manometer: A U-tube differential manometer is shown in Fig. 2-18. Case I. Fig. 2-18 (a) shows a differential manometer whose two ends are connected with two different points A and B at the same level and containing sarhe liquid. Let h = difference of mercury level (heavy liquid) in the U-tube, h, = distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb, S,) = specific gravity of liquid at the two points A and B, S = specific gravity of heavy liquid or mercury in the U-tube, hy = pressure head at A, hig = pressure head at B, We know that the pressures in the left limb and right limb, above the datum Pressure head in the left limb shyt (hy +h) S, Pressure head in the right limb = hiyt hy x, thxS ine, are equal.Fivid Mechanics and Hydrant sg “ Sd | ? iy + (Ihy +H) S, Hy + YS) HAS Liquid A (5)) OF hy hg = MS, + 4S ~ (hy +) Sy = NS, + hS ~ h,S, - hS, = WMS S)) ie. difference of pres en Heay, Case TH. Fig, 218 (b) shows a a atin { differential manometer whose two ends : are connected to two different points A and B at different levels and containing different liquids Let ht = difference of mercury level (heavy liquid) in the U-tube, ra iy = distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb, ‘hy = distance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right limb, 5) = specific gravity of liquid in pipe A, S; pipe B, S = specific gravity of heavy liquid or mercury, Ay = pressure head at A, and Ag = pressure head at B, Considering the pressure heads above the datum line X-X, we get Specific gravity of liquid in Pressure head in the: left limb. 6 = hat (hy +h)S, (a) Two pipes at same level, Pressure headin the righ (©) Two pipes at differential levels line ekg epee ney Fig. 218, Ustube differential manometer. Equating the above pressure heads, we get y+ hy +h) S, hy + hy XS + hx § (ha~ Ma) = by x Sy+ HS — (4, +h) S, Ia XS:4 HS =H, S, 45, =h(S-S)+yS,—ns ‘e Difference of pressure head at A and gt Example 2-13, 4 i Mao hy=h(S~S,) 4 ys, hy Sy ~ab conninin ano of cenit! Mahoneter comected eth p o specific gravity g C gravity of oi, wo points A and B in ot ‘ference in mercury levels as 150 a + wo A and 8, in terms of head of wate "ween A and Bhy = S81 x 85 SSRN $436 kPa (Ans) 5s wsed for measunag difference of two pressures where acowray Dents the Jef limb and the right lim below the danan it A-X ace equal. Pressure bead i the Jef fimb below 4-32 Pressure head im the right limb below Jy = hy— by Sh § hy-hyx5, heheh eS bee S hag | ample 216 Fig 222 shows : eae G8 connected to tHe differen: ifferentialPressure Measurement Sol. Height of water in the teft limb, hy © 300mm Height of water in the right linb, hh = 100 mm Height of light Hiquid in right limb, h- 150 mm Pressure in pipe A, hy= 20m of water Let 5.8) = 1 (sp. gr of water) We know that pressure heads in the left and right limbs below the datum line are equal. Pressure head in the left limb below eo =hy-hyS 300, =2 =17 0 ~ Fogg b= 7m Pressure head in the right limb below AY = hg hySy ~ WS too, | 150 =ha-T000% '~ 1000*°* = hy ~ 0-1 = 0-12 = hy ~ 0-22 Equating the two pressure heads, we get 1-7 = hp- 0-22 or hig = 192m (Ans.) Also, py = Wh, = 9-81» 1-92 = 188 kN/m? = 18-8 kPa (Ans.) Example 2-17. An inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B carrying water under pressure as shown in Fig. 2-23. The fluid in the manometer is oil of specific gravity 0-75. Determine the pressure difference between A and B. Sol. Specific gravity of oil, S=0-75 Specific gravity of water, 5,5; =1 Oil (5 = 0.75) Difference of oil in the two limbs = (450+ 200) ~ 450 = 200 mm ‘We know that pressure heads on the left and right limbs below the datum line X-X are equal. Pressure head in the left limb below X— = hy x 1 = hy 045 Pressure head in the right limb below ¥-X 450, _ 200 = hs T6090 *!~ 900% 975 =hy- 045-015 =hg-06 Equating the two pressure heads, we getss Ae-vas= be 96 dng hg = 1S tH (AMS) — PsP. : pyewn OS og} x 01S © LAT RNe nv 7a “ PM OAS or pans " te 3 dg stetch of micro-manometer, b ss Je 2.18, Dever 2 Tis shown used far me Sol. Micro-manometer 2M and is wed Jor” pressor differences. WC utiiz manometer liquids which are immiscible 7 nd also with the fluid | x whase diference is to be measured. The heavier liquid fills the lower ib Fluid Mechanics and Hvdanay. a Az par. of the U-tube upto 0-0 and then the 7, lighter liquid ts added on both sides filling | the tanks C and D upto the level VX. The oo Auid (guid or 2 gas) whose pressure difference is to be measured fills the space above XX When the pressure p, is slightly greater than 7s. the liquid levels will be as shown in the figure, The volume of the liquid displaced in each tank is equal to the Volume of liquid displaced in the Ustube. If @ is the cross-sectional area of the U-tube, and 4 that of the tank, then ©. Pressure difference, 24 ~ Pa w Az Substituting for az = 4a 24 Pa- Pa _ ha 7 24 (5-29) 4 Us =nle = [F095 6 or -sy (from (9) ang Simplifying. P89 4 a(s,- We get 2 = ne aay Explain how (AMIE Sum, Known fluid of Sp. gr § 4 cow, mer, Ip Lighter tgugy h=-~0 =k Sy )Pressure Measurement 9 manometer wud given The quantity K within the bracket is a comuunt for a give manometric liquids of specific gravities SS, and known fluid of specific gravity S. Example 2.19. Fig. 2.25 shows a fuel gauge, for a gasoline tank in car, which reads proportional 10 the botiom gauge The tank is 30 cm deep andyp yy accidently contains 1.8 cm of water in addition (0 the gasoline. Determine the height of air remaining at the top when the gauge erroneously reads full. a Take,Wpasotne = 6.65 KN/m? and Fig: 225) War = O.O1I8KN/m>. (Punjab University) Sol. When the tank is full of gasoline, Prauge = Wh = 6.65 % a = 1,995 kN/m? The gauge would erroneously read 1.995 kN/m? even when fh cm of air remains al the top; evidently when water is also accidently present. Pressure duc to h cm height of air + pressure due to (30 ~ 1.8 ~h) cm height of gasoline + pressure due to 1.8 cm of water = 1.995 0.0118 ie 46,65 x SOBA yh 28 100 1,995 a 100 “100 or 0.0118h + 187.53 - 6.65h + 17,658 = 199.5 _ 187.53 + 17.658 - 199.5) _ or hate = Gest = 0.857em Ans. Example 2.20. For the Fig. 2.26 determine the pressure difference between pipes A and B. Take 2, = 0.45 m, Z, = 0.225 m, Zs = 0.675 m and Z, = 0.3m. Fig. 2.26Fluid Mechanics and Hydra ic Me 60 column in the inclined tube fegl due to presence of air ! Delt press da ne gveing manomereeaualon Dy + WZ, ~ Wm (Zs 2a i045) = Po Pressure difference, Pa~ Pa m2) + Mn 9,81 x 0.45 + 13.6 * 4.414 + 118.397 = Ul the Fig. 2.27 determi y= 0.88, Take Z, = 0.66 m, (2, + Zsin 459 9,81 (0.675 + 0.3sin 45%) 3,943 KN/ m? (Ans.) ine the absolute pressure in pipe A thay Z = 033m, Z; = 0.1655) 4 Example 2.21. Fo oil of specific gravity Z,= 011m Assume an atmospheric pressure 105 kPa (Madras Uni Mercury 2 (S = 13.6) oil (S = 0.88) Fig. 2.27 on Starting from FW.S (free water am + WZ) ~ Wy Zp — vy, by im Zy + 105 + 9.81 x 0,66 - 9.81 ce ieee ie (0.165 + 0.41) = or =: a Pa = 105 + 6.475 ~ 3.237 - 29 014 oh = 88. A; : 8.6 KN/m* (absolute) (Ans) ‘Ne Example 222. Fi 22. Find the Sol. py ~ py: Pressure difference berween 1 and M in Fig. 2:28. a WAX 1S —015 x08 al @tN) @u=y +(015+02~ 4) «145.2 w Peas wt PSh~ 01240525 — 1.55. Pur wol pressure Measurement 0408 my, OES 08) Negative sign indicates pry > py OOS S981 BOT KN a (Ans) Liquid (S) Example 2:28. br dhe Fig 228, if the local atmospheric pressure is nun ot sury (sp. gravity = 16), caleu- Ee me : ; } Ge (i) Absolute pressure of air in the tank (id) Pres ing at L Sol. () Absolute pressure of airy WPardaic © gauge ra on Starting from the open end, 0-136 Nw) N06 =p, (pressure of air) 80 kN/m? Liquid (S = 15) Fig. 228 Poo =~ LOS 9ST NO = Pam (atmospheric pressure) aie Open end = 7990 < 36x S81 = 10073 kN/m (Pars)eir = Pour * Pam =~ 80+ 100-73 = 20-73 KN/m & Hence (Py. Jase = 20-73 kN/m! (Ans.) es 7 Air (i) Pressure gauge reading at L: 2 et t Pressure at L = Pry (air) + wht - py =20-73 + 981 x2 = 40.35 KN/m abs. f Now, : =40-35- = 40-35 - 100-73 ‘Mercur - ‘Water Praege ty = 40-39 — Paim =" (S136) a = 60:38 N/m? ie. Vacuum pressure = 60:38 kN/m? @ Hence pressure gauge reading at L = 60-38 kN/m? (vacuum) (Ans,) Example 2-24, Find the gauge reading at L and M in Fig. 230 if the local atmospheric Fig. 29 pressure is 755 mm of mercury. ae Sol. Assuming the vapour pressure of mercury (Hg) and pressure due (0 short column of air (ivy, is very low) to be negligible, we have © Cyregdh? (p, Hg = 0) + 05 x 13-6 (aC) @D=E=A) = 6-8 m of water abs, ata) Prouge * Pate = PeteFluid Mechanics and Hy sdraulic: Machin, 62 755 Closed BUt gin, = 7000 x 13-6 = 10-27 m of water Prange + 10-27 = 68 Hy Vapour OF Pease =~ 3-47 m of water = 347x981 == 34 kN/m? Hence gauge reading at pelle L=34kN/m* (vacuum) (Ans) (i) Cand? 6-8 + 1-2 x 0-85 + (15-01) x 1 =9-22 m of water abs. (at A) (at B) (at AD Pause * Pain. = Pas Peauge + 10-27 = 9-22 OF Prayge= — 1-05 m of water == 105 x 9-81 =~ 10-3 kN/m? a Hg (Mercury) Hence gauge reading at M Mere = 103 KN/m? (vacuum) ; (Ans.) Fig. 2.30 Example 2-25. For the Fig. 2-31 determine specific gravity of gauge liquid B if the gauge pressure at A is = 18 kN/n, Sol. Sp. gravity of liquid B : _ Pressure at L = pressure at M M~18+(15x981 x06) or Pu=—9ATKN/m? Between points Af and U, since there is an air column which can be neglected, therefore, Pu= Py (=~ 9-17 kN/m?) Also, pressure at N= pressure at 7, But point 7 being at atmospheric pressure, Pr= This py=Py+Sx 981 x08 =0 or 0=-9.174 78485 S=1-17(Ans) Example 2:26. (Com, manometer. Find the gauge the pipe and in the tubing oresure anal). In Fi UTE at A If the ig. 2. ldnometrie sty; which connecis the to Ube id is mercury and the fis 4S water, io 232 is shown a compre6 ressure Measurement Sol. Gauge pressure at A, py: Pressure at B= pressure at C Pe PH 8 4 1.95) 2M Further, +(e ) Pressure at D, FNS tn F Po Pe 65% 186 44 (18+ 108) — 105 x 166 { = P44 348~ 22.44 ' or Se ye 1899 ) Also, Pp=Pe and Pr= Po Bu FEL i s6 wow Pe and Ww 7 b6x 13-6= 21-76 Mercury (S136) ie, Fig. 232 or or 20-2 + 18:99 = 39-19 m of water ie, P4= 9-81 x 39-19 = 384-4 KN/m? (Ans.) Example 227. (Compound manometer). Jn the Fig. 2.33 is shown a compound manometer. Calculate pressure difference between the points A and B. Take w,, = 10KN/m? Sor water, Wy = 136KN/tm? for mercury and Wy = 8.5kKN/m? for oil, (Punjab University) Water — osmFluid Mechanics and Hydrayy, . + Wy = 8.5 KN/m? = Sol Nims Sq = 136kN/m Mo wn Pa-Py. — ae e ing manometric equation is : s governing, Starting from point A, the ge oe ' ee a ~ etal 6 0.72 + 85x 0.48 ~ 136 0.6 ~ 10 (0.9 7 a or pe = WO 1.08 = 136 x O78 6 : 7 + 108 - 97.92 + 4.08 - 81.6 - 3.6 = Pa =p, or py + 10 or py Pp = V6R24KN/m? (Ans.) (empty) 450 mm in diameter and 759 2. vlindrical bucket a Example 228, 4 cine ater until its lower edge is 6m below the surfae nal forced with its open end firs = i ion, assuming the trapped air remains E ud oe he Cee tion Atmospheric pressure = 1-01 bar. eee wall thickness and weight ofthe bucket may be considered as negligible, Sol. Diameter of the bucket, d= 450mm = 0-45 m Length of the bucket, /= 750 mm = 0-75 m Atmospheric pressure, Pyyq = 1-01 bar. Force required to maintain position, F : Refer Fig. 2.34 Let Puy = absolute pressure of compressed air trapped in the cylindrical bucky, depth of water raised in the bucket, Then, since the temperature of air remains constant, therefore, as per isothermal ene we have Free water surface Pan ® FX 04S 075=p,, — x Fx 045"x 0.75) Ca N=ph ~-for isothermal process) or Paw ast ) iP. ) Bucks Also p,, eee i) “NY fa T | l oy asec FB (Co ae (9 and (i ) pressed) 075 (aes; Pim = Pain +9810(6 yy 075 or (075 * (aes x10 1052 % 101 x 105 +9810(6 or ~» 11x 7 075-92 2 B06~» =075 4), or cod 1 or O20 (oypressure Measurement 6s or 1029) +0-75y—y?=4:5~6y or y?~I704y 445 =0 17.04 + VI708 4x45 _ 17.04 4 16 ye or 3 > 027m 2 2 (ignoring + ve sign being not possible) Substituting the value of y in (i), we get Poor (GaP The force tending to move the bucket in upward direction, PY= Pay X i x 0-457 101 = 1-578 bar = (1-578 x 10°) x : x 0-45? x 10°? KN = 25-097 KN The force acting on the bucket in the downward direction, Py = (1-01 x 10° + 9810 x 5-25) 2/4 x 0-45? x 107? KN = 24-254 KN 2. The force required to maintain the bucket in position, F =P, ~ Pz = 25.097 24.254 = 0-843 kN (Ans.) -$-1-3. Advantages and Limitations of Manometers Advantages of manometers: Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive; Good accuracy; 3. High sensitivity; Require little maintenance; 5. Not affected by vibration; Specially suitable for low pressure and low differential pressures; and It is easy to change the sensitivity by affecting a change in the quantity of manometric liquid in the manometer. Limitations: 1. Usually bulky and large in size; 2. Being fragile, get broken easily; Readings of the manometers are affected by changes in temperature, altitude and gravity; A capillary effect is created due to surface tension of manometric fluid, and 5. For better accuracy meniscus has to be measured by accurate means. 252. Mechanical Gauges ~aaNe The manometers (discussed earlier) are suitable for comparatively low pressures. For high Pressures they become unnecessarily larger even when they are filled with heavy liquids, Therefore for measuring medium and high pressures, we make use of elastic pressure gauges, They employ different forms of elastic systems such as tubes, diaphragms or bellows ete. to measure the pressure. The elastic deformation of these elements is used to show the effect of Pressure, Since these elements are deformed within the elastic limit only, therefore these gauges ate sometimes called elastic gauges, Sometimes they are also called secondary instruments, which implies that they must be calibrated by comparison with primary instruments such as manometers etc. Some of the important types of these gauges are enumerated and discussed below: 1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge, Z Diaphragm gauge, and 3. Vacuum gauge. 1. Bourdon tube pressure Gauge: Bourdon tube pressure gauge is used for measuring high as well as low pressures. A simple