AEC Notes 1

COURSE NOTES
Analog Electronics and Communication

(UG11T3302 -B.Tech.(M.E)-SY-SEM-III)
Complied by:
Mr. Sanjay Dabadgaonkar
(Sr. Associate Professor)
TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE
Talegaon - Chakan Road, Induri, Pune -410507
Tolani Maritime Institute, Induri
Course Notes
Program: B. Tech.M.E./BSNT/DNS/Others
Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Code: UG11T3302
Compiled By: Prof. Sanjay Dabadgaonkar
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Sr. No. Questions w.r.t. – UNIT No. 1, 2 and 3. Marks

What is UJT? What are its features? Draw its structure, symbol and equivalent
1
circuit? Explain working of UJT as a switch?
What are the applications of UJT? Explain working of UJT as a switch/ UJT
2 Oscillator / Relaxation Oscillator / Pulse generator / Saw tooth generator /
Thyristor (SCR) triggering circuit?
Draw diagram, symbol and explain working of JFET wrt its Characteristics.
3
a) N-Channel b) P-Channel
Draw diagram, symbol and explain working of MOSFET wrt its Characteristics.
4 a) Depletion type – DE-MOSFET b) Enhancement only MOSFET
For P-channel and N-Channel
5 Write a short note on CMOS devices and its applications?
Explain the effect of feedback in amplifiers using block diagram?
6
A) Positive Feedback B) Negative Feedback
7 What are different topologies used in feedback amplifiers? Draw & exlapin?
Draw frequency response of amplifier and find low and high cut-off frequencies?
8
Define band width and 3dB gain? Or Half power point?
Make a comparison between A) BJT & FET B) FET & MOSFET C) BJT &
9
MOSFET D) Voltage and Power amplifier E) Classes of power amplifiers
Draw diagram and explain working of Class-A, Class-B, Class-C, Class-AB power
10
amplifier with its features and applications?
What is Class-B complementary-symmetry / push-pull amplifier? Draw diagram
11
and explain working of power amplifier with its features and applications?
12 What is Phase Inverter? Why it is required in Class B-Power amplification?
What are the basic requirements for working of transistor as an oscillator / signal
13
generator? What is Barkhausen criterion?
Draw diagram and explain working of RC-Phase shift oscillator / Wien Bridge
14
Oscillator / Crystal Oscillator?
NOTE: These notes are solely for the purpose of guidance and students are required to
refer the reference books available with them and in LRC.
Course Notes

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UNIT-1: Transistors
UJT (Uni-Junction Transistor):

 Unijunction transistor, (double-base diode) is a 2-layer, 3-terminal (B1, B2, E) solid-state (silicon)
switching device which has one PN Junction. i.e. UJT acts as SWITCH
 It is a Low Power device used to TURN ON Thyristor (SCR). (30 Volts / few mA).
 It has a negative resistance region in the V-I characteristic in which UJT doesn’t follow ohms
law and V is inversely proportional to I. i.e. when UJT is triggered (Turned-ON), its emitter current
increases re-generatively.
 It is used in various applications e.g. Relaxation/UJT oscillators, pulse generators, saw-tooth wave
generators, SCR-triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits etc.
Construction of a UJT
 The symbol, structure and equivalent diagram is a shown in figure.
 It essentially consists of a lightly-doped N-type silicon bar with a small piece of heavily doped P-
type material alloyed to its one side to produce single P-N junction.
 The silicon bar, at its ends, has two ohmic contacts designated as base-1 (B1) and base-2 (B2),
as shown and the P-type region is termed the emitter (E).
 The emitter junction is usually located closer to base-2 (B2) than base-1 (B1) so that the device is
not symmetrical, because symmetrical unit does not provide optimum electrical characteristics for
most of the applications.
 The symbol for unijunction transistor is shown in figure. The emitter leg is drawn at an angle to the
vertical line representing the N-type material and the arrowhead points in the direction of
conventional current when the device is forward-biased, active or in the conducting state.
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The features of UJT are as given below:
 The device has only one PN junction, so it is called the unijunction device. It acts as SWITCH.
 The device, because of one P-N junction, is quite similar to a diode but it differs from an ordinary
diode as it has three terminals B1, B2 & Emitter i.e. it is called as transistor.
 The UJT is a Low Power semiconductor device. (Vcc = 30 Volts / Ie = few mA)
 In a UJT the emitter (P) is heavily doped while the N-region is lightly doped, so the resistance
between the base terminals is relatively high, typically 4 to 10 KΩ when the emitter is open.
 The N-type silicon bar has a high resistance and the resistance between emitter (E) and Base-1
(RB1) is larger than that between E and Base-2 (RB2). It is because E is closer to B2 than B1.
 The structure of UJT is similar to N-Channel JFET. UJT is operated with emitter junction forward-
biased while the JFET is normally operated with the gate junction reverse-biased.
 UJT does not have ability to amplify but it has the ability to control a large ac power with a small
signal. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic and so it can be used as an oscillator to
generate pulse for triggering SCR.
Working Operation of a UJT

 Consider RB1 & RB2 are internal resistances.
 i.e. Total inter-base resistance RBB=RB1+RB2
 The Ratio of RB1/RBB is denoted by ɳ & it
called intrinsic stand-off ratio. (η=0.51-0.78)
 VRB1 is the voltage across RB1.
 By using potential divider rule,
 When the emitter supply voltage is turned down to zero. Then the intrinsic stand-off voltage
(ηVBB) reverse-biases the emitter diode.
 If VD is the barrier voltage of the emitter diode (for silicon VD = 0.7 V), then the total reverse
bias voltage is VRB1 + VD = η VBB + VD. i.e. When VE < η VBB + VD; UJT is OFF
 Now let the emitter supply voltage VE be slowly increased. When VE becomes equal to Ƞ VBB,
IEo will be reduced to zero. With equal voltage levels on each side of the diode, neither reverse
nor forward current will flow.
 When emitter supply voltage is further increased, the diode becomes forward-biased as soon as
Course Notes

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η η
it exceeds total reverse bias voltage ( VBB + VD). i.e. When VE ≥ VBB + VD; UJT is ON
 This value of emitter voltage VE is called the peak-point voltage and is denoted by VP.
 When VE = VP= η VBB + VD, emitter current IE starts to flow through RB1 to ground, that is
B1. This is the minimum current that is required to trigger the UJT. This is called the peak-point
emitter current and denoted by IP. Ip is inversely proportional to the inter-base voltage, VBB.
 Now when the emitter diode starts conducting, charge carriers are injected into the RB1 region
of the bar. Since the resistance of a semiconductor material depends upon doping, the
resistance of region RB1 decreases rapidly due to additional charge carriers (holes).
 With this decrease in resistance, the voltage drop across RB1 also decrease, causes the
emitter diode to be more heavily forward biased.
 This, in turn, results in larger forward current, and consequently more charge carriers are
injected causing still further reduction in the resistance of the RB1 region.
 Thus the emitter current goes on increasing until it is limited by the emitter power supply.
 Since Voltage across VRB1 decreases with the increase in emitter current, the UJT is said to
have negative resistance characteristic.
 It is seen that the base-2 (B2) is used only for applying external voltage VBB across it.
Terminals E and B1 are the active terminals. UJT is usually triggered into conduction by
applying a suitable positive pulse to the emitter. It can be turned off by applying a negative
trigger pulse.
 The static emitter V-I characteristic (a curve showing the relation between emitter voltage VE
and emitter current IE) of a UJT at a given inter
base voltage VBB is shown in figure.
 From figure it is noted that for emitter potentials to
the left of peak point, emitter current IE never
exceeds IEo (The current IEo corresponds very
closely to the reverse leakage current ICo of the
conventional BJT).
 This region, as shown in the figure, is called the
cut-off region. Once conduction is established at
VE = VP= η VBB + VD, the emitter potential VE
starts decreasing with the increase in emitter
current IE.
 This Corresponds exactly with the decrease in
resistance RB1 for increasing current IE.
 This device, therefore, has a negative resistance region which is stable enough to be used with
a great deal of reliability in the areas of applications listed earlier.
 Eventually, the valley point reaches, and any further increase in emitter current IE places the
device in the saturation region, as shown in the figure.
 The special features of a UJT are: A negative resistance characteristic, A high pulse current
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capability, very low value of triggering current, low cost. Gate Pulses to multiple SCR using
pulse transformer and the other important parameters for the UJT are IP, VP, VV and IV .
Application of UJT / SCR Triggering using UJT / UJT Oscillator / Pulse generator
 The basic elements of UJT triggering circuit as a pulse generator are shown in figure.
 The main application of the Uni-junction transistor is to generate pulse for the triggering (Turn-ON)
of the High Power devices e.g. SCR (Thyristor).
 When inter base voltage VBB is switched ON, the capacitor C which is charged through resistor R.
 During the charging period, the voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially until it attains
the peak point voltage VE = VP= η VBB + VD.
 When the capacitor voltage attains voltage VP, the UJT switches ON and the capacitor C rapidly
discharges through PN diode and RB1.
 The resulting current through the external resistor R1 develops a voltage spike (pulse), as shown
in figure and the capacitor voltage drops to the value VV.
 So when, VE < η VBB + VD, UJT then Turns OFF and the capacitor commences charging again.
 The cycle is repeated continually generating a saw-tooth waveform across capacitor C. The
resulting waveforms of capacitor voltage VC and the voltage across resistor R (VR) are as shown.
 The frequency of the input saw-tooth wave can be varied by varying the value of resistor R as it
controls the time constant (T = RC) of the capacitor charging circuit.
 The discharge time t2 is difficult to calculate because the UJT is in its negative resistance region
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and its resistance is continually changing. However, t2 is normally very much less than t1 and can
be neglected for approximation.
 For satisfactory operation of the above oscillator the following two conditions for the turn-on and
turn-off of the UJT must be met.
 The time period and, therefore, frequency of oscillation can be derived as below. During charging
of capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor is given as Vc = VBB (l-e-t/RC). Where RC is the time
constant of the capacitor charging circuit and t is the time from the commencement of the
charging. The discharge of the capacitor commences at the end of charging period t 1 when the
voltage across the capacitor Vc becomes equal to VP, that is, (Ƞ VBB + VB)
VP = Ƞ VBB + Vd = VBB (1-e-T/RC) Neglecting Vd in comparison to ȠVBB we have,
Ƞ VBB = VBB (1-e-T/RC) or e-T/RC = 1 – Ƞ
So charging time period, T = Tc = 2.3 RC log10 (1/1- Ƞ)
Since discharging time duration t2 is negligibly small as compared to charging time duration t1 so
taking time period of the wave, T = t1. Time period of the saw-tooth wave,
T = 2.3 RC log10 1/1- Ƞ = [α/ω] & frequency of oscillation F = 1/T = 1/ 2.3 RC [log10 (1-Ƞ)]
Ƞ=0.51-0.78 Pulse Time =td= R1xC & R2= [Vd x Rbb] / Vp = 104/ȠVbb
The Delay angle=firing angle is α = ω T
What is a FET?
 The FET stands for Field Effect Transistor. It is a three-terminal unipolar solid-state device in
which current is controlled by an electric field (voltage). Terminals are Drain, Source & Gate.
 There are two types of FETs:
(a) Junction field effect transistor (JFET) &
(b) Metal-oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET). It is also called insulated-gate FET (IGFET)
 MOSFET i.e. Insulated-gate FET (IGFET) may be further subdivided into:
(i) Depletion type MOSFET i.e. DMOSFET
(ii) Enhancement type MOSFET i.e. EMOSFET.
Both of these can be either P-channel or N-channel devices.
JFET / MOSFET Applications:
i) As an amplifier: Audio power amplification – Radio, TV, Cell-phone, Laptop etc.
ii) As a switch: Inverter – Speed control of AC motor – Electric Propulsion, Pump Control.
iii) As a current source, as a buffer amplifier (impedance matching)
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Features of JFET
 The FET (Field Effect Transistor) is a three-terminal unipolar solid-state device in which current
is controlled by application of voltage. i.e. it is voltage controlled device.
 The Terminals of FET are Drain, Source & Gate. FET has large input impedance (>100 MΩ) and It
is much less noisy than bipolar junction transistor. This permits high degree of isolation between
the input and output circuits.
 In a JFET, the current conduction is either by electrons or holes (it is a majority carrier device /
FETs are unipolar) and is controlled by means of reverse voltage applied between the gate and
source. In a JFET, the gate current is zero i.e. IG ≈ 0A i.e. ID ≈ IS.
 The JFET has high input impedance and low noise level. The operation of a JFET depends upon
current carriers that do not cross junctions. Therefore, the inherent noise of transistors (due to
junction transitions) is not present in a JFET.
 It has greater resistance to nuclear radiations. It is better substitute for vacuum tubes than BJT.
 A JFET has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. This avoids the risk of thermal
runaway when the temperature of the device increases. i.e. FET’s are having more temp. Stability.
 A JFET has a very high power gain. This eliminates the necessity of using driver stages.
 A JFET has a smaller size, longer life and high efficiency than BJT.
 The JFET must be operated for -VGS between VDS and VP (Pinch-off Voltage). For this range of
gate-to-source voltages, ID will vary from a IDSS (maximum) to a minimum ID of almost zero.
 FET’s are smaller than BJT’s. But FET is less sensitive to the applied input signal than BJT.
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 Because both the gates are at the same potential, both depletion layers widen or narrow down by
an equal amount.
 The drain current ID is controlled by changing the channel width.
 The ordinary or bipolar transistor (BJT) has two principal disadvantages. (i) It has a low input
impedance because of forward biased base-emitter junction. (ii) It has considerable noise level.
 The field effect transistor (FET), due to its construction & biasing has large input impedance (>100
MΩ) and the FET is generally much less noisy than the ordinary bipolar transistor (BJT).
 Since JFET has no gate current, there is no β rating of the device. We can find
drain current ID by,
Construction:
 ET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar
containing two pn Junctions at the sides.
 The bar forms the conducting channel for the
charge carriers.
 If the bar is of n-type, it is called n-channel
JFET and if the bar is of p-type, it is called a p-
channel JFET.
 The two pn junctions forming diodes are connected internally and a common terminal called gate
is taken out. Other terminals are source and drain. Thus a JFET has three terminals viz. gate (G),
source (S) and drain (D).
 The voltage between the gate and source is such that the gate is always reverse biased.
The drain and source terminals are interchangeable i.e. either end can be used as source or drain.
 The input circuit (i.e. gate to source) of a JFET is reverse biased. This means that the device has
high input impedance.
 The drain is so biased w.r.t. source that drain current ID flows from the source to drain.
 In all JFETs, source current IS is almost equal to the ID drain current i.e. IS ≈ ID.
Working / Biasing for N-channel JFET:

 As the current from source to drain can be controlled by the application of voltage (electric field) on
the gate, therefore the device is called field effect transistor.
 The two pn junctions at the sides forms TWO depletion layers. (n-channel FET diagram)
 The current conduction by charge carriers (i.e. free electrons in this case) is through the channel
between the two depletion layers and from source to drain i.e. ID is from Drain to Source.
 The width and resistance of this channel can be controlled by changing the input voltage (-VGS).
 Due to reverse bias of pn junction, Depletion region width increases near drain than source.
 The greater the reverse voltage VGS, the wider will be the depletion layers and narrower
will be the conducting channel. The narrower channel means greater resistance and hence
drain to source current decreases. Reverse will happen when -VGS will decrease.
 Thus JFET operates on the principle that width, resistance and of the conducting channel
and the magnitude of drain current (ID) can be varied by changing the reverse voltage -VGS.
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Case (i): When VGS =0 & VDS >0, i.e.
VDS = + ve, IG=0 & pn junction is
reverse biased. When a voltage VDS =
VDD applied between drain and
source increased gradually, the two
pn junctions at the sides of the bar
establish depletion regions which are
almost touching each other. This
condition is called pinch-off condition
and the VDS is called pinch-off
voltage (VP). At this condition, ID is constant called as Maximum drains to source saturation
current (IDSS). The electrons will flow from source to drain through a channel between the depletion
layers. The size of these layers determines the width & resistance of the channel and hence the
current conduction ID through the N- channel.
Case (ii): When VGS < 0 (VGS = - ve) & VDS>|VP|<VDD, pn junction is more reverse biased. So,
when a reverse voltage -VGS is applied between the gate and source increases, the width of the
depletion layers is increased and reaches VP at earlier VDS. This reduces the width of conducting
channel, thereby increasing the resistance of n-type bar. Consequently, the current from drain to
source is decreased. On the other hand, if the reverse voltage on the gate is decreased, the width
of the depletion layers also decreases. This increases the width of the conducting channel and
hence IDS drain to source current. ( i.e. when -VGS ID VP VDS )
Transfer characteristics (Transconductance gm=ID/VGS) Drain or Output Characteristics
Output Characteristics of JFET (Trans-conductance)

 The curve between drain current (ID) and drain-source voltage (VDS) of a JFET at constant gate
source voltage (VGS) is known as output characteristics of JFET (Trans-conductance).
 Keeping VGS fixed at some value, say -1V, the drain source voltage is changed in steps.
Corresponding to each value of VDS, the drain current ID is noted.
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 A plot of these values gives the output characteristic of JFET at VGS = -1V. Repeating similar
procedure, output characteristics at other gate-source voltages can be drawn.
 The following points may be noted from the characteristics:
(i) At first, the drain current ID rises rapidly with drain-source voltage VDS but then
becomes constant. The drain-source voltage above which drain current becomes constant is
known as pinch off voltage (VP).
(ii) After pinch off voltage, the channel width becomes so narrow that depletion layers almost
touch each other. The drain current passes through the small passage between these layers.
Therefore, increase in drain current is very small with VDS above pinch off voltage. Consequently,
drain current remains constant.
Important Terms:
In the analysis of a JFET circuit, the following important terms are often used:
1. Shorted-gate drain current (IDSS). It is the drain current with source short-circuited to gate
(VGS=0) & drain voltage (VDS) equal to pinch off voltage. It is sometimes called zero-bias current.
2. Pinch off Voltage (VP). It is the minimum drain-source voltage at which the drain current
essentially becomes constant and TWO depletion regions are almost touching each other.
3. Gate-source cut off voltage VGS (off). It is the gate-source voltage where the channel is
completely cut off and the drain current becomes zero.
Parameters of JFET:
(i) a.c. drain resistance (rd): It is the ratio of change in drain-source voltage (ΔVDS) to the
change in drain current (ΔID) at constant gate-source voltage.
(ii) Trans-conductance ( gfs ): It is the ratio of change in drain current (ΔID) to the change in
gate-source voltage (ΔVGS) at constant drain-source voltage.
(iii) Amplification factor ( μ ): It is the ratio of change in drain-source voltage (ΔVDS) to the
change in gate-source voltage (ΔVGS) at constant drain current.
* It may be noted that a p-channel JFET

operates in the same manner as an n -channel
JFET except that channel current carriers will
be the holes instead of electrons and the
polarities of VGS and VDS are reversed.
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JFET Applications:
(i) As a buffer amplifier. A

buffer amplifier is an
intermediate stage of
amplification. Because of the
high input impedance (light
loading of the preceding stage)
and low output impedance
(small load resistances), a
JFET can act as an excellent
buffer amplifier. This ensures
that all the output from the buffer reaches the input of the next stage.
(ii) Phase-shift oscillators. The oscillators will also work with JFETs. However, the high input
impedance of JFET is especially valuable in phase-shift oscillators to minimize the loading effect.
(iii) As RF amplifier. In communication electronics, we have to use JFET RF amplifier in a radio
receiver due to, (a) The noise level of JFET is very low. (b) The antenna of the receiver receives a
very weak signal that has an extremely low amount of current. Since JFET is a voltage controlled
device, it will well respond to low current signal provided by the antenna.
(iv) As a switch due to fast switching action.
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

 The main drawback of JFET is that its gate must be reverse biased for proper operation of the
device i.e. JFET can only have negative gate operation for n-channel and positive gate
operation for p-channel.
 This means that we can only decrease the width of the channel (i.e. decrease the ID and
conductivity of the channel) from its zero-bias size. This type of operation is referred to as
depletion-mode operation.
 Therefore, a JFET can only be operated in the depletion-mode. However, there is a field effect
transistor (FET) that can be operated to enhance (or increase) the width of the channel (with
consequent increase in conductivity of the channel) i.e. it can have enhancement-mode operation.
Such a FET is called MOSFET.
 A field effect transistor (FET) that can be operated in the enhancement-mode is called a MOSFET.
 A MOSFET has several advantages over JFET including high input impedance and low cost of
production.
 There are two basic types of MOSFETs. 1. Depletion-type MOSFET or D-MOSFET. The D-
MOSFET can be operated in both the depletion-mode and the enhancement-mode. For this
reason, a D-MOSFET is sometimes called depletion/enhancement DE-MOSFET. 2.
Enhancement-type MOSFET or E-MOSFET. The E-MOSFET can be operated only in
enhancement-mode. The manner in which a MOSFET is constructed determines whether it is D-
MOSFET or EMOSFET.
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1. D-MOSFET. Fig. shows the constructional details of n-
channel D-MOSFET. It is similar to n-channel JFET.
The n-channel D-MOSFET is a piece of n-type
material with a p-type region (called substrate) on the
right and an insulated gate on the left as shown in Fig.
The free electrons flowing from source to drain must
pass through the narrow channel between the gate
and the p-type region (i.e. substrate). A thin layer of
metal oxide / silicon dioxide (SiO2) is deposited over a
small portion of the channel. A metallic gate is
deposited over the oxide layer. As SiO2 is an insulator,
therefore, gate is insulated from the channel. This
arrangement forms a capacitor. One plate of this
capacitor is the gate and the other plate is the p-
channel with SiO2 as the dielectric. It is a usual practice to connect the substrate to the source
(S) internally so that a MOSFET has three terminals viz source (S), gate (G) and drain (D). Since
the gate is insulated from the channel, we can apply either negative or positive voltage to the
gate. Therefore, D-MOSFET can be operated in both depletion-mode and enhancement-mode.
However, JFET can be operated only in depletion-mode.
2. E-MOSFET. Fig. shows the constructional details of n-channel

E-MOSFET. Its gate construction is similar to that of D-MOSFET.
The E-MOSFET has no channel between source and drain
unlike the D-MOSFET. i.e. the substrate extends completely to
the SiO2 layer so that no physical channel exists. The E-
MOSFET requires a proper gate voltage to form a channel
(called induced channel). It is reminded that E-MOSFET can
be operated only in enhancement mode. In short, the
construction of E-MOSFET is quite similar to that of the D-
MOSFET except for the absence of a channel between the drain and source terminals.
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Circuit Operation of DE-MOSFET
 Fig. shows the circuit of n-channel & p-channel D-MOSFET. The gate forms a small capacitor.
One plate of this capacitor is the gate and the other plate is the channel with metal oxide layer as
the dielectric.
 When gate voltage is changed, the electric field of the capacitor changes which in turn changes
the resistance of the n-channel. Since the gate is insulated from the channel, we can apply either
negative or positive voltage to the gate. The negative-gate operation is called depletion mode
whereas positive-gate operation is known as enhancement mode.
 In Depletion-mode operation of n-channel D-MOSFET, since gate is negative, it means
electrons are on the gate repel the free electrons in the n-channel, leaving a layer of positive
ions in a part of the channel.
 In other words, we have depleted (i.e. emptied) the n-channel of some of its free electrons.
Therefore, lesser number of free electrons are made available for current conduction through the
n-channel. This is the same thing as if the resistance of the channel is increased.
 The greater the negative voltage on the gate, the lesser is the current from drain to source. Thus
by changing the negative voltage on the gate, we can vary the resistance of the n-channel and
hence the current from drain to source. It is similar to JFET. The negative-gate operation is
called depletion mode.
 In Enhancement mode operation of n-channel DMOSFET, the gate acts like a capacitor.
Since the gate is positive, it induces negative charges in the n-channel.
 These negative charges are the free electrons drawn into the channel. Because these free
electrons are added to those already in the channel, the total number of free electrons in the
channel is increased. Thus a positive gate voltage decreases resistance and enhances or
increases the conductivity of the channel.
 The greater the positive voltage on the gate, greater the conduction from drain to source. Thus
by changing the positive voltage on the gate, we can change the conductivity of the channel.
 The main difference between D-MOSFET and JFET is that we can apply positive gate voltage to
D-MOSFET and still have essentially zero current. Because the action with a positive gate
depends upon enhancing the conductivity of the channel, the positive gate operation is called
enhancement mode.
 The following points may be noted about D-MOSFET operation :
(i) In a D-MOSFET, the drain to source current is controlled by the electric field of capacitor
formed at the gate.
(ii) The gate of JFET behaves as a reverse-biased diode whereas the gate of a D-MOSFET acts
like a capacitor. For this reason, it is possible to operate D-MOSFET with positive or negative VGS.
(iii) As the gate of D-MOSFET forms a capacitor, therefore, negligible gate current flows whether
positive or negative voltage is applied to the gate. For this reason, the input impedance of D-
MOSFET is very high, ranging from 10,000 MΩ to 10,000,00 MΩ.
(iv) The extremely small dimensions of the oxide layer under the gate terminal result in a very low
capacitance and the D-MOSFET has, therefore, a very low input capacitance. This characteristic
makes the D-MOSFET useful in high-frequency applications.
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D-MOSFET Transfer Characteristics (n-channel)
(i) The point on the curve where VGS = 0, ID = IDSS.

It is expected because IDSS is the value of ID when
gate and source terminals are shorted i.e. VGS = 0.
(ii) As VGS goes negative, ID decreases below the
value of IDSS till ID reaches zero when VGS =VGS
(off) just as in JFET.
(iii) When VGS is positive, ID increases above the
value of IDSS. The maximum allowable value of ID is
given on the data sheet of D-MOSFET.
E-MOSFET (Enhancement MOSFET)
(When VGS = 0, the EMOSFET is OFF because there is no conducting channel between
source and drain).
E-MOSFET operates only in the
enhancement mode and has no
depletion mode. The E-MOSFET has no
physical channel from drain to source,
because the substrate extends
completely to the SiO2 layer. Due to
SiO2 layer Gate side and P substrate
acts as two plates of virtual capacitor.
 It is only by the application of VGS
(gate-to-source voltage) of proper
magnitude and polarity that the device
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starts conducting. ID changes directly proportional to VGS.
 The minimum value of VGS of proper polarity that turns on the E-MOSFET is called Threshold
voltage [VGS(th)]. The n-channel device requires positive VGS (VGS (th)) and the p-channel device
requires negative VGS (- VGS (th)).
 The working of N-channel E-MOSFET is explained as under :
(i) When VGS = 0V, there is no channel connecting the source and drain. The p substrate has
only a few thermally produced free electrons (minority carriers), so that drain current is
essentially zero. For this reason, E-MOSFET is normally OFF when VGS = 0 V. This
behaviour of E-MOSFET is quite different from JFET or D-MOSFET.\
(ii) When gate is made positive (i.e. VGS is positive), it attracts free electrons into the p region.
The free electrons combine with the holes next to the SiO2 layer. If VGS is positive enough, all
the holes touching the SiO2 layer are filled and free electrons begin to flow from the source to
drain. The effect is the same as creating a thin layer of n-type material (i.e. inducing a thin
n-channel) adjacent to the SiO2 layer. Thus the E-MOSFET is turned ON and drain current
ID starts flowing form the drain to source. The minimum value of VGS that turns the E-
MOSFET ON is called Threshold voltage [VGS (th)].
(iii) When VGS < VGS (th), there is no induced channel and the drain current ID is zero. When
VGS = VGS (th), the E-MOSFET is turned ON and the induced channel conducts drain current
from the drain to source. Beyond VGS (th), if the value of VGS is increased, the newly formed
channel becomes wider, causing ID to increase. If the value of VGS decreases [not less than
VGS (th)], the channel becomes narrower and ID will decrease. This fact is revealed by the
transconductance curve of n-channel E-MOSFET. As you can see, ID = 0 when VGS = 0.
Therefore, the value of IDSS for the E-MOSFET is zero. Note also that there is no drain current
until VGS reaches VGS (th).
Comparisons:
BJT FET
Bipolar device ( current condition, by both Unipolar device (current conduction is only
types of carriers, i.e., majority and minority- due to one type of majority carrier either
electrons and holes ) electron or hole).
The operation depends on the injection of The operation depends on control of a
minority carriers across a forward biased junction depletion width under reverse bias.
junction.
Carriers moves through the channel by Carriers moves through the channel by
diffusion (Low speed) drifting (High speed)
Current driven device. The current through Voltage driven device. The current t h r o u g h
the two terminals is controlled by a current at t h e t w o t e r m i n a l s i s controlled by a
the third terminal (base). voltage at the third terminal (gate).
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High noise level. Low noise level.
Low input impedance (due to forward bias). High input impedance (due to reverse bias).
Gain is characterized by voltage gain. Gain is characterized by transconductance.
Less thermal stability. Better thermal stability.
Low power gain and more noisy Greater Power Gain & less noisy
Fabrication: BJT requires more space Fabrication: FET requires less space
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CMOS devices and applications:

 CMOS stands for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. It uses both PMOS and NMOS
transistor connected back to back.
 Both PMOS and NMOS acts a SWITCH. Both basic PMOS & NMOS acts as inverter.
 MOS transistor are unipolar logic families (TTL is bipolar).
 It is used to perform logical operations (e.g. NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR etc).
 It consumes minimum power. High switching speed. Fabrication is simple. Small size. Less cost.
 CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) is the semiconductor technology used in the
transistors that are manufactured into most of today's computer microchips.
 In CMOS technology, both kinds of transistors (PMOS & NMOS) are used in a complementary
way to form a current gate that forms an effective means of electrical control.
 CMOS transistors use almost no power when not needed. As the current direction changes more
rapidly, however, the transistors become hot. This characteristic tends to limit the speed at which
microprocessors can operate. CMOS transistors are highly reliable.
 CMOS transistor SWITCHES are the main building blocks of any hardware logic implementation.
 In metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors the current flow is controlled by a voltage.
Ideally, no power is needed to control the on- and off-state.
 Fig. shows a schematic and a simplified layout of a CMOS inverter, used in all modern computers.
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 Complementary MOS technology is based on complementary-type transistors where current flows

only during the switching process. These devices allow hardware logic implementations with
extremely low standby power, high speed, and small footprint.
 An n-type MOS (nMOS) and a p-type MOS (pMOS) device are fabricated on the same p-doped
wafer, with the p-MOS device embedded in an n-doped well.
 The footprint of these structures is very small and allows high integration densities.
CMOS devices applications:
 It is used in battery powered devices, CMOS image sensors, Calculators, Digital watches, Hearing
aids, MSI (Medium Scale Integration) & LSI (Large Scale Integration).
 CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital
logic circuits, ROM, EEPROM and application specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
 CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as image sensors (CMOS sensor),
data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication.
 CMOS typically refers to a battery-powered memory chip in our computer that stores startup
information. Our computer's basic input/output system (BIOS) uses this information when starting
our computer.
 While most motherboards have a spot for a CMOS battery, some smaller computers, like tablets
and laptops, have a small external compartment for the CMOS battery that connects to the
motherboard via two small wires.
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) logic has a few desirable advantages:
 High input impedance. The input signal is driving electrodes with a layer of metal oxide between
them and what they are controlling. This gives a small amount of capacitance, but virtually infinite
resistance. The current into or out of CMOS input is just a leakage, usually 1 nA or less
 CMOS logic takes very little power when held in a fixed state. The current consumption comes
from switching as those capacitors are charged and discharged. Even then, it has good speed to
power ratio compared to other logic types.
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 CMOS gates are very simple. The basic gate is an inverter, which is only two transistors. This
together with the low power consumption means it lends itself well to dense integration. Or
conversely, you get a lot of logic for the size, cost and power.
However, just like everything else CMOS has its own disadvantages;
Not bipolar, some circuits are not practicable, difficult to implement.
Feedback in Amplifiers:
In feedback amplifier a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back and combined with the input
signal. This partial dependence of amplifier output on its input signal helps to control the amplifier
output. Thus feedback is used to overcome any adverse effect on the overall performance of an
amplifier. Feedback Amplifier consists of two parts: an amplifier and a feedback circuit.
Types of Feedback in amplifiers: i) Negative Feedback and ii) Positive Feedback.
(i) Negative feedback:
If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to reduce the magnitude of the amplifier input
voltage (or current) (i.e. it is 180° out of phase with input), then it is called negative feedback or
degenerative or inverse feedback. Negative feedback is frequently used in amplifier circuits.
Feedback amplifier has two parts 1. Amplifier with Gain A and ii) Feedback circuit with fraction of
output β. The open loop gain of amplifier is; A=Vo/Vin i.e. Vo= A x Vi
The feedback circuit usually consists of passive components e.g. Resistor, Capacitor & Inductor
etc. The fraction β of output voltage is coming back to the input through feedback circuit.
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Let be the output voltage with feedback. I.e. after feedback the input voltage becomes,
For Positive feedback β is taken Positive (+) and for Negative feedback β is taken Negative (-).
i.e. for Negative feedback (-).
When this voltage is amplified with gain A, then at the output we get voltage ,
i.e. the voltage gain of the amplifier with Negative feedback is, (for the negative feedback the
fraction is – β.)
Since; The Negative feedback reduces the amplifier gain. The term
Aβ is called loop gain and β is called feedback ratio.
Suppose, A = 90 and β = 1/10 = 0.1
Then, gain without feedback is 90 and with negative feedback is,
As seen, negative feedback reduces the amplifier gain. That is why it is called degenerative
Feedback. A lot of voltage gain is sacrificed due to negative feedback. When | βA | » 1, then
It means that A´ depends only on β. But it is very stable because it is not affected by changes in
temperature, device parameters, supply voltage and from the aging of circuit components etc.
since resistors can be selected very precisely with almost zero temperature-coefficient of
resistance, it is possible to achieve highly precise and stable gain with negative feedback.
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Advantages of Negative feedback:
1. Higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation, 2. Highly stabilized gain, 3. Increased bandwidth (as
Gain X BW product is constant) i.e. improved frequency response, 4. Less amplitude distortion,
5. Less harmonic distortion, 6. Less frequency distortion, 7. Less phase distortion, 8. Reduction in
the Noise level 9. Increased Input Impedance and decreased output impedance.
(ii) Positive feedback
If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to increase the magnitude of input voltage (or
current) (i.e. it is in phase with input), then it is called positive feedback or regenerative or direct
feedback. Since positive feedback produces excessive distortion, it is seldom (rarely / कभी कभी)
used in amplifiers. However, as positive feedback increases the power of the original signal,
i.e. it is commonly used in oscillator circuits.
As, be the output voltage with feedback. I.e. after feedback the input voltage becomes,
For Positive feedback β is taken Positive (+) and for Negative feedback β is taken Negative (-).
i.e. with positive feedback the input voltage becomes;
When this voltage is amplified with gain A, then at the output we get voltage ,
I.e. the voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback is,
Since; the positive feedback increases the amplifier gain.
Suppose gain without feedback is 90 and β = 1/100 = 0.01, then gain with positive feedback is,
Since positive feedback increases the amplifier gain. It is called direct or regenerative feedback.
If βA = 1, then mathematically, the gain becomes infinite which simply means that there is an
output without any input…..!! However, practically this cannot happen. What actually happens is
that the amplifier becomes an oscillator which supplies its own input. In fact, two important and
necessary conditions for circuit oscillation are 1. The feedback must be positive, 2. Feedback
factor must be unity i.e. βA = +1.
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As the Negative feedback is used in amplifiers, therefore according to connection there are four
topologies (connections) as mentioned below,
The important point to remember is that, Voltage is always sensed in parallel (shunt) and
subtracted in series. Current is always sensed in series and subtracted in parallel (shunt).
Types of Feedback
Characteristics Voltage-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-Series Current-Shunt
Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases
Ri- Input R Increases Decreases Increases Decreases
Ro-Output R Decreases Decreases Increases Increases
Harmonic distortion Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

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Frequency Response:
Amplifiers and filters are widely used electronic circuits. Amplifiers produce gain while filters alter
the amplitude and/or phase characteristics of an electrical signal with respect to its frequency. As
these amplifiers and filters use resistors, inductors, or capacitor networks (RLC) within their
design, there is an important relationship between the use of these reactive components and the
circuit’s frequency response characteristics.
Usually AC circuits operate at a fixed frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz), But the response of a linear AC
circuit can also be examined with an AC or sinusoidal input signal of a constant magnitude but
with a varying frequency (commonly found in amplifier and filter circuits). This is called frequency
response analysis of an amplifier. Therefore the, Frequency Response of an amplifier allows us
to see exactly how the output gain (magnitude response) and the phase (phase response)
changes at a particular single frequency, or over a whole range of different frequencies from 0Hz,
(d.c.) to 1000 MHz depends on the circuit parameters.
Generally, the frequency response analysis is shown by plotting its Gain in Decibels (Y-axis)
against a frequency (X-axis) on a semi log paper. Therefore by knowing the circuits gain, (or loss)
at each frequency helps us to understand how well (or badly) the circuit can distinguish between
signals of different frequencies.
Frequency Response Curve
Thus the frequency response shows the band of frequencies over which the output (and the gain)
remains fairly constant. The range of frequencies between ƒL and ƒH is called the circuit’s
bandwidth. So from this we are able to determine the voltage gain (in dB) for any sinusoidal input
within a given frequency range. Most of the audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response as
shown above over the whole audio range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
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Frequency Response -3dB Point
These -3dB corner frequency points define the frequency at which the output gain is reduced to
70.71% of its maximum value. Then we can correctly say that the -3dB point is also the frequency
at which the systems gain has reduced to 0.707 of its maximum value. In all basic single order
amplifier and filter circuits the roll-off rate is defined as 20dB/decade (6dB/octave). These values
are multiplied by the order of the circuit.
The -3db power level is the frequency at which the power is at 3db below the maximum value and
in normal unit its half the maximum power. So, it’s decided as the cutoff frequency. This is taken
as a standard reference frequency beyond which the response is not very important from the
system analysis point of view. Frequencies below -3dB are not much attenuated but frequencies
above -3 dB are more strongly attenuated. In communication we want to get the frequency gain
100%.but it is not possible. The o/p of the gain rate will be 70% to 100%. The 70% gain is a
minimum acceptable frequency. So, we have been using the -3dB. The -3dB point is also known
as the half-power points since the output power at this corner/cut-off frequencies will be
half that of its maximum 0dB value as shown below,
Therefore the amount of output power delivered to the load is effectively “halved” at these cut-off
frequency and as such the bandwidth (BW) of the frequency response curve can also be defined
as the range of frequencies between these two half-power points.
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Low and High Frequency response of an amplifier:
The High Frequency Response for equivalent The Low Frequency Response for equivalent
circuit of amplifier (LPF / Integrator) is as shown circuit of amplifier (HPF / Differentiator) is as
below, shown below,
If f=0
If f=0
If f=fL
If f=fH
If f=
If f=
UNIT-2: Power Amplifier
Difference between Voltage Amplifier and Power Amplifier

A voltage amplifier is designed to achieve maximum voltage amplification. However, it is not
important to raise the power level. On the other hand, a power amplifier is designed to obtain
maximum output power.
Voltage Amplifier (Load – High RL) Power Amplifier (Load - Low RL-Loud Speaker)
(Common Emitter Amplifier – 1800 P.S.) (Common Emitter Amplifier - 1800 P.S.)
Voltage Amplifiers: The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by
In order to achieve high voltage amplification, the following points should be noted:
1. The transistor with high β, more than 100 is used in the circuit. In other words transistors
with thin base are used in this case.
2. The input resistance of the transistor should be low as compared to the collector load
resistance. (Rin<Rc).
3. A relatively high load resistance is used in the collector. To permit this condition, voltage
amplifiers are always operated with at low collector currents nearly 1 mA.
4. Po=IcXRL is less as IL is less. So less heat generated. No Heat sink required.
5. Small size, less weight, less space, low cost.
6. Applications: Small signal amplifier, 1st stage in audio amplifier, RC coupled amplifier.
Power Amplifiers:
A power amplifier is needed to deliver a large amount of power to load and hence it has to handle
a large amount of current. In order to achieve high power amplification, the following points should
be noted:
1. The size of the power transistor is made considerably larger in order to dissipate the heat
generated in the transistor during operation. Heat sink required.
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2. The base is made thicker to handle large current. In other words transistors with
smaller β (5 to 20) are used in this case.
3. Low load resistance (4 to 8 Ohm – loud speaker).Ic large so Po is also large, as Po=IcxRL.
4. Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.
5. Large size, large space required, more weight, more cost.
6. Applications: Audio Power Amplifier (20 Hz to 20 KHz)
What is a Power Amplifier?

 A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the magnitude of power of a given
input signal.
 The power of the input signal is increased to a level high enough to drive loads of output devices
like speakers, headphones, RF transmitters etc.
 Unlike voltage/current amplifiers, a power amplifier is designed to drive loads directly and is used
as a final block in an amplifier chain.
 The input signal to a power amplifier needs to be above a certain threshold. So instead of directly
passing the raw audio/RF signal to the power amplifier, it is first pre-amplified using
current/voltage amplifiers and is sent as input to the power amplifier after making necessary
modifications. You can observe the block diagram of an audio amplifier and the usage of power
amplifier below.
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 In this case a microphone is used as an input source. The magnitude of signal from the
microphone is not enough for the power amplifier. So first it is pre-amplified where its voltage and
current are increased slightly. Then the signal is passed through tone and volume controls circuit
which makes aesthetic adjustments to the audio waveform. Finally the signal is passed through a
power amplifier and the output from power amplifier is fed to a speaker ( 8 Ω /1 Watt).
 Ex: i) PA: V=12 V, Rc=75 Ω i.e. I=V/R=0.16 A=160mA i.e. P=VI=1.9 ≈ 2 Watt.
ii) VA: V=12 V, Rc=4K Ω i.e. I=V/R=0.003 A=3 mA i.e. P=VI=0.036 =36 mWatt.
Performance Parameters (Quantities) of Power Amplifiers
The prime objective for a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output power. Since a transistor,
like any other electronic device has voltage, current and power dissipation limits, therefore, the
criteria for a power amplifier are: collector efficiency, distortion and power dissipation
capability.
(i) Collector efficiency. The main criterion for a power amplifier is not the power gain rather it is
the maximum a.c. power output. Now, an amplifier converts d.c. power from supply into a.c.
power output. Therefore, the ability of a power amplifier to convert d.c. power from supply into
a.c. output power is a measure of its effectiveness. This is known as collector efficiency and may
be defined as the ratio of a.c. output power to the zero signal power (i.e. d.c. power) supplied by
the battery of a power amplifier is known as collector efficiency. Collector efficiency means as
to how well an amplifier converts d.c. power from the battery into a.c. output power. e.g. if the
d.c. power supplied by the battery is 10W and a.c. output power is 2W, then collector efficiency is
20%. The greater the collector efficiency, the larger is the a.c. power output. It is obvious that for
power amplifiers, maximum collector efficiency is the desired goal.
(ii) Distortion. The change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of an amplifier is
known as distortion. A transistor is essentially a non-linear device. Therefore, whenever a signal
is applied to the input of the transistor, the output signal is not exactly like the input signal i.e.
distortion occurs. Distortion is not a problem for small signals (i.e. voltage amplifiers). However, a
power amplifier handles large signals and, therefore, the problem of distortion immediately arises.
Negative feedback used in amplifiers is the method of reducing distortion in amplifiers.
(iii) Power dissipation capability. The ability of a power transistor to dissipate heat is known as
power dissipation capability. A power transistor handles large currents and heats up during
operation. As any temperature change influences the operation of transistor, therefore, the
transistor must dissipate this heat to its surroundings. To achieve this, generally a heat sink (a
metal case) is attached to a power transistor case. The increased surface area allows heat to
escape easily and keeps the case temperature of the transistor within permissible limits.
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Classification of Power Amplifiers
 Transistor power amplifiers handle large signals such that collector current is either cut-off or is in
the saturation region during a large portion of the input cycle. Therefore, such amplifiers are
generally classified according to their mode of operation i.e. the portion of the input cycle during
which the collector current is expected to flow. They are classified as:
(i) class A power amplifier (ii) class B power amplifier (iii) class C power amplifier
(i) Class A power amplifier. If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of the
input signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
 Fig. shows circuit of class A power amplifier. Note that collector has a transformer as the load
which is most common for all classes of power amplifiers.
 The use of transformer permits impedance matching, resulting in the transference of maximum
power to the load e.g. loudspeaker.
 The power amplifier must be biased in such a way that no part of the signal is cut off.
 Class A operation in terms of a.c. load line is also shown in figure. The operating point Q is so
selected that collector current flows at all times throughout the full cycle of the applied signal.
 As the output wave shape is exactly similar to the input wave shape, therefore, such amplifiers
have least distortion (0.001 %).
 However, they have the disadvantage of low power output & low collector efficiency (about 35%).
 In the Class A amplifier the conduction angle is a full 360o or 100% of the input signal.
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(ii) Class B power amplifier. If the collector current flows only during the positive half-cycle of the
input signal, it is called a class B power amplifier.
 In class B operation, the transistor bias is so adjusted that zero signal collector current is zero i.e.
no biasing circuit is needed at all.
 During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the input circuit is forward biased and hence collector
current flows.
 However, during the negative half-cycle of the signal, the input circuit is reverse biased and no
collector current flows.
 Fig. shows the class B operation in terms of a.c. load line. Obviously, the operating point Q shall
be located at collector cut off voltage.
 It is easy to see that output from a class B amplifier is amplified half-wave rectification.
 In a class B amp, the negative half-cycle of the signal is cut off and hence a distortion is very high.
 However, class B amplifiers provide higher power output and collector efficiency (50 −60%).
 Such amplifiers are mostly used for power amplification in push-pull arrangement. In such an
arrangement, TWO transistors are used in class B operation. One transistor amplifies the positive
half-cycle of the signal (NPN) while the other amplifies the negative half-cycle (PNP).
 This arrangement is also called complementary-symmetry configuration or push-pull
amplifier.
 It is used in audio power amplification for frequency range 20 Hz to 20 KHz in Radio, TV etc.
(iii) Class AB Amplifier
 As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and the “Class
B” type amplifiers.
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 The AB classification of amplifier is currently one of the most commonly used types of audio
power amplifier design.
 The class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both
devices are allowed to conduct at the same time around the waveforms crossover point
eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the previous class B amplifier.
 The two transistors have a very small bias voltage, typically at 5 to 10% of the quiescent current
to bias the transistors just above its cut-off point. Then the conducting device, either bipolar of
FET, will be “ON” for more than one half cycle, but much less than one full cycle of the input
signal.
 Therefore, in a class AB amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for
slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of
conduction of class A.
 In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180 o and
360o depending upon the chosen bias point as shown.
 The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or resistors, is that the
crossover distortion created by
the class B amplifier
characteristics is overcome,
without the inefficiencies of the
class A amplifier design.
 So, the class AB amplifier is a
good compromise between class
A and class B in terms of
efficiency and linearity, with
conversion efficiencies reaching
about 50% to 60%.
(iv) Class C power amplifier. If the collector current flows for less than half-cycle of the input
signal, it is called class C power amplifier.
 In class C amplifier, the base is given

some negative bias so that collector
current does not flow just when the
positive half-cycle of the signal starts.
 Class C power amplifier is a type of
amplifier where the active element
(transistor) conduct for less than one
half cycle of the input signal. Less
than one half cycle means the
conduction angle is less than 180°
and its typical value is 80° to 120°.
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 The reduced conduction
angle improves the efficiency
but causes a lot of distortion.
Theoretical maximum
efficiency of a Class C
amplifier is around 90%.
 Such amplifiers are never
used for power amplification.
However, they are used as
tuned amplifiers i.e. to amplify
a narrow band of frequencies
near the resonant frequency.
 They are commonly used in
Radio receivers, TV etc. for
Intermediate Frequency
amplification.
Phase Inverter:
It is audio pre-amplifier stage for push-pull amplifier. Transistor amplifies the input signal but as it
is Common emitter amplifier so, the output and input signal is out of phase by 180 0. This amplified
signal drives the primary of transformer then energy going to be coupled magnetically to the
secondary. The signal driving next stage must be 180 0 out of phase. Here the signal at the base of
transistor is 1800 out of phase with reference to collector.
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UNIT-3 : Signal Generators (Oscillators)
 An oscillator is electronic circuit using transistor which generates sinusoidal waves when excited
by a DC input supply voltage. Its output may range from a few Hz to several MHz.
 Oscillators are used in Radio and Television receivers, to generate high frequency wave (carrier
wave) in the tuning stages. Audio frequency (20-20 KHz) and Radio frequency (540 KHz – 1650
KHz or 88 MHz to 108 MHz) signals are required for the repair of radio, television and other
electronic equipment. Oscillators are also widely used in radar (9 GHz), electronic computers and
other electronic devices.
 A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an oscillator i.e., it can generate
oscillations without any external signal source.
 Oscillators can produce sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal (e.g. square wave / triangular) waves. We
shall confine our attention to sinusoidal oscillators i.e. those which produce sine-wave signals.
 Oscillator is a non-rotating electronic device which converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy.
 Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is quite silent.
 An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely high frequencies (> 100 MHz).
The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
 It has good frequency stability i.e. frequency once set remains constant for a considerable period
of time. It has very high efficiency.
 Transistorand LC tank circuit generates the electrical oscillations whose
amplitude remains constant with time are called undamped oscillations. The
frequency of oscillations is given by Fr.
 In order to make the oscillations in the tank circuit undamped, the following conditions must
be fulfilled :
(i) The amount of energy supplied should be such so as to meet the losses in the tank circuit and
the a.c. energy removed from the circuit by the load. For instance, if losses in LC circuit amount
to 5 mW and a.c. output being taken is 100 mW, then power of 105 mW should be continuously
supplied to the circuit.
(ii) The applied energy should have same frequency as that of the oscillations in the tank circuit.
(iii) The applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations set up in the tank circuit.
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(iv)The circuit needs only a quick
trigger signal to start the
oscillations. Once the oscillations
have started, no external signal
source is needed.
(V) In order to get continuous
undamped output from the circuit,
the following condition must be
met: Aβ = 1 ; where A = voltage
gain of amplifier without feedback, β = feedback fraction=0.01 A=100
This relation is called Barkhausen criterion.
(Vi) Oscillator circuit requires, LC tank circuit, Transistor amplifier circuit and positive feedback
stage for generating undamped sinusoidal signals.
The gain of amplifier with feedback is
i.e. when
constant amplitude sinusoidal output
It means that a very small input voltage would give rise to finite large output voltage. Thus once
the circuit receives the input trigger, it would become an oscillator, generating sinusoidal
oscillations of constant amplitude with no external signal source.
Types of Transistor Oscillators
 A transistor can work as an oscillator to produce continuous undamped oscillations of any desired
frequency if LC-tank and feedback circuits are properly connected to it.
 The oscillators are classified on the basis of method by which feedback energy of correct phase is
supplied to the tank circuit to meet the losses.
 The types of oscillators are (i) Phase shift oscillator (ii) Wien Bridge oscillator (iii) Crystal oscillator
(i) RC Phase Shift Oscillator
 A transistor can work as an oscillator to produce continuous undamped oscillations of any desired
frequency if LC-tank and feedback circuits are properly connected to it.
 The oscillators are classified on the basis of method by which feedback energy of correct phase
is supplied to the tank circuit to meet the losses occurring in it.
 The tank circuit uses inductive (L) and capacitive (C) elements. In such circuits, a phase shift of
180º was obtained due to inductive or capacitive coupling and a further phase shift of 180º was
obtained due to transistor (e.g. CE Amplifier) properties. In this way, energy supplied to the tank
circuit was in phase with the generated oscillations.
 The oscillator circuits employing L-C elements have two general drawbacks. Firstly, they suffer
from frequency instability and poor waveform. Secondly, they cannot be used for very low
frequencies because they become too much bulky and expensive.
Course Notes

=========================================================================
 Good frequency stability and waveform can be obtained from oscillators employing resistive and
capacitive elements. Such amplifiers are called R-C or phase shift oscillators and have the
additional advantage that they can be used for very low frequencies.
 In a phase shift oscillator, a phase shift of 180º is obtained with a phase shift circuit instead of
inductive or capacitive coupling.
 A further phase shift of 180º is introduced due to the transistor properties. Thus, energy supplied
back to the tank circuit is assured of correct phase.
 A phase-shift circuit essentially consists of an R-C network as shown in figure. A single section of
RC network shows that a.c. voltage VR across R leads the applied voltage V1 by φº.
 The value of φ depends upon the values of R and C. If R =0, VR will lead V1 by 90º i.e. φ = 90º
but i.e. VR=0 & no voltage across R.
 But, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes VR to lead V1 by 60º. Three sections of RC
network produces a total phase shift of 180º i.e. voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180º.
 Fig. shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator. It consists of a single transistor amplifier and the
phase shift network consists of three sections R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3.
 At some particular frequency f0, the phase shift in each RC section is 60º so that the total phase-
shift produced by the RC network is 180º. A phase shift of 180º is produced by the transistor
amplifier. As a result, the phase shift around the entire loop is 360º.
 The output E0 of the amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This network produces a
phase shift of 180º & a voltage Ei appears at its output which is applied to the transistor amplifier.
 The feedback fraction β = Ei /E0.
 Advantages
(i) It does not require transformers or inductors.
(ii) It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
(iii) The circuit provides good frequency stability.
 Disadvantages
(i) It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as the feedback is generally small.
(ii) The circuit gives small output.
Course Notes

=========================================================================
(ii) Wien Bridge Oscillator (RC)
 The Wien-bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for all frequencies in the range of 10
Hz to about 1 MHz. It is the most frequently used type of audio oscillator (20 Hz to 20 KHz) as
the output is free from circuit fluctuations and ambient temperature.
 It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with R-C bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has the arms
R1C1, R3, R2C2 and tungsten lamp Lp.
 Resistances R3 and Lp are used to stabilise the amplitude of the output.
 The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier while the other transistor T2 serves as an
inverter (i.e. to produce a phase shift of 180º).
 The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks. The positive feedback is through R1C1, C2R2
to the transistor T1 and the negative feedback is through the voltage divider to the input of
transistor T2. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R1C1 and parallel
element R2C2 of the bridge.
 When the circuit is started, bridge circuit produces oscillations of frequency determined by
expression given in the diagram.
 The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360º so that proper positive feedback is
ensured.
 The negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output. This is achieved by the temperature
sensitive tungsten lamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current.
 More current would provide more negative feedback and tend to increase the output amplitude.
The result is that the output would return to original value. A reverse action would take place if the
output tends to decrease.
Course Notes

=========================================================================
 Advantages
 It gives constant output.
 The circuit works quite easily.
 The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
 The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed by using a potentiometer.
 Disadvantages
 The circuit requires two transistors and a large number of components.
 It cannot generate very high frequencies.
(iii) Transistor Crystal Oscillator
 The LC and RC oscillators discussed above have their own limitations. The major is, their
operating frequency does not remain constant.
 There are two principal reasons for it, (i) As the circuit operates, it will warm up. Consequently, the
values of resistors and inductors, which are the frequency determining factors in these circuits,
will change with temperature. This causes the change in frequency of the oscillator. (ii) If any
component in the feedback network is changed, it will shift the operating frequency of the
oscillator.
 However, in many applications, it is desirable and necessary to maintain the frequency constant
with extreme low tolerances. E.g. the Radio Frequency for a broadcasting station should not
exceed 0.002% that of the specified frequency as the broadcasting stations have frequencies
which are quite close to each other.
 In fact, the frequency difference between two broadcasting stations is less than 1%. It is apparent
that if we employ LC or RC circuits, a change of temperature may cause the frequencies of
adjacent broadcasting stations to overlap.
 In order to maintain constant frequency, piezoelectric crystals are
used in place of LC or RC circuits. Oscillators of this type are called
crystal oscillators.
 The frequency of a crystal oscillator changes by less than 0.1% due to
temperature and other changes. Therefore, such oscillators offer the
most satisfactory method of stabilising the frequency and are used in
great majority of electronic applications e.g. Radio Receivers, TV,
RADAR, Microcontrollers etc.
 Piezoelectric Crystals (crystalline materials) e.g. Rochelle salt,
quartz and tourmaline exhibit the piezoelectric effect i.e., when we
apply an a.c. voltage across them, they vibrate at the frequency of the
applied voltage. Conversely, when they are compressed or placed
under mechanical strain to vibrate, they produce an a.c. voltage. Such
crystals which exhibit piezoelectric effect are called piezoelectric
crystals.
Course Notes

=========================================================================
 Quartz is most commonly used piezoelectric crystal because it is inexpensive and readily
available in nature. Quartz crystals are generally used in crystal oscillators because of their great
mechanical strength and simplicity of manufacture.
 Quartz crystal can be cut in different ways. Crystal cut perpendicular to the x-axis is called x-cut
crystal whereas that cut perpendicular to y-axis is called y-cut crystal. The piezoelectric properties
of a crystal depend upon its cut.
 The natural shape of quartz crystal is hexagonal. It has three axes; the z-axis is called the optical
axis, the x-axis is called the electrical axis and y-axis is called the mechanical axis.
 Frequency of crystal. Each crystal has a natural frequency like a pendulum. The natural
frequency of a crystal is given by: f = K / t where K is a constant that depends upon the cut and t
is the thickness of the crystal. This frequency is in between
25 kHz to 5 MHz.
 Working of Quartz Crystal: In order to use crystal in an
electronic circuit, it is placed between two metal plates. The
arrangement then forms a capacitor with crystal as the
dielectric. If an a.c. voltage is applied across the plates, the
crystal will start vibrating at the frequency of applied voltage.
However, if the frequency of the applied voltage is made
equal to the natural frequency of the crystal, resonance
takes place and crystal vibrations reach a maximum value. This natural frequency is almost
constant.
 The Equivalent Circuit of Crystal is as shown in diagram. : (i) When the crystal is not vibrating, it is
equivalent to capacitance Cm (mounting capacitance). It has two metal plates separated by a
dielectric. (ii) When a crystal vibrates, It is equivalent to R –L – C series circuit shunted by the
mounting capacitance Cm ( ≈ 5 pf). Note that Q of crystal is very high (Q=26,000).
 Frequency Response of Crystal: (i) At low frequencies, the impedance of the crystal is
extremely high. (ii) As the frequency is increased, the reactance XL = XC and R − L − C
branch approaches its resonant frequency. The crystal now acts as a
series- resonant circuit. For this condition, the impedance of the crystal is
very low; being equal to R. The series resonant frequency is given by,
(iii) At a slightly higher frequency, the net reactance of branch R – L – C becomes inductive and
equal to XCm. The crystal now acts as a parallel-resonant circuit. For this condition, the crystal
offers a very high impedance. The frequency at which the vibrating crystal behaves as a parallel-
resonant circuit is called parallel-resonant frequency fp.
Since CT is less than C, fp is always greater than fs. Note that frequencies fs and fp are very
close to each other. (iv) At frequencies greater than fp, the value of XCm drops and eventually
the crystal acts as a short circuit. (v) Therefore, we can use a crystal in place of a series LC circuit
(fs- low impedance) or in place of parallel LC circuit (fp – high impedance).
Course Notes

=========================================================================
Transistor Crystal Oscillator: Fig. shows the transistor crystal oscillator. It is a Collpit’s oscillator
modified to act as a crystal oscillator. The only change is the addition of the crystal (Y) in the
feedback network.
 The crystal will act as a parallel-tuned circuit.
As in the circuit instead of resonance caused
by L and (C1 + C2), we have the parallel
resonance of the crystal. At parallel
resonance, the impedance of the crystal is
maximum.
 This means that there is a maximum voltage
drop across C1. This in turn will allow the
maximum energy transfer through the
feedback network at fp.
 Note that feedback is positive. A phase shift
of 180° is produced by the transistor. A further phase shift of 180° is produced by the capacitor
voltage divider.
 This oscillator will oscillate only at fp. Even the smallest deviation from fp will cause the oscillator
to act as an effective short. Consequently, we have an extremely stable oscillator.
Advantages
(i) They have a high order of frequency stability.
(ii) The quality factor (Q) of the crystal is very high. The Q factor of the crystal may be as high
as 10,000 compared to about 100 of L-C tank.
Disadvantages
(i) They are fragile and consequently can only be used in low power circuits.
(ii) The frequency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably.
Decoupling Filters (bypass capacitors):
 Decoupling capacitors are used to filter out voltage spikes and

pass through only the DC component of the signal. The idea is
to use a capacitor that shunts, or absorbs the noise making the
DC signal as smooth as possible.
 Analog circuits such as audio amplifiers or radios may produce a strange hum or a crackling
noise audible in the background, and digital circuits such as microcontrollers may become
unstable and unpredictable due to unstable input voltage.
 When viewed with an oscilloscope, a DC power supply often shows many glitches, voltage spikes
and AC voltage components. Decoupling filter smooth out the power supply voltage. The larger
electrolytic capacitor stores most of the energy in the circuit, and decouples lower frequencies.
However, electrolytic capacitors (100 µF) have poor high-frequency characteristics.

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COURSE NOTES

Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Sr. No. Questions w.r.t. – UNIT No. 1, 2 and 3. Marks

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

UJT (Uni-Junction Transistor):

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Working Operation of a UJT

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Working / Biasing for N-channel JFET:

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Transfer characteristics (Transconductance gm=ID/VGS) Drain or Output Characteristics

Output Characteristics of JFET (Trans-conductance)

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

* It may be noted that a p-channel JFET

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

(i) As a buffer amplifier. A

Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

2. E-MOSFET. Fig. shows the constructional details of n-channel

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

(i) The point on the curve where VGS = 0, ID = IDSS.

E-MOSFET (Enhancement MOSFET)

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

 The working of N-channel E-MOSFET is explained as under :

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

CMOS devices and applications:

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

 Complementary MOS technology is based on complementary-type transistors where current flows

CMOS devices applications:

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Not bipolar, some circuits are not practicable, difficult to implement.

(i) Negative feedback:

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Suppose, A = 90 and β = 1/10 = 0.1

Then, gain without feedback is 90 and with negative feedback is,

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Advantages of Negative feedback:

(ii) Positive feedback

I.e. the voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback is,

Since; the positive feedback increases the amplifier gain.

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Ri- Input R Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

Ro-Output R Decreases Decreases Increases Increases

Harmonic distortion Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Frequency Response Curve

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

Difference between Voltage Amplifier and Power Amplifier

Voltage Amplifiers: The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication

What is a Power Amplifier?

Course Name: Analog Electronics and Communication