Personal Identification Notes

Personal Identification Techniques
RCrim_EJ
Notes in Personal Identification Techniques

Simplified by: Mr. Earl Jann T. Laurencio, MSCJ
UNIT 1
Fundamentals of Personal Identification
Fingerprints cannot speak and tell what happened but, this tiny object of great importance
can establish an identity of a person and associate a person for having been present at the scene.
Fingerprints provide absolute identification of a person based on the principle that no two persons
have exactly the same fingerprint, even identical twins do not have the same fingerprint, which
makes fingerprint science as a perfect science of identification and acceptable in the courts of
justice in proving an absolute personal identity. They may be similar in some aspects but definitely,
they will never be the same in all others. Generally, when two people, like identical twins, live in the
same house or environment, they may develop similar manners and ways of speech, mien and gait.
However, in terms of fingerprint, each person has distinctions and differences.
Fingerprint is one of the oldest and MOST important evidence categories in forensic science. In
forensic science, fingerprints are used to locate, identify and eliminate suspects in a criminal case. In
investigation of crimes, criminal investigators should establish the identity of a suspect and other
people involved in the commission of a crime. There are many means in identifying a person. A
witness can identified a suspect by describing the physical appearance of the suspect, height
complexion, the body built, age and other distinguishing visible marks. However, this means of
identification is not accurate enough to establish the identity of a person (suspect). Tracing
information is another means of identification and this refers to all information indicative of personal
identity of an individual. Fingerprints have been proven infallible in establishing the identity of an
individual and this is considered as the single most positive indicator of personal identification.
Fingerprints are considered as ASSOCIATIVE evidence because it associate the person to have been
present at the scene and may be involved in the crime if his or her fingerprints was obtained to the
weapon or certain objects related to the crime.
Fingerprint science is a positive means of identification and in the hands of knowledgeable

technician and expert; it is a potent weapon in the continuing fight against criminality. This science
proved by its founding fathers that fingerprint is the cornerstone of criminal investigation and
identification. Fingerprints are positive proof, where law enforcement agencies and public safety
agencies look upon this science as their main evidence of positive personal identification.
Parts of the Hand (Palmar Area)

1. Terminal Phalange – also known as the bulb. This is the peak of the finger.
2. Middle Phalange – part of the finger below the terminal phalange.
3. Proximal Phalange – part of the finger below the middle phalange. Serves as the base of the
fingers.
4. Thenar – part of the palm immediately below the thumb.
5. Hypothenar – part of the palm opposite if the thenar.
6. Metacard Phalangeal Crease
7. Interdigital or Triradiate
8. Radial Longitudinal Crease
9. Distal Phalangeal Crease
The terminal phalange or the bulb contains a number of friction ridge patterns which differs
from other fingers. This friction ridge pattern is the main interest of this unit. This patterns possessed
definite individual peculiar details by which positive identification can be made.
The Fingers and the Thumbs

1. Thumbs
2. Index Fingers
3. Middle Fingers
4. Ring Fingers
5. Little Fingers
Unauthorized Reproduction of this notes is strictly prohibited - EJTL

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Important Terminologies
NOTE: Research on the following terminologies - RECITATION
1. Anthropometry
2. Appendage
3. Arbitrary count
4. Associative evidence
5. Blocking out
6. Brachydactyly
7. Cheiloscopy
8. Chiroscopy
9. Classification
10. Dactylography
11. Dactyloscopy
12. Degloving
13. Dermatoglyphics
14. Dissociated ridges
15. Dorsal
16. Dysplasia
17. Edgeoscopy
18. Exemplars
19. Fabricated latent print
20. Fingerprint (as a science and as an impression)
21. Friction Ridges
22. Friction Skin
23. Footprint / toe print
24. Furrows
25. Identification
26. Individualization
27. Macrodactyly
28. Nutant loop
29. Oligodactyly
30. Orthodactyly
31. Palm print
32. Partial fingerprint
33. Pelmatoscopy
34. Pentadactylous/Pentadactyly
35. Plantar area
36. Polydactyl/Polydacytylism
37. Podoscopy
38. Poroscopy
39. Pore
40. Ridge aplasia
41. Ridge flow
42. Ridge path
43. Ridgeology
44. Scarf skin
45. Secondary ridges
46. Searching
47. Sequencing
48. Shoulders
49. Spike
50. Staple
51. Tactile
52. Thenar area
53. Syndactyly
54. Ulna
55. Volar pads
The primary function of Fingerprint Identification Division is the collection and scientific
examination of fingerprint evidence of criminal in nature and the compilation of laboratory report
and preparation of expert testimonies in court trials. The secondary function is the maintenance of
fingerprint files, criminal and non-criminal, classification, searching and filing of fingerprint cards
submitted from the different police stations throughout the country.

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The primary purpose of friction ridges is to provide grip and prevent slippage of an object. The
ultimate purpose of fingerprints is to provide positive means personal identification, either criminal or
non-criminal.
Pioneers and Personalities behind the Development of Fingerprint Science
1. Marcello Malpighi
A professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna noted in his treatise: Ridges, Spirals and
Loops in Fingerprints. He made no mention of their value as a tool for individual identification. A layer
of skin was named after him, “Malpighian layer”, which is approximately 1.8 millimeters thick.
2. John Evangelist Purkinje

He is known as the FATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY. A professor of anatomy at the University of
Breslau; published his thesis discussing nine fingerprint patterns, but he did not mention of the value of
fingerprints for personal identification.
3. Alphonse Bertillon
He conceived the idea of using anatomical measurements to distinguish one criminal from
another which he called Anthropometry or Bertillonage. He decided to use various body
measurements such as head length, head breadth, length of middle finger, length of left cubit
(forearm), and length of left foot, body height, face breadth, face height and other descriptions
including features such as scars and hair and eye color.
4. Sir William J. Herschel

He is credited as the FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY. He began using fingerprints in July 1858, when
he was the Chief Magistrate of the Hoogly District in Jungipoor, India. During his first year at Jungipoor,
he entered into a contract on behalf of the Civil Service with a local native named Radyadhar Konai,
to supply road building materials. Herschel observed a local practice of putting a friction ridge print
of the hand beside a signature or mark on contracts. This is called the Konai Contract.
5. Dr. J.C.A. Mayer of Germany (1788)

He was the first to state that the prints of two different persons are never alike. He published a
book which was an atlas of anatomical illustrations of fingerprint. He stated; “Although the
arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer
among some individuals. In others the differences are marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of
arrangement all have a certain likeness.” This deduction was published 100 years before the Konai
Contract.
6. Dr. Henry Faulds

In 1875, Faulds had opened a missionary hospital and a year later started a medical school in
Japan where he may have been exposed to fingerprints. He wrote to Charles Darwin telling of his
studies and requesting assistance. He mentioned that fingerprints can be classified easily and that
ridge detail is unique. He pointed out the value of fingerprinting as being in medico legal studies and
commented that photographs of people change over the years but rugae (friction ridges) never
change. He also mentioned apprehending criminals by locating fingerprints at crime scenes.
7. Juan (Ivan) Vucetich 1855-1925

The fast pace of the advancement of fingerprinting in England was due to the ingenuity of
Juan Vucetich, who was employed as a statistician with the Central Police Department at La Plata,
Argentina. In July 1891, the Chief of Police assigned Vucetich to set up a bureau of Anthropometric
Identification. He started experimenting with fingerprints and set up his own equipment for taking
criminals prints.
 Rojas Murders (RESEARCH ON THIS CASE – RECITATION)
8. Sir Edward Richard Henry 1850-1931

He was known as the FATHER OF FINGERPRINTS because of his system of classifying fingerprints
called “The Henry Classification System.
9. Edward Foster 1863-1956

During the case of Thomas Jennings (murder case), Edward Foster was called to be cross
examined, he was asked by the defense lawyer if he could raise fingerprints on various surface. He

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took the paper and developed fingerprint on it. The Jennings’s trial is considered a LANDMARK CASE
in the courts. Jennings was convicted and sentenced to hang on December 22, 1911. The first
conviction in Canada based on fingerprint evidence took place in 1914, Peter Caracatch and
Gregory Parachique broke into the CPR Station in Petawawa, Ontario. They left fingerprints on glass
at the point of entry. Edward Foster gave expert testimony at the trial of the case.
Fingerprinting in the Philippines

1. Mr. Jones – The first to teach fingerprinting in the Philippine Constabulary sometime in the year
1900.
2. Bureau of Prisons – in the year 1918, records shows that fingerprints already exists in the
carpetas (records) or prisoners.
3. Lt. Asa N. Darby – Under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by the
American Forces, a modern and complete fingerprint file has been established in the
Philippine Commonwealth.
4. Mr. Generoso Reyes – The first Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the Philippine
Constabulary.
5. Isabela Bernales – the first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
6. Capt. Thomas Dugan and Mr. Flaviano G. Guerrero – from the New York Police Department
(Dugan) and Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington (Flaviano), gave the first
examination for fingerprint in 1937.
7. People of the Philippines vs. Marciano Medina a. k. a. Alejandro Dola, 59 Phil. 330 – on
December 23, 1933 was the first conviction based on fingerprint and led to the judicial
decision in the Philippine jurisprudence.
8. Plaridel Educational Instituion (PEI) – Today, its name was change to Phillippine College of
Criminology (PCCr), Manila. This is the first governmental school to teach the science of
fingerprints and other police sciences.
9. The First National Bureau of Indentification (1924) – created by the Congress. The Bureau was
established with the US DOJ, Washington, D.C.
Legal Aspect of Fingerprinting
1. People vs. Jennings (1911, Illinois) – pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.
2. State vs. Cerciello (New Jersey) – fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced.
3. State vs. Conners – it was held competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints upon a
balcony post of a house entered, without producing that post in court.
4. People vs. Coral (California) – it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the strongest
evidence of the identity of a person. It was reasserted in another California case: People vs.
Riser – fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient aid to
identify the defendant.
5. Bilangwa vs. Amador (Philippines) – a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant testified
and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight identical ridge points.
6. People vs. Marciano Medina a.k.a. Alejandro Dola – the first leading judicial decision in the
Philippine Jurisprudence on the science of fingerprinting.
Dogmatic Principles Involved in the Study of Fingerprint
1. Principle of Individuality – there are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike.
Do identical twins have the same fingerprints?

The fingertips are in contact with other parts of the fetus and the uterus, and their position in
relation to the uterus and the fetal body changes as the fetus moves on its own and in response to
the positional changes of the mother. Thus, the environment of the growing cells on the fingertip is
influx (a flow), and is always slightly different from hand to hand and finger to finger. More generally,
the environment in the uterus affects the phenotypic development of all parts of twin fetuses. Thus,
despite an identical DNA structure of the two fetuses, a very careful examination of the other
physical characteristics will show that twins are systematically different. (Edward Richards, Prof. of
Law, UMKC, School of Law)
2. Principle of Permanency – fingerprint remains constant and unchanging.
3. Principle of Infallibility – fingerprint evidence is reliable. The reason why fingerprint is one of the
infallible means of personal identification.

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a. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and remain
unchanged throughout life until the final decomposition of the body after death.
b. The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar characteristics upon
which a person can always be identified by fingerprint examiners.
c. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept, adopt
and utilize fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a person.
d. The courts and other authorities had since time immemorial taken recognizance of its
importance as a means of identification.
Friction Skin Histology (Principle of Permanency)

Friction ridges appear on the palms and soles of the ends of the fingers and toes. These ridges
are found on the palms and soles of all primates (human, apes, monkeys and prosimians); in primates
with prehensile tails (“fingerlike” tails, such as spider monkeys), friction ridges also appear on the volar
pads surface of the tails. The ridges on the palms and soles of the feet provide friction between the
grasping mechanism and whatever it grasps. Without them, it would be nearly impossible to handle
objects in our environment.
Anatomical and biologically speaking, friction skin provides us grasping mechanism while in
the field of dactyloscopy, it gives us a positive means of identification.
Friction Skin
1. Epidermal Layer (Epidermis)

a. Stratum corneum – it consists of 25 – 30 layers of stratified (layered) squamus (flattened)
dead keratinocytes (skin cells) that are constantly shed.
b. Stratum lucidum – is present in thick skin such as lips, soles of feet and palms of hands. Little
or no cell detail is visible.
c. Stratum granulosum – it consist of 3 – 4 layers of cell thick consisting of flattened
keratinocytes. At this level, the cells are dying.
d. Stratum spinosum – these are several layers thick, consisting mostly of keratinocytes.
Yogether with the stratum basale, it is sometimes referred to as the Malpighian Layer (living
layer).
e. Stratum basale – a single layer of cells in contact with the basement membrane. These
cells are mitotically active – they are alive and reproducing – the reason why it is often
referred to as the generating layer.
e.1 Keratinocytes (90%) – responsible for waterproofing and toughening the skin.
e.2 Melanocytes (8%) – synthesize the piogment melanin which absorbs and disperses
ultraviolet radiation.
e.3 Tactile cells – very sparse and function in touch reception.
e.4 Nonpigmented granular dendrocytes – cells that ingest bacteria and foreign debris.
2. Dermal Papillae – the primary function is to sustain and support the epidermis. It is made up of
connective tissue with fine elastic fibers.
The importance of knowing the two layers of skin is that the damage to the epidermis alone
does not result to permanent ridge destruction, while damage to the dermis will result to permanent
ridge destruction.
General rules on ridge destruction

1. Destruction of the epidermis – temporary
2. Destruction of the dermis – permanent
3. Cut more than 1mm will constitute a permanent scar
Can fingerprints be erased?
John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character attempted to erase his
fingerprints by burning them with acid. However, time passed, the ridges were again restored to their
natural feature. The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the bulb of the finger.
As long as the dermis of the bulb of the fingers is not completely destroyed, the fingerprints will
always remain unchanged and indestructible. Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather
painful experiments on themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water, hot oil and hot metals,
had shown that after the healing of the epidermis, the original patterns of fingerprints reappeared.

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A person named Robert James Pitts, gained fame as the man without fingerprints knowing
from an inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints. However, this information is totally a big lie.
Pitts has indeed fingerprints on his fingers however, he contacted a doctor to conduct a surgery on
him. He removed the skin up to the generative layer and served thin into incisions on each side of
Pitts’s chest. Scar tissue was developed. Almost a year later, he was picked up and police amazed to
find that he had no fingerprints. The Texas Department of Public Safety was able to affect
identification out of the second joints of is fingers. He is also known by the name Roscoe Pitts.
Can fingerprints be forged?

Various experiments were conducted by authorities and although they could almost make an
accurate reproduction, still THERE IS NO known records that forgery of fingerprints has been a
complete success. The first recorded case is that of a man who inadvertently sliced off a patch of
skin from the thenar eminence. Immediately, he restored this piece to the raw surface and applied
bandage. The slip of skin engrafted itself and the ridges were preserved. A more remarkable case is
that of a patient to whom the grafts were made to correct distortions and contraction of a hand,
following severe burns. The surgeon interchanged patches of skin of a finger tip and an area of the
palm. Both grafts took and in consequence the distal phalange of the finger now bears a pattern
which originally had been on the palm, and the palm carries a finger pattern, both unchanged
except in the marginal zones of scar.
Constancy of Friction Ridges

The epidermal ridges are developed in fetus in what may be accepted as their fixed and
permanent characters. During the period of growth of the body, the friction ridges also grow and
enlarge in its size, keeping pace with the growth of hand and foot. There is no significant alteration in
the details of ridges or in their configuration arrangement.
Friction Ridges or Papillary Ridges

1. Friction ridge breath – the width of the friction ridges varies in different areas as well in different
people. In general, they are narrower in females and wider in males.
2. Ridge units and pores – pore ducts open along the top of the friction ridges. Each ridge unit
has one sweat gland and a pore opening randomly somewhere on its surface. Eccrine gland
contains approximately 99% water and 1% solid.
3. Specific ridge path – the friction ridges have been compared to corduroy, but unlike corduroy
they are not continuous in nature. The path taken by the ridges may branch, start or stop, turn,
twist, or thicken and narrow independently.
4. Incipient friction ridges – narrow and often fragmented ridges may appear between normal
friction ridges. These are called incipient, rudimentary or nascent ridges.
5. Friction ridge imbrications – in some areas of the volar surfaces, the friction ridges all tend to
lean on the same direction. Imbrications ridges vary among individuals and even the regions
of volar areas where they are found.
6. Overall friction ridge pattern – the friction ridges form patterns on the volar surface. The most
common are concentric, looping, and arching formations. Friction ridges patterns also
enhance the ability of the volar skin to resist slippage. The pattern also enhances tactile
sensitivity due to the increased friction.

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UNIT 2
Ridge Characteristics, Type Lines and Focal Points
Identification of fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain

ridge characteristics, also known as the Galton’s details, points of identity or minutiae points with a
reference print, usually inked impression of suspect’s prints. Sir Francis Galton's contribution in ridge
characteristics or minutiae are the following ridges: bifurcation, a dot or island, short ridge, enclosure
or eyelet (lake) and ending ridge. The elevated or hill like structure is found in the epidermis layer of
the skin containing sweat pores are called ridges. The canal like impressions or a depressions found
between the ridges which maybe compared with low area in attire thread are called furrows or
valleys.
General characteristics refer to the similar or generic characteristics that are present to a
particular family or type of pattern of a fingerprint. This pertains to the patterns such as Loops, Whorls
and Arches.
Individual characteristics refer to the distinct characteristics that are present to a single
fingerprint. This pertains to the minutiae or Galton’s details. These characteristics are being used in
identifying a person by simply comparing the ridge characteristics that are present on the evidence
print and on the fingerprint of a person (criminal or non-criminal). These characteristics are
considered with respect to their location, general appearance, orientation and interrelationship
when comparison is made between two prints.
Types of Ridge Characteristics (Galton’s details)
DEFINITION
ENDING RIDGE
- A ending ridge is one end of a long island. The island is long enough that the
ends are not easily recognized as being from the same island.
BIFURCATION
- A bifurcation is where the ridge path divides forming a Y shape with legs having
the same length.
DOT or ISLAND
- A ridge dot, one ridge unit, is the shortest of all islands and the building block of
the friction ridge.
ENCLOSURE OR LAKE
- An enclosure or lake is a bifurcation which does but remain open but which
the legs of the bifurcation after running alongside for a short distance come
together to form a single ridge once more.
HOOK OR SPUR
- A hook or spur is where the ridge path divides and one branch comes to an
end (leg is shorter).
INCIPIENT RIDGES
- An incipient ridge is an unusual type of ridge found in small percentage of
patterns. They are short, narrow and badly formed ridges found between two
well-formed and full-bodied ridges which is frequently interrupted.
SHORT RIDGE
- A short ridge has two or more ridge units with both ends easily recognized as
being from the same island.
RIDGE BRIDGE
- A ridge bridge is a connecting ridge between two ridges.

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DOUBLE BIFURCATION
- A double bifurcation is a bifurcation where one of the ridge paths bifurcates.
TRIFURCATION
- A trifurcation is when two bifurcations develop next to each other on the same
ridge. This is a unique formation.
OPPOSED BIFURCATION
- An opposed bifurcation are bifurcations found on both ends of a ridge.
RIDGE CROSSING
- A ridge crossing is the point where two ridges cross each other forming an X
formation.
OVERLAPPING RIDGES
- An overlapping ridge is where tow ridges ends meet and overlap on a bias.
Type Lines and Pattern Area
Type lines or skeleton of pattern are two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge and
surround or tend to surround the pattern area. They serve as basic boundaries of a fingerprint pattern.
If the type lines are broken, the ridges immediately outside it will serve as its continuation.
Type lines are not always continuous. In fact, they are more found often found to be broken. If
in case, the ridge immediately outside it will serve as its continuation. Sometimes, type lines are very
short. In locating type lines, it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between a bifurcation and
a divergence.
 A bifurcation is the forking or dividing of a one ridge into two branch.
 A divergence is the spreading apart of two lines which has been running parallel or nearly
parallel.
 Exception: when the forks run parallel after bifurcating and then diverge. It becomes the type
lines.
The pattern area is the part of a fingerprint pattern in which the core, delta and ridges appear
enclosed by the type lines.
Core and Delta Location

The core and delta are the focal points of fingerprint patterns except in arch pattern.
The core is a point on the ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of the pattern.
This is also called as the inner terminus. The delta is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front
or near the center or the divergence of the type lines. This is also called as the outer terminus.
Rules in Core Location

1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.
2. When the innermost sufficient contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping
ridge or not.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the
shoulder, the core is placed upon the two center rods being treated as they are connected
by a recurving ridge.
4. If such an appendage is present between the shoulders of a loop, that loop is considered
spoiled and the next loop outside will be considered to locate the core.
Rules in Delta Location

1. The delta may be located at a bifurcation which opens towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta equally close to the
point of divergence, the bifurcation is preferred to be the delta.
3. When there is a series of bifurcations opens towards the core at the point of divergence of the
two type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is selected as the delta.

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4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type lines
towards the core, but at the end of the ridge near to the point of divergence.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area below the point of divergence of the type lines, the delta
must be located at the end nearer to the core
Other forms of Delta
1. Dot
2. Bifurcation
3. Ridge ending
4. Short ridge
5. Point of the first recurving ridge
6. Meeting of two ridges
Ridge Counting Ridge Tracing
Ridge counting refers to the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line
drawn between the core and the delta. This is only applicable to loop patterns. However, ridge
counting is also conducted in whorl patterns after ridge tracing is done. The intervening ridges
between the core and the delta are counted. Do not count the core and the delta.
In the event that the ridge is that of a bifurcation, if the imaginary line drawn touches both of
the legs or near at the bifurcating area, the ridge count must be of 2 counts. The same with the ridge
enclosure or lake, if the imaginary line touches the center or near at the bifurcating area, 2 counts is
considered.
If the ridges touched by the imaginary line belongs to the ridge details of short ridge, and a dot,
the ridge count must consider this so long as the ridges are thick enough to be recognized.
Remember, incipient ridges are not considered to be counted in ridge counting but if these
ridges are thick enough to be recognized, they must be also counted.
Ridge tracing is the process of tracing the ridge that emanates from the lower side of the left
delta to the right delta to see where it flows in relation to the right delta.

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The Fingerprint Patterns and their Interpretation

Galton’s once said: “Let no one despise the ridges on account of their smallness, for they are in
some respect, the most important of all anthropological data.”
The patterning and permanency of friction ridges allows for their classification. Fingerprints
could be systematically sorted and cataloged; this is the main reason for their widespread adoption
among government agencies. But it is important to keep in mind that it is the general patterns, and
not the individualizing elements that make possible this organization or sorting/cataloging.
Fingerprint ridges are definite contours and appear in several general types (arches 5%, loops
60% and whorls 35%), each with general specific variations of the pattern (plain and tented arches;
radial and ulnar loops; plain, central-pocket, double-loop and accidental whorls). These ridge
patterns are present and classifiable from birth until after decomposition sets in following death. In
pattern interpretation, always remember the acronym ATRUWCDX. This acronym resembles the eight
fingerprint pattern in an orderly manner, starting from the plain arch up to accidental whorl pattern.
A. ARCHES
1. Plain Arch – A
o A fingerprint pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern and flow
towards the other side, with arise in the center with not more that one of the four
requisites for a loop and with no recurving ridge, no angular formation and no upward
trust.
o Always bear in mind that the arches pattern has no manifestation of delta.
2. Tented Arch – T
o A variety of arch family but their ridge formations are not as simple as those of a plain
arch, also considered transitional pattern between plain arch and a loop.
o A tented arch is a pattern which possesses either an upthrust, an angular type of ridge
formation or two of the four requisites of a loop.
o Angle is manifested by this pattern.
Plain Arch Tented Arch
B. LOOPS
This pattern is present to at least 65% of the human population. There are two bone
structures in every human forearm, the radial or radius bone and the ulna bone. The radius
bone is located on the thumb side of both hand while the ulna bone is located to that of the
little finger's side. From these two reference, the so-called radial loop and ulnar loop was
derived.
Accordingly, there is also a loop pattern called and quoted on the book of John Edgar
Hoover, a former FBI Director, which is a plain loop. For the purposes of pattern interpretation,
this reference is use in describing a general loop pattern when dealing with questionable
patterns. There is also called a nutant loop which is also known as lazy loop. In this loop pattern,

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the core is above or almost above the delta of the pattern. At first glance, this pattern
resembles as of belonging to plain arch.
1. Radial Loop – R
o A loop is radial when the opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of the
thumb side of either the left or right hand.
2. Ulnar Loop – U
o A loop is ulnar when the opening end of the ridge points in the direction of the little
finger side of either the left or right hand
Note: Reference used was right hand
Radial Loop Ulnar Loop
C. WHORLS
Whorl patterns are about 35% of the populace possessed this pattern.
1. Plain Whorl – W
o A fingerprint pattern in which there are two deltas and at least one ridge makes a turn
through one complete circuit. Imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch
or cross at least one of the circuiting whorl ridges within the pattern area.
2. Central Pocket Loop Whorl – C
o A fingerprint pattern which form the most part of a loop, but which has a small whorl
inside the loop ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern which means that it is
made up of two patterns in one, a whorl inside a loop. It has two deltas, one which
appears at the edge of the pattern area as in loop and one which shows inside the
pattern area just below the counterpart ridges.
3. Double Loop Whorl – D
o A fingerprint pattern consisting of two separate and distinct loop formations. One of the
loops surrounds or overlaps the other, also called composite pattern like the central
pocket loop whorl. This pattern is a combination of two patterns in one with two cores
and two deltas. The two loops in a double loop whorl need not comply with all the
requirements for a loop pattern that no ridge count is necessary for both loops in the
formation. The two loops do not have the same length or the same size. All that is
required is that there be two separate and distinct loop formations, two sets of
shoulders and two deltas.
4. Accidental Whorl – X
o A fingerprint patter that is a combination of two or more different types of pattern
except in plain arch. It can be a combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop and a
central pocket loop whorl or any combination of two different loops and whorls. Just
like the central pocket loop whorl and double loop whorl, some authors called this
pattern a composite. Unlike the other whorl type patterns, an accidental whorl can be
having two, three or four deltas. An accidental whorl pattern is one that looks like a
conglomeration of ridges.

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Plain Whorl Central Pocket Loop Double Loop Whorl Accidental Whorl
Whorl
UNIT 3
The Classification Formula
The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on general similarities allows the
fingerprint examiner to search for an unidentified fingerprint within the specific section of the
fingerprint file rather than having to search the whole file. There are numerous classification systems in
use throughout the world today. These systems originated from the Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and
Henry system. Though, the adopted classification is the Basic Henry System with Modifications and
Extensions by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Classification refers to the formula derived for the complete set of ten fingerprint patterns or the
arrangement of fingerprint records into groups or subgroups for filing purposes. Classification formula
pertains to the numerical description of a set of classified fingerprints which is composed of figures
and letters and written on a horizontal line like fraction.
The classification formula is composed of the following divisions:
1. Primary Classification (PC)

2. Secondary Classification (SC)
3. Sub-secondary Classification (SSC)
4. Major Division (MD)
5. Final Classification (FC)
6. Key Classification (KC)
Arrangement of the Classification Formula:
N K M P S SS F
D C D C C C C
The Primary Classification (PC)

The first classification to be dealt with. This is placed between the Major Division and Secondary
Classification. To obtain the primary classification, numerical values are assigned to each of the ten
finger spaces whenever a whorl appears; it assumes the value of the space in which it is found.
Spaces in which types of patterns other than whorls are present are disregarded in computing the
primary classification. The values are assigned as follows:
1. Fingers no. 1 and no. 2 = 16
Whorls in the primary are also known as numerical patterns, while loops and arches are the
non-numerical patterns. The fingers in a set of print are numbered in its natural sequence, beginning
with the thumb of the right hand as Finger number 1 with the little finger of the left hand as Finger
number 10. The fingers are group into two: the DENOMINATOR and NUMERATOR as follows:
NUMERATOR:
- Right index finger (2)
- Right ring finger (4)
- Left thumb (6)
- Left middle finger (8)
- Left little finger (10)

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DENOMINATOR:
- Right thumb (1)
- Right middle finger (3)
- Right little finger (5)
- Left index finger (7)
- Left ring finger (9)
The numerator is the total numeral value of whorls appearing in any of the even numbered
fingers (2,4,6,8,10) while the denominator is the total numerical value of whorls appearing in any of
the odd numbered fingers (1,3,5,7,9). An arbitrary count of one is always added to the sum of the
numerator and denominator to avoid a classification of zero over zero.
When no whorl appears in a set of fingerprints, there can be no numerical value; therefore the
primary classification becomes one over one.
When all fingers and thumbs contain all whorls, the numerical value of the patterns is the maximum
total value which is thirty-two over thirty-two.
Radial Radial Plain Central Double

Loop Loop Arch Pocket Loop whorl
Loop whorl
D = 16 N = 16 D=8 N=8 D=4

Radial Accidental Radial Ulnar Radial
Loop Whorl Loop Loop Loop
N=4 D=2 N=2 D=1 N=1
N PC
9
D 7
Radial Plain Plain Ulnar Double

Loop Whorl Arch Loop Loop whorl
D = 16 N = 16 D=8 N=8 D=4

Radial Accidental Plain Whorl Ulnar Accidental
Loop Whorl Loop Whorl
N=4 D=2 N=2 D=1 N=1
N PC
20
D 7
The Secondary Classification (SC)

The secondary classification appears just to the right of the fractional numerals which represent
the primary. It is shown in the formula by CAPITAL LETTERS representing the basic types of patterns
appearing in the INDEX FINGERS of each hand, that of the right hand being the numerator and the
left hand being the denominator. There are five basic types of patterns which could appear.
They are the following:

1. Plain arch = A
2. Tented Arch = T
3. Radial Loop = R or / (Right-handed) \ (Left-handed)
4. Ulnar Loop = U or / (Left-handed) \ (Right-handed)
5. Whorls (all types/in general) = W
 Plain Whorl = W
 Central Pocket Loop Whorl = C
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 Double Loop Whorl = D

 Accidental Whorl = X
/ / A C D
\ X \ U \
N PC SC
9 R
D 7 X
The small letter group of Secondary Classification
The small letter group in the secondary classification consists of plain arch (a); tented arch (t);
and radial loop (r). Such small letters, with exception of those appearing in the index fingers, are
brought up into the classification formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent to
the index fingers. Thus, if a radial loop appears in the right thumb, the small letter “r” would be
brought up in the numerator column of the classification formula and placed just to the left of the
capital letter representing the index finger. Similarly, if a plain arch or tented arch or radial loop
would appear in the middle, ring or little finger of both hands, the small letters representing such
patters would be placed on the classification line to the right of the secondary classification in the
numerator column if the letter is present in the right hand and in the denominator column if in the left
hand.
/ / A C D
U
\ X \ \
N PC SC
9 rRa
D 7 rX2r
The Sub-secondary Classification (SSC)
This is placed on the classification line just to the right of the secondary classification. Ridge
counting is conducted in this classification. Ridge counts are translated into small and large
represented by symbols “I” (Inner) and “O” (Outer) for the loops. Ridge tracing is also conducted in
this classification and the tracings are interpreted as “I” (Inner), “M” (Meeting) and “O” (Outer) of the
sub-secondary namely:
Right index finger – no. 2

Right middle finger – no. 3
Right ring finger – no. 4
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Left index finger – no. 7

Left middle finger – no. 8
Left ring finger – no. 9
For the purpose of infirmity, a definite number of ridge counts is established and is assigned to
each of the fingers involved. This designated number of ridges is the same and utilized in both hands,
but varies for different fingers.
Index fingers: 1 – 9 ridges = I (Inner)
10 or more ridges = O (Outer)
Middle fingers: 1 – 10 ridges = I (Inner)
Ring fingers: 1 – 13 ridges = I (Inner)
Sub-secondary Classification for LOOPS
/ / \ \ D
7 Ridges 12 Ridges 6 Ridges
below
\ / \ / \
N PC SC SSC
1 rR IOI
D 5 rU2r IOO
For whorl tracing, these are the following rules:

Three or more ridges above the right delta is “I” (Inner) tracing; zero, one or two ridges is “M”
(Meeting) tracing; and three or more ridges below the right delta is “O” (Outer) tracing.
Basic rules for whorl tracing:

1. Tracing always begin at the extreme left delta and stops at the point directly in front of the
right delta.
2. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right delta.
3. When tracing suddenly stops or ends, the tracing is continued on the ridge below it.
4. A ridge must definitely end before tracing may be continued on the ridge below it.
5. When the ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch or fork of the
bifurcation.
6. When the delta is a dot, the tracing begins on the type line immediately below the delta (dot).
Sub-secondary Classification for WHORLS
/ W X C D
above below Right below Right
Right Delta Delta Delta
\ X D X \
4 Ridges 1 Ridge 19 Ridges
below Right below Right above
Delta Delta Right Delta
N PC SC SSC
27 rW IOO
D 16 rXr OMI

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Sub-secondary Classification for ARCHES
In obtaining the sub-secondary for arches, the same rule governs which uses the index, middle
and ring fingers of both hands. However, a “dash” (–) is use to indicate the absence of ridge
counting for loop patterns or ridge tracing for whorl patterns.
/ A T T /
\ A A T \
N PC SC SSC
1 rA2tr ---
D 1 rAatr ---
The Major Division (MD)
The major classification is placed just to the left of the primary classification in the classification
formula. Where whorls appear in the thumb, the major classification reflects the whorl tracing just like
the sub-secondary for whorls does. When arches appear in any of the thumb, the rules on small letter
group shall be followed as in sub-secondary. Where loops appear in the thumbs, a table is used to
translate the ridge counts into “S” (Small); “M” (Medium); and “L” (Large). In a set of prints having
loop patterns in both thumbs, the ridge count of the left thumb governs the symbol for the right
thumb.
Left thumb (Denominator) Right thumb (Numerator)
1 to 11 ridges inclusive = S 1 to 11 ridges inclusive = S

12 to 16 ridges inclusive = M
17 ridges or more = L
12 to 16 ridges inclusive = M 1 to 11 ridges inclusive = S
17 ridges or more = L 1 to 17 ridges inclusive = S

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Major Division for LOOPS
/ / \ C /
13 Ridges 7 Ridges 12 Ridges 6 Ridges 9 ridges
below Right
delta
\ X \ / A
6 Ridges 4 Ridges 16 Ridges 19 Ridges
below Right
delta
N MD PC SC SSC
M 9 rRr IOO
D S 3 rXra OOO
\ / W C C
23 ridges 7 Ridges 12 Ridges 6 Ridges 13 ridges
above Right below Right
Delta delta
\ X D / \
16 Ridges 4 Ridges 16 Ridges 9 Ridges 15 ridges
below Right below Right
delta Delta
N MD PC SC SSC
L 11 R IIO
D M 15 rXr OOI
Major Division for Whorls
X / \ C /
below RD below Right
delta
C X \ / A
2 ridges 4 Ridges 16 Ridges 9 Ridges
delta
N MD PC SC SSC
O 13 Rr IOO
D M 19 Xra OOI

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Major Division for Arches
T / \ C /
7 Ridges 12 Ridges 6 Ridges 9 ridges
below Right
delta
A X \ / A
below Right
delta
N MD PC SC SSC
– 9 Rr IOO
D – 3 Xr OOI
The Final Classification (FC)

Do not be confused. According to Dr. Alfredo Kahanding, the Chief of Dactyloscopy Division of
NBI-HQ, the Final classification is obtained only after obtaining the Major Division. This is obtained
upon the ridge count of the loop in the right little finger or both the little fingers. It is indicated on the
extreme right of the classification formula.
RULES:
1. If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a loop in the left little finger may be used. It is
then indicated at the extreme right of the denominator.
2. If no loops are present in the little fingers, a whorl may be used to obtain a final classification.
Ridge count is then conducted from left delta to the core if in the right hand; and from right
delta to the core if in left hand.
3. If there are two or more cores (usually in the accidental whorls), the ridge count is made from
left delta (right hand) or right delta (left hand) to the core which is the least number of ridges
distant from the delta.
 In double loop whorl, it is counted from the delta to the core of the upright loop.
 Where loops of a double loop whorl are horizontal, the nearest core is used.
 Should both little fingers be plain arches or tented arches, no final classification is used
therefore, a dash (–) is used.
 If the little fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the final classification is considered
“M” (Meeting) because the fingers are referenced to a whorl.
/ / U C /
below Right
delta
\ X \ / A
19 rigdes 4 Ridges 16 Ridges 19 Ridges
below Right
delta
N MD PC SC SSC FC
S 9 rRr IOO 9
D L 3 rXra OOO –

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/ / \ C D
below Right
delta
\ X \ / C
below Right
delta
N MD PC SC SSC FC
M 10 rR IOO 9
D S 7 rXr OOO 3
\ / / X /
15 rigdes 7 Ridges 12 Ridges 8 Ridges 9 ridges
below Right
delta
\ X / / /
below Right
delta
N MD PC SC SSC FC
S 9 R2r IOO 9
D L 3 rX OOI 3
The Key Classification (K)

This classification represents the ridge count of the first loop appearing in a set of prints,
beginning with the thumb of the right hand but excluding the right and left little fingers. The key, no
matter where it is found, is always placed to the extreme left of the numerator of the classification.
In case no loops appear in a set of prints except in the little fingers, ridge count on the first whorl
is applied. If no loop or whorl appears, key is unobtainable therefore a dash is used.
X / \ C /
delta
C X \ / A
delta
N K MC PC SC SSC FC
7 O 13 Rr IOO 9
D M 19 Xra OOI –

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AMP \ / C \
13 Ridges 12 Ridges 6 Ridges 19 ridges
below Right
delta
\ X \ / T
below Right
delta
N K MC PC SC SSC FC
22 M 9 Ur 0OO 19
D L 3 rXrt OII –
Classification of Scarred Patterns, Amputated Fingers (AMP) and Fingers Missing at Birth (FMB)
Classification of Scarred Patterns
1. When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing
nor count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be given both
the general type value and the sub-secondary classification value of the other hand.
2. When an impression is partially scarred, i.e. large scars about the core so that the general type
cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow reasonably accurate
sub- secondary classification by ridge tracings or counting, the impression should be given the
primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub-classification value as
indicated by the ridges of partially scarred impressions.
3. When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of the pattern can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to
fall within the proper sub-secondary classification, the impression should be given the ridge
count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding
finger is of the same general type. If the corresponding finger is not of the same general type,
the scarred impression should be given the probable value and reference to all other
possibilities.
4. When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing
or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens that the
corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary
value of whorls with meeting tracings.
Classification of Amputated Fingers (AMP) and Fingers Missing at Birth (FMB)

1. If one finger is amputated (AMP) or finger missing at birth (FMB), it is given a classification
identical with that of the opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count or tracing and
referenced to every other possible classification.
2. If two or more fingers are amputated (AMP) or finger missing at birth (FMB), they are given
classifications identical with the fingers opposite, with no additional references.
3. If two amputated fingers (AMP) or finger missing at birth (FMB) are opposite with each other,
both are given the classification of WHORLS with meeting (M) tracings.
4. If all fingers and thumbs are amputated (AMP) or finger missing at birth (FMB), the classification
will be:
AMP AMP AMP FMB AMP
FMB AMP FMB AMP AMP
N KC MC PC SC SSC FC
M 32 W MMM
D M 32 W MMM

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*** Take note: do not answer the Final classification and the Key. Just leave it BLANK. (Courtesy of Dr.
Alfredo Kahanding)
5. If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the foot prints should be taken because they
also bear friction ridges with definite patterns.
6. Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and careful consideration
should be given to them. The question often arises as to the appropriate groups in which they
should be filed, i.e. amputation or no amputations. As no definite rule may be applied, it is a
matter of experience and judgment as to their preferred classification.
7. In instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or more than half of the pattern
area missing, it is given the classification of the opposite finger. It will be filed in the amputation
group under the classification of the opposite finger and reference searches should be
conducted in all possible classifications in the non amputation groups.
8. Generally, a TIP AMPUTATION, or one which has less than half of the first joint amputated, will
always be printed in the future. Therefore, a partially amputated finger with less than half of
the pattern area missing is classified as it appears and is referenced to the opposite finger. It
will be filed on the non amputated group and reference searches should be conducted
under the classification of the opposite finger, and in the amputation group.

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UNIT 4
Latent Prints or Crime Scene Prints
Latent prints are the markings of the hands and fingers that are left on a surface when got
contact or touched an object due to the oily matters, deposited on the hand and fingers or
perspiration from the skin. Though, there are also other prints that can be found on the crime scene
other than LATENT FINGERPRINTS, such as latent barefoot prints and footwear prints (podoscopy),
palm prints (chiroscopy) and lip prints (cheiloscopy) at some instance. In a general sense, latent prints
may be thought of as those prints left at the crime scene. Such prints may or may not be visible:
Visible latents are those showing recognizable ridge detail made by fingers contaminated with
substances such as blood, ink, grease or dirt, and which naturally display a contrast with their
background; or are made when fingerprints are pressed into plastic (deformable) surfaces such as
putty, tar, adhesive-coated surfaces, wax and cheese.
The latent fingerprint, impressed by the bulb of the fingers or fingertips, is a complex mixture of
natural secretions and contaminations from the environment. Three types of glands are responsible
for the natural secretions of the skin, namely: sudoriferous eccrine gland; apocrine gland; and the
sebaceous gland.
Most natural fingerprints consist of secretions of the skin’s glands. Three types of glands are
responsible: the eccrine glands, the sebaceous glands and the apocrine glands. Eccrine glands
secrete largely water with inorganic and organic contaminants. Inorganic components of this type of
sweat include chlorides, metal ions, ammonia, sulfates, and phosphates. Organic components are
metabolic by-products such as amino acids, urea, lactic acid, choline, uric acid, creatinine and
sugars. The sudoriferous glands are distributed all over the body and produces sweat. The glands
transverse the epidermal layer to open at the summits of the papillary ridges to form sweat or
sudoriferous pores (sweat pores). The other term for sudoriferous eccrine gland is sweat gland. Sweat
is an aqueous solution produced by the cells of the secretors of the body, without loss of cell
cytoplasm for the eccrine glands in contrast with apocrine glands – this explains the difference in
chemical composition between these two types of secretion. Eccrine sweat is approximately 98.5%
water; the remainders are made up of mineral salts (sodium chloride; organic acids; urea and sugar).
Sebaceous glands are secretors of fatty or greasy substances. These include organic compounds
such as fatty acids and glycerides, as well as alcohols and hydrocarbons. The sebaceous glands are
found on the chest and at the back, where they are associated with hair roots, and on the forehead,
the lips of vagina, the glands of the penis and the mammary areola. The sebaceous glands secrets
oil called sebum, which serves to protect the skin and hair against water, to act as a lubricant and to
help absorb fat, lipid and soluble substances. The fatty substances secreted by the sebaceous glands
are not soluble to water. Apocrine glands secrete cytoplasm and nuclear materials, including
inorganic compounds such as ionic iron, and organic compounds such as proteins, carbohydrates
and cholesterol.
Classes of Latent Fingerprints

1. Visible prints
- Prints made by fingers smeared with colored substances such as blood; ink; grease; dirt and
paint. These can be seen by the naked eye alone without being developed. If the ridges
happen to stand out clearly in them, photographs can be made without any treatment to the
prints.
2. Semi-visible latent prints
- Also called as Plastic prints or molded prints.
- Prints made in plastic materials such as soap; melted candles; wax; paraffin wax; putty;
adhesive tapes; adhesive gums of envelope and postage stamps and the like. These prints do
not need development though; photographing is more difficult than visible prints.
3. Invisible latent prints
- These are the most common type of chance impressions. These prints cannot be seen by the
naked eye especially on papers; card boards; box and can be developed by the use of right
kind of powder and chemical to make them visible.
4. Smudge prints
- Prints that are indistinct due to sliding motion of fingers at the time they are impressed.
5. Fragmentary prints
- Prints that show only a portion of the pattern of the fingerprint.
How do latent fingerprints occur?

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When criminals commit crime, they cannot avoid leaving clues in the form of fingerprints
unless they wear gloves or some other form of protection. Latent fingerprints are formed whenever
the criminal will touched an object with bare hands. Prints may be formed when the fingers are
contaminated with foreign material such as dirt; blood; grease or when the fingers are pressed
against some plastic material and produce a negative impression of the pattern of the friction ridges.
Locard’s Principle of Exchange
According to Edmond Locard, this principle states that in every contact, there will always a
trace left behind. For example, a robber went to the house of Mr. A and he robbed the house. The
robber opens the house of Mr. A by using the door knob with his bare hands, the robber left his
fingerprints on the door knob and the robber got the money of Mr. A from his house. Can you see the
exchange in the principle? The robber left his prints in the door knob thus; it will lead to his
apprehension. In exchange, the robber got and took away the money.
Factors Affecting Latent Fingerprints
1. Sweat and body secretions, especially oils being transferred to the surface from the skin. The
condition of the person’s skin and the amount of oil and sweat normally secreted can affect
the quality of the latent print
2. The climate condition will affect the amount of body sweat. Warmer temperature produces
better prints.
o Heavy condensed moisture such as rain, snow or dew will immediately erase
fingerprints.
o Excessively high temperatures caused by direct rays of the sun during summer
months can destroy them in a matter of minutes
o Winds due to warm temperature will cause the disappearance of fingerprint
evidence because of the increased evaporation of watery substance.
o Dust accumulated on finger impressions obliterates the identification of ridge
characteristics.
3. Emotional reflexes also affect sweat and can also affect the transfer of body secretions. Fear
and excitement will increase sweat and the amount of secretions present in the latent print.
4. The amount of pressure applied when touching the surface, the greater the transfer of
secretions and the better the print.
5. Latent fingerprints of children may evaporate quicker than the latent prints of adults. Prints of a
child may completely disappear from the latent surface in a little as 48 hours. The latent prints
of adults, in contrast, can last longer a week or longer.
Searching for Latent Prints

1. Precaution is important. Do not remove the object from original position or touch by bare
hands or fingers anything that requires fingerprint examination.
2. Search of latent prints should be conducted in a systematic way and intelligent manner.
3. Attention should be given to object such as guns; doors knobs; glasses; window; papers;
bottles; to protect and preserve any latent print developed.
4. Amount and quality of powder to be used. The purpose is to develop latent prints that can be
classified, analyze and identified.
Precautions in Searching Fingerprints

The search for crime scene fingerprints is usually an assigned task of the criminalistics
Laboratory Technicians, and should follow its rules, of which the following guidelines should be strictly
observed:
1. Not to be controlled or influenced by a third party or “Come what may Attitude”, but rather to
make the search with a strong confidence of surely finding the suspect’s fingerprints.
2. To assume the suspect’s movements at the scene and to make search for fingerprints
accordingly.
3. To make the search for fingerprints wider so as to avoid any omissions.
4. To search coolly, calmly, orderly, minutely and thoroughly.
5. To avoid offending the victim.
6. Not to give any comment on the surrounding circumstances of the crime, because if he says
so, no useful purpose will be served.
Where to Search for Crime Scene Prints?

The search for crime scene prints is to look for visible and latent fingerprints all over the crime
scene. These places or key points of fingerprints search include the following:

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 Wooden, glass or metallic portions of doors, corridors, pillars, windows, etc., near the points of
entry and exit of the suspect/s.
 Wooden, glass or metallic portions of dressers, cabinets, safes, desks or articles found therein.
 Lampshades, tables or wall clocks, radios, vases and other home appliances or other articles
likely to be moved or touched by the suspect/s during the commission of the crime.
 A crowbar, screw driver, weapon used, electrical systems and many others used for the entry
or exit of the suspect/s.
 Bottles, cups, glasses, half-eaten fruits, dining table, refrigerator, etc., used by the suspect/s for
drinking or eating.
 Other articles left by the suspect/s on the crime scene.
Things that must NOT be done at the crime scene

1. Do not lift developed latent prints without photographing.
2. Do not lift latent print on small movable objects.
3. Do not remove object without photographing.
4. Do not powder the entire crime scene.
5. Do not develop visible prints.
Pointers to Give Fingerprint Evidence Probative Value

1. Is the latent print really lifted from the crime scene of the particular crime in question? This
should be supported by a sketch, photographs and testimonies.
2. Is the latent print really left at the crime scene by the suspect during the commission of the
crime? Is there any evidence in the contrary?
3. Is there any possibility of tampering or substitution of the lifted latent prints from the time of
lifting to the time of examination? Observation of proper marking and chain of custody of
evidence.
4. Is it the standard fingerprint really taken from the suspect or is it there any doubt in the
authenticity of the standard fingerprint? Signature of the suspect and the technician on the
standard prints.
PNP Procedures on Lifting Latent Prints

A. Dusting for Latent Fingerprints
1. Pour a small amount of powder into a piece of paper or a shallow bowl.
2. Touch the tip of the brush to the powder being careful not to pick up too much.
3. Apply the powder to the surface gently, using short strokes.
4. When a print begins to appear, begin making the brush strokes to conform to the pattern of
the ridges.
B. Lifting of Latent Fingerprints

1. Pull off approximately 3 inches of tape from the roll.
2. Begin pressing the tape from the leading edge with a back and forth motion of a finger.
3. Continue pressing the tape an inch or more past the latent.
4. To make the lift, use a steady, even pull.
5. Once the tape is pulled beyond the latent print and the print is lifted, stop so that the leading
edge is still in contact with the surface.
6. The print should be mounted on some form of backing material.
C. Taking Plain Impressions

1. DO NOT ROLL the fingers when inking or taking the impression.
2. Use the same position as when rolling the fingers.
3. Ink the right thumb by pressing it straight down onto the ink surface (do not roll).
4. Ink the remaining four fingers simultaneously by pressing them onto the ink surface.
5. Repeat the same procedure with the left hand.

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UNIT 5
Methods of Developing Latent Prints
Forensic investigation of substances found at a crime scene can establish the presence of the
suspect at the scene. One of the oldest methods of forensic science is dusting the crime scene for
latent prints made by the impressions of the fingertips left on the surfaces touched bare-handed. A
fingerprint examiner spreads fine powder over a surface with a fingerprint brush (ie. Fiberglass brush,
feather, or magnetic brush). The powder adheres to the proteins secreted by the sweat glands on
the ridges of the fingertips. When correctly and appropriately powdered a latent print, an outline of
the contours of the ridges can be seen. Another technique of obtaining latent prints is the use of
chemicals in order to expose the contours.
The sole purpose in DEVELOPING a latent print is TO MAKE IT VISIBLE so that it may be preserved
and compared. Various powders and chemicals are used for this purpose. When a latent print is
plainly visible, it should be photograph before any effort is made to develop it. Do not attempt to
develop prints which s in dust, grease or blood as this will destroy the quality of these prints. Objects
which have been wet or immersed in water may still bear identifiable latent prints. Before any
examination is to be conducted, the object must be dried first.
Physical or Powder Method of Developing Latent Prints

Suitable materials for this method are glass, porcelain, ceramic, pottery, metallic item, plastic and
bamboo. The principle involved in this technique is that the developing reagents adhere to the
sweat present in the latent print. Powder brushed lightly over a latent-bearing surface will cling to
grease or moisture I the ridges of a latent print, making it visible against the background. Obviously, a
powder should be used which will contras with the color of the surface. Powders adhere to both
water and fatty deposits. These are generally useful on newer prints only. Choose a powder to
contrast with the background. They are useful on any dry, relatively smooth, non-adhesive surfaces.
Use after laser fluorescence. May be used before ninhydrin and after cyanoacrylate. Results may
vary with skill of technician. “Lift” developed prints by photography or conventional methods.
1. Black powder – applied on white and smooth surfaces.

2. White or luminium powder – applied on black and smooth surfaces.
 These two types of powder adhere to the PRINCIPLE OF CONTRAST to develop latent print.
 These powders are applied on the surface through brushing.
NOTE: In brushing, you should brush in a single stroke manner.
3. Lycopodium powder – this is applied on leather surfaces. It is directly placed on the surface
using a blower to spread the powder instead of a brush. It is also used to develop latent prints
on human skin with the use of gelatin paper.
Procedure
- Lift the latent print from the human skin using a fingerprint lifting material.
- Mount it in a gelatin paper.
- Apply lycopodium powder.
4. SP Black Powder – mix oxidizing iron into luminium powder with weak adhesive powder.
When subjected evidence surface is white color, this powder is used more frequently to make
clear appearance for identification, on detected fingerprint than the luminium powder.
Chemical Development of Latent Prints

1. Ninhydrin solution – used to detect latent prints on absorbent materials, white wood, blood
stained fingerprint, paper wrapping of cigarette stick, etc. Ninhydrin reacts with amino acids
to produce a purple reaction product called “Rhuemann’s Purple”. It is useful on porous
surfaces—especially paper. Development time is up to 10 days, but may be accelerated
through the application of heat and humidity. Use ninhydrin after iodine and before silver
nitrate. Ninhydrin is not useful on items which have been exposed to water.
 Preparation: 0.5 grams of ninhydrin powder mixed with 100 Ml of acetone of ethyl alcohol.
 Method: Brushing, immersion or spraying.

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 Procedure: Brush ninhydrin solution on the surface of the material. Evaporate acetone with
heat (natural) or using flat iron after inserting the material in between pages of paper.
NOTE:
1. Do not touch on the suspected object or evidence with bare hands, if you do, you will leave
your own fingerprints on the surface of the object or evidence. Carelessness on handling the
evidence will destroy the suspect’s fingerprint.
2. For the cigarette butts, remove the filter before processing with ninhydrin solution.
3. Heating temperature should below 100 degree Celsius. Avoid using the flat iron directly on the
surface,
4. Remember that acetone is a flammable chemical. Dry it first by using natural heat before
adding the heat of a flat iron.
5. Mind ventilation. Big volume of aspiration is dangerous to your health.
6. Detected fingerprint by ninhydrin solution will gradually disappear as time passes. The
developed fingerprints will disappear perfectly after 6 months.
7. Photographing should be done after developing the prints.
8. The disadvantage of this method is that it destroys printed handwriting or signature on paper
made by ballpoint pen, fountain pen, sign pen, etc.
2. Ninhydrin Petroleum Benzine Solution – applied on printed materials. This method, unlike the
ninhydrin solution, it will not destroy the written letters on the evidence made by ballpoint pen
and other ink.
 Preparation: 0.5 ninhydrin powder dissolved into 10 Ml of ethyl alcohol.
 Dissolve ninhydrin powder into ethyl alcohol first, then into the benzene. Add 90 Ml of
petroleum benzene and mix it well to make 0.5% of ninhydrin benzene solution.
 Procedure: Dip brush into the solution and apply it on the suspected surface evenly.
Evaporate petroleum benzene and add heat using flat iron. Photograph the developed
latent print.
3. TMB (Tetramethyl Benzedrine Method) – with this method, the invisible amount of blood stained
fingerprints can be detected. Fingerprints on a kitchen knife and other blades used as a
weapon effectively detected.
 Preparation:
Solution A – 100 Ml ethanol consist of 0.5 of TMB powder solution.
Solution B – ethanol added to the same amount of distilled water and 30% peroxide mixed
up in 9:1 ratio.
4. Neo SPWA Method – invented by Nobuo Yamauchi, a Japanese Fingerprint Expert. This
method is used on wet surfaces like plastic bags; metal product; plastic product, vehicle body;
bathroom tiles; weekly magazine cover; glass product; smooth surfaces with no water
absorbent; adherent surface of adhesive tapes; the magnetic card and crappy plastic bag.
 Preparation – Few drops of 70% Isopropyl alcohol added to 1 gram of black powder.
Add 7 – 10 Ml of water and mix well.
 Method – dip brush on the reagent and brush it over the suspected surface. Leave for
30 seconds and wash away excess powder. Photograph developed prints.
 Procedure
- Before starting to work on the suspected area, take a photograph to record the original
appearance.
- Apply solution A using a brush then solution B after it dries.
- If there is an existing blood stained fingerprint, it will turn into blue green color. Photograph the
developed prints.
5. Victoria Pure Blue Method – used to detect latent prints on leaves, scotch tape and masking
tape.
 Preparation: 1 gram of Victoria Pure Blue mixed with 1 liter of ordinary water to make 0.1% of
Victoria pure blue solution.
 Procedure: Dip or soak the suspected object in a tray containing the solution for 30 seconds
to one minute and observe how the prints appears, then wash it with water. Photograph the
developed latent prints. The developed prints will remain for several months and years
depending on the preservation.

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6. Silver Nitrate – method used in developing latent prints on porous surfaces. Silver nitrate reacts
with the chloride component of the sweat. Silver chloride which is white in color is
decomposed due to silver metal producing a brown to black fingerprints. However, prints
developed by this method will disappear within less than a week due to the diffusion of
chlorides through the substrate, so photograph the prints after development. Another
disadvantage of this method is that the background reaction which results in a darkening of
the substrate which will be seen as time passes.
(ASSIGNMENT: RESEARCH ON THE IMAGES OF PRINTS DEVELOPED BY: NINHYDRIN SOLUTION; SILVER
NITRATE; IODINE FUMING; TETRAMETHYL BENZEDRINE; AMDIO BLACK; DFO; SMALL PARTICLE REAGENT;
PHYSICAL DEVELOPER; GENTIAN VIOLET. PLACE IT ON A SHORT BOND PAPER.)
Other chemical development of latent prints

1. Amido black – a dye sensitive to properties of blood and may be used with contaminated or
visible latent prints involving blood. It has the capability to turn blood proteins to a blue or
black color.
2. Iodine fuming – the oldest and most proven method of developing latent prints on both
porous (especially in papers) and non-porous surfaces. The fumes reacts with fat and oil
deposited by the fingers on the subjected materials and the developed latent prints will result
to a yellow-brown color. Note that the developed latent prints by this method disappear
quickly, so photograph it immediately after development. Iodine fumes react with oils and
fatty deposits to produce a temporary yellow-brown reaction product. Iodine is useful on fresh
prints on porous and non-porous, non-metallic surfaces. Developed prints must be fixed or
photographed immediately because reaction will rapidly fade. Use iodine before ninhydrin
and silver nitrate.
3. DFO (1, 8 – diazafluoren – 9 – one) – a ninhydrin analogue. It reacts to the proteins to give a
highly fluorescent red colored product, which is more sensitive than the ninhydrin. These red
latent prints may be immediately visible to the naked eye. DFO developed prints fluoresce
under almost kind of laser alternative sources. DFO, 1,8 Diazafluoren-9-one, is a fluorescing
ninhydrin analog found to develop up to two and a half more prints than ninhydrin itself. It is
useful on porous surfaces, especially paper. Development may be accelerated through the
application of controlled heat. Use it before ninhydrin. DFO also is useful to develop weak
blood stains.
4. Small Particle Reagent (SPR) – a technique of developing latent prints on objects that have
been immersed in water. It is also used in developing latent prints on dew or rain soaked cars,
on surfaces covered with residue, such as salt from being near the ocean, on waxed materials,
plastic, tiles and glass. Developed latent prints will appear dark gray on a light surface and
light gray on a dark surface. Although SPR can be sprayed on an object, immersion of the
object for about 30 seconds in an SPR solution produces better result. Small particle reagent is
a suspension of fine molybdenum disulfide particles. It adheres to the fatty components of skin
secretions to form a gray deposit. Developed prints must be photographed immediately
because the reaction product is very fragile. Developed prints may be carefully lifted using
conventional methods. Available in dark, light and UV.
5. Physical Developer (PD) – also known as Stabilized Physical Developer (SPD). This is a silver-
based solution used as a substitute for the conventional latent print silver nitrate method. This is
useful in developing latent prints on porous surfaces which are wet or have been wet. This
method may be used following ninhydrin method. PD reacts with components of sweat and
the developed latent prints will appear in shades of gray to black. Prints should be photograph
after development. Physical developer is another silver-based developer which reacts to form
a dark gray reaction product. It is useful on paper, cardboard, and unvarnished, light-colored
woods. Use physical developer after ninhydrin and iodine. It is very successful on items
exposed to water.
6. Gentian Violet – used in non-porous materials especially the adhesive side of tapes. It can also
be applied to surfaces that are contaminated by oil or grease. This solution has a component
which is sensitive to epithelial skin cells, sebaceous lipids and proteins. Dye staining or soaking
process using a water-based working solution. Evidence is repeatedly stained or soaked and

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rinsed until optimum development occurs. View the developed prints under alternative lighting
sources or laser.
Gas Method of Developing Latent Prints
1. Superglue or Cyanoacrelate Fuming – Cyanoacrylate fumes react (polymerize) with water

and other possible fingerprint constituents to form a hard, whitish deposit. It is useful on most
non-porous and some porous surfaces. Cyanoacrylate produces excellent results on styrofoam
and plastic bags. This is applicable to metals, plastics, synthetic resins, painted wood or metal,
leather products, adhesive tape, glossy paper, plywood and human skin.
Procedure:
1.1 Cyano gas treatment method
a. Few drops of cyanoacrelate mighty bond drop on the gauge or cotton cut into 4-5
centimeters.
b. Place it into the container with cover. Fix its position in order not to get in contact to the
object subjected for development.
c. Wait for 15-20 minutes while observing fingerprint, exposure condition. The developed
latent prints will result to crystals in white color. It can be observed with the naked eye.
d. Photograph such prints.
1.2 Cyanoacrelate adherence method

a. White paper (non-absorbent). Cut into the suspected surface (fingerprint) size. Put few
drops of cyano bond (1-3 drops/0.1-0.3 grams).
b. Leave the paper for 2-3 seconds and shake slightly and make it semi-dried condition.
c. Place this semi-dried cyano bond applied paper on the suspected surface (fingerprint)
area with plastic to prevent gas evaporation.
d. Within 10-20 minutes, fingerprint exposed in white color.
e. Photograph such prints.
1.3 Fuming box method

a. Used a metal box (Japan made) which size is 40x40x50 centimeters developed
for the purpose of fingerprint sampling by cyanoacrelate method. The bottom part
consists of a round hot plate. The heat will agitate the evaporation condition of
cyanoacrelate and shortens the time of development. The window has 5x5 centimeters
size.
b. Switch on o heat up the heating plate.
c. Open the cover of fuming box and place the suspected objects or materials.
d. Put few drops of cyanoacrelate on the hot plate.
e. Cover up the box and wait for 7-18 minutes.
f. Take photograph of developed prints.

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UNIT 6
Fingerprint Taking
Can you force a person to be fingerprinted?
According to the Opinion No. 240 series of 1939 by then Secretary of Justice, Sec. Jose Abad
Santos, you can force a person to be fingerprinted, as long as the person is under legal arrest. A
person under legal arrest who refuses to be fingerprinted may be prosecuted by disobedience to the
agent of person in authority which is defined and penalized by Article 151 of the revised Penal Code
of the Philippines.
Types of Fingerprint Impressions Found on the Fingerprint Card
1. Rolled impressions – one made by rolling the thumbs and fingers following a procedure
given.
2. Plain impressions – this requires that the fingers be taken or printed simultaneously, then the
thumbs without rolling.
Purposes of the Plain Impression:

1. To serve as a guide in checking the rolled impressions whether or not the rolled impression
were properly place on their respective boxes.
2. To check the ridge characteristics of the plain impression, if the rolled impression is somewhat
of poor quality (faint, indistinct or in bad condition) of the friction skin either temporary or
permanently deteriorated or in case of a doubtful or questionable patterns.
3. To check the ridge characteristics for purposes of identification.
Procedures in Taking or Recording Fingerprints

1. Inking the Plate
 Squeeze one-half fingerprint ink on the back strip.
 Roll the one-half ink with the ink roller until the glass slab is covered with a thin film of ink.
The back strip is used for replenishing ink. DO NOT MOVE the roller back and forth, single
direction of ink distribution must be observed; lift the roller off the slab after each stroke.
Return the roller to the starting point and roll again.
 Now place the roller on the front strip and roll ink for 10 seconds across the length of the
glass slab. The strip should be 3 to 4 inches in width. This strip of ink is used for inking the 10
fingers. Continue rolling (single direction) until a smooth, uniform coating is apparent.
Inking and Rolling the Fingers

A. Rolled Impression
 Have the subject wash and thoroughly dry his hands prior to inking. Some subjects may
be required that individual fingers be dried with a towel just before inking. If the subject
has been suspected to fire a firearm, paraffin test should be done first before taking the
prints.
 You will start by inking and rolling the fingers on the right hand, then ink and roll the
fingers on the left hand and finally, take plain impressions of both hands. In this way you
start at the top of the card, where space is allotted to the right hand and work your
way down the card.
 The rule for inking and rolling fingers are as follows:
- Roll thumbs towards the subject’s body and roll fingers away from the subject’s body.
Thus a subjects’ right thumb to be rolled right-to-left, while the fingers on the right hand

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are to be rolled left-to-right. Likewise in the left hand, the left thumb should be rolled left-
to-right, while the fingers to be rolled right-to-left.
 The fingers should be inked and rolled on the first joint; that is the area between the tip
and the first crease line. Fingers should be inked and rolled from nail-to-nail edge, with
the finger held at right angles to the slab and cardholder.
 Left the subject stood directly in front of the inking slab. A right-handed technician
should then place himself so that the subject is to his right and rear, a left-handed
technician to his left and rear. Grip the subject’s right hand with your writing hand,
cupping your hand and fingers over the top of the subject’s hand and fingers. The
fingers of the subject not being inked or rolled should be curled under his palm. Use
your free hand to guide the digit (finger) to be inked and rolled, gripping it at the nail
with your thumb and index fingers. The technician should use his writing hand to control
the pressure and rotation of the subject’s digit (finger). DO NOT LET the digits (finger)
twist or wobble, or let the subject slide or draw his fingers during the inking and rolling
process.
 Begin with the right thumb. Lightly place the right edge of the thumb at the right edge
of the glass slab. Slowly and with even pressure, roll the thumb towards the subject’s
body until you have reached the left edge of the nail. Lift the thumb and move to the
card holder. Do the same procedure to the four fingers but roll the fingers AWAY from
the subject’s body.
 The inking of the fingers and thumbs on the glass slab is the same procedure when
rolling and printing them on the fingerprint card.
B. Plain Impression
Press the right thumb straight down on the slab without rolling motion and then straight
down over the appropriate space in the record card without any rolling motion. Next, holding
the four fingers of the right hand so as to keep them touching, press them straight down on the
ink slab and then straight down over the card. Skew the hands as necessary so that the
impressions of the pads of all four fingers can be made simultaneously and all appear within
the appropriate box. Press the four fingers at one time. Repeat the same procedure for the left
hand.
Points to be consider in Taking Legible Fingerprints
1. Cleanliness of the equipment.

2. The right kind and correct amount of ink.
3. The proper distribution of ink on the glass slab.
4. The distance of the subject from the ink plate and on the fingerprint card.
5. The advice of the technician to the subject to relax his fingers and thumbs and never aid in
the operation.
6. The pressure extended must be slight and even and the rolling be continuous movement
including lifting.
7. The nails of the fingers should be at right angles to the glass slab or to the card before
starting the rolling and the fingers should always be rolled up to the other side of the bail is
reached.
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first end joint of the fingers.
9. While rolling the fingers, the subject’s hand should be held twisting and slipping of the fingers.
10. Proper alignment.
Problems in taking of Inked Fingerprints

From time to time, various problems arise concerning the taking of inked impressions. It is
believed that these problems can be divided into four phases:
 Mechanical operations
 Temporary disabilities
 Permanent disabilities
 General
Mechanical operations:
Poor impressions are usually cause by one of the following faults:
a. The use of poor, thin or colored ink, resulting in impressions which are too light and faint, or
in which the ink has run, obliterating the ridges. The best result must be obtained by using

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heavy black printer’s ink; a paste which should not be thinned before using. This ink will dry
quickly and will not blur or smear with handling.
b. Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of the foreign substances
and perspiration, causing the appearance of false markings and the disappearance of
characteristics. Windshield cleaner, gasoline, benzene and alcohol are good cleansing
agents. In warm weather, each finger should be wiped dry of perspiration before printing.
c. Failure to roll the fingers fully from one side to the other and to ink the whole area from tip
to below the first fissure. The result of this is that the local points (such as core and delta) of
the impressions do not appear. The whole finger surface from point to tip and from side to
side should appear.
d. The use of too much ink, obliterating or obscuring the ridges, the printer’s ink is used; just a
touch of the ink tube to the inking plate will suffice for several sets of prints. It should be
spread to a thin, even film by rolling.
e. Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges too light and faint to be counted or traced.
f. Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blur and false appearing patterns.
The fingers should be held lightly without too much pressure.
Temporary disabilities:
a. When the fingers have fresh cuts, bandaged finger which will prevent the recording; an
indication in the fingerprint card to the effect “fresh cut, bandaged” is not sufficient to file
a fingerprint cased. The same situation would occur if there were blisters on the individual
fingers. The blister temporarily disfigures the ridge detail.
Solution: When an injury is temporary, the prints should not be taken until after the injury has
healed.
b. Occupational problems such as bricklayers, carpenters, acid workers, plasters, cement
mixers, electricians, etc., the technician should rub the fingers with softening agents like oil,
moisturizing cream or lotion to soften the hardened fingers. It is further suggested that a
very small amount of ink should be used on the inking plate.
c. Excessive perspiration that causes inked impression to be indistinct. The technician should
wipe the finger with cloth and then immediately ink the fingers and roll it on the fingerprint
card. This process should be followed by each finger. It is also suggested that the fingers be
wipe with alcohol, benzene or similar fluid that will prevent excessive perspiration and act a
s drying agent.
d. When the ridges are very fine like the ridges of a baby, use a very small amount of ink and
spread a very thin coating of ink on the glass slab.
Permanent disabilities:
a. Lack of fingers or fingers missing at birth. The notation “missing finger at birth (FMB)” or some
similar notations be made in the individual fingerprint block on the card.
b. Amputated fingers. Proper notation to this effect in the individual fingerprint card like
“Amputated or AMP” or some similar notations. It is suggested that if the portion of the first
joint of a finger is amputated, the finger should be inked and printed.
c. Bent or crippled fingers and certain deformities. A notation to this effect should be in the
fingerprint card in the proper individual fingerprint block. However, it is believed that these
extreme cases are rare. It is suggested that the special inking devices used for taking the
prints of deceased individuals be used in taking inked impression of bent or crippled fingers.
d. Deformities
d.1 More than 10 fingers
- As occasionally happens, the thumb and the next four fingers to them should be printed
and any excess finger left should be printed in the other side of the card with a notation
made to the effect that they are extra fingers.
d.2 Webbed fingers

- if the subject having two or more fingers webbed or grown together making it impossible
to roll such fingers on the inside, such fingers should be rolled, however, as completely as
possible and a notation to the effect that they are joined.
d.3 Spilt thumbs. Thumbs having two nail joints are classified as if the joint toward the
outside of the hand were not present. In other words, the inner joint is used, and no
consideration whatever is the given to the outer joint.

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UNIT 7
Post-Mortem Fingerprinting
Fingerprints have frequently been instrumental in establishing the correct identity of persons
killed without any means of identifying him or her, except for the fingerprints.
Fingerprinting of Newly Dead Person
If the fingers are flexible, it is advisable to obtain such fingerprints of the dead person through
the regular process of inking and rolling the fingers. This can be made easier if the dead person is laid
face down and palms down on a table. Inked impressions are to be made; care should be exercised
to see that the fingers are clean and dry before inking. Wash the fingers with soap and water then
dry thoroughly.
To produce fingerprints of a dead person by regular method, it is more convenient to cut the
10 squares of the fingerprint card. After the fingers are inked, the squares are rolled around the fingers
without letting it slip. After taking the prints in orderly manner, the squares are then pasted in another
sheet of fingerprint card by its proper finger position. Whenever possible, the plain impressions should
also be taken. In some instances, it is found to obtain or improvise a tool similar to a broad-blade
putty knife or spatula to use as an inking instrument. In distributing the ink, the ink should be rolled
evenly and thinly on the knife or spatula and then rolled it on the fingers. The tool acts as a glass slab,
though it is extremely difficult or awkward when printing a deceased person.
Fingerprinting a Dead where Stiffening of the Fingers or Early Decomposition (Putrefaction) is Present.
In some instances where rigor mortis (stiffening of the muscles) has set in and the fingers are
tightly clenched, the fingers may be forcibly straightened by breaking the rigor. The technician
should hold the hand of the dead person firmly with one hand, grasping the fingers to be
straightened with the four fingers of the other hand and placing the thumb, which is used as a lever,
on the knuckle of the finger and forcing it straight, then the inking tool and squares are then used to
obtain the fingerprints. In the event that the rigor completely overcome, which will set 2-6 hours of
death and will lasts from 12-36 hours, it will be most helpful to obtain or improvise a spoon-shaped tool
for holding the cut squares while printing the fingers. In using this tool, it is not necessary for the
technician to roll the instrument because of its concave shape and it should be gently applied to the
inked finger.
Injection of tissue builder, glycerin or water can also be done with the use of hypodermic
syringe. The hypodermic needle is injected at the joint of the finger up to the right tip of the finger,
care being used to keep the needle below the skin surface. The solution is injected until the finger
bulbs are rounded out, after which, the fingers be inked and printed.
 In cases where the fingers are macerated – Partially rotten and saponified fingers to the
extent that the end joints have hardened and wrinkled after excessive submersion in water,
the fingerprints can be restored by being softened in a solution of four parts of
concentrated ammonium hydroxide and one part of glycerin. The fingers should be soaked
in the solution for about 36 to 48 hours. When the desired softeness is obtained, wash the
fingers with warm water and then dried by dipping in acetone.
 In cases where the fingers are mummified – Mummified fingers can be restored and the skin
made pliable by being soaked in a 1-3% solution of potassium hydroxide.

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 When the fingers are clenched tightly, it is advisable to use a Post-Mortem Finger
Straightener to straighten the fingers of a dead person. The thumb, if it is cramped or bent,
can generally be straightened by making a deep but between the thumb and the index
finger. Before this can be definitely ascertained, it may be necessary to cleanse the pattern
areas with soap and water or xylene.
UNIT 8
Fingerprint Comparison and Identification
Comparison refers to the observation that two impressions have ridge characteristics of similar
shapes which occupy the same relative positions in both patterns. Identification is the process of
determining that the same finger made two or more fingerprint impressions based on the friction
ridge details of both impressions.
Identical Points necessary to be admitted Fingerprint Evidence in Court.
Fingerprint has been an infallible means of personal identification because of the principle of
individuality that governs this science, which means that there are no two prints to have been exactly
the same. Even identical twins do not possess the same fingerprint patterns. Therefore, when a latent
print (questioned) and on actual print (standard) are compared and the two are the same, there is
no doubt that such print belongs to one and the same person. Actual comparison of fingerprints
requires skills acquired through long experience in working with latent and inked impressions.
Under low-power magnification (typically 10x), friction ridge patterns are studied for the kind,
number and location of various ridge characteristics or minutiae. As with many other types of forensic
evidence, it is not merely the presence or absence of minutiae that makes a print unique; it is the
presence, kind, number, and arrangement of those characteristics that are important. When two or
more prints are compared, it is a careful point-by-point study to determine whether enough of the
significant minutiae in the known print are present in the questioned print, with no relevant
differences.
These points when compared should be on the same shape and type; the same face and
same direction which termed as qualitative concordance or general characteristics similarities.
Though, it is not necessary that the questioned fingerprint be complete pattern since they are only
chance impressions, therefore they are fragmentary; what is important is that they reveal the same
ridge characteristics known as quantitative factor or individual characteristics’ similarities. There are
no required numbers of matching ridge characteristics. In the Philippine setting, we use 10 to 12
matching points; other countries use 10 to 15 matching point; others still use 18 matching points.
Here are some guides:

1. When there are more than 12 evident points, the impression is clear and the
identification is absolute.
2. When there are between 8 to 12 evident points, identification certainly depends upon:
 Clearness of the type
 Rarity of ridge characteristics (island, enclosure, dot, ridge bridge or double
bifurcation)
3. Presence of focal point (core and delta) and the same number of ridges that intervene
between two given characteristics in the latent print and on the inked print.
French Criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard believed that identity can be established in lower
number of ridge details, depending upon the following guidelines:
a. Clearness of the pattern
b. Rarity of the pattern
c. Presence of the core and delta in the decipherable part
d. Presence of pores

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e. The perfect and clear identity of the width of ridges and furrows, the direction of the
lines, and the angular value of the furrows.
How Latent Examiners use ACE-V to ensure Accurate Identifications?

Analysis: The first step is analysis. Analysis is a thorough examination of the latent print. The
latent print would be examined to determine the ridge formations that exist at three levels of detail.
 Level One ( Ridge Flow & Class Characteristics) is the largest scale of information, such as the
general type of the central area of the fingerprint, such as an arch, whorl, or loop. Other level
one details may include such matters as the overall ridge count, focal areas of the print, such
as "delta regions" (roughly triangular shaped areas where ridges flowing in different directions
meet), and the orientation of the print. Showing that level one details are identical is not
enough to make an identification of the finger that is the source of a latent print.
 Level Two (Ridge Characteristics or Points) detail focuses on the characteristics of ridge paths,
such as places where ridges bifurcate or end or create dots or islands. These features provide
a great deal of detail. Each feature can be identified in terms of the type of feature (end,
bifurcation, etc.), its direction, and its location with respect to other identifiable features in the
print. Level two detail can be used to identify one individual finger from among the entire
human population as the source of the latent print.
 Level Three (Ridge Structure ) detail can be described as "ridge detail," with such tiny features
as pores on a ridge and the width and shape of the ridge itself and its edges. These level three
details are the most vulnerable to problems with the quality of the latent print. They are so
small that a clear, high quality image is needed to make accurate comparisons. When the
latent print is sufficiently clear, level three detail can contribute to the identification of the
source of a latent print.
Comparison: During the comparison phase the examiner concentrates primarily on the known,
or inked, prints. The examiner searches each inked print in turn, observing all three levels of detail in a
search for an image that is consistent with the detail found in the latent print during its analysis, and
that has the target selected for the search.
Evaluation: In this phase, the two prints are examined together, side by side. The examiner
finds features first in the unknown print, then in the known print, and then evaluates the
corresponding features to determine if they are within tolerance for the level of clarity that exists in
the images. In this manner, the examiner goes back and forth between the two prints, finding
features first in the unknown, and then evaluating their appearance in the known print.
Verification: The general rule is that all positive identification opinions must be verified by a
second qualified expert. The second expert may repeat the entire process, but the comparison may
not be blind. That is, the second expert may know from the outset that another examiner has already
made the positive identification.
Method of Fingerprint Comparison

1. Ordinary method – characterized by the marking of points of identity, one after another, by
means of lines drawn from them to the margin and in clockwise direction.
a. Simple method – the identical points of identity in both enlargements are drawn with a red
straight line to the margin. Begin numbering from any of the focal points until you have
numbered all in both enlargements.
b. Modified method – in the lines preceding the numbers are names of the corresponding
ridge characteristics or their equivalent abbreviations are written.
c. Drawn method – the numbers are placed about 1 centimeter immediately after the lines.
Circles are drawn at the end of the lines on the margin of the photograph then inside are
drawing of the corresponding ridge characteristics.
d. Osborn method – the two enlarged photographs are divided each into squares both
exactly alike, with the squares occupying identical positions on each and examining them
in their order, square for square, designating the identical points in each square.
e. Seymour method – make a skeleton tracing of the questioned print and standard print of
the suspect by making comparison by placing them together and holding them near a
reflector or sidelight.
f. Pricking method – make enlargement of the same size of the latent print and inked print.
Place the standard print over the latent print in the same position with the use of a needle
prick the identical points to determine if they coincide with one another.
2. AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System)

34
RCrim_EJ
It can also produce prints up to 25 prints in its database that have strong probability
and similarity to the compared latent print. At a rate of 1,200 per seconds, this machine can
search a million of fingerprint matches. The computer operator establishes a set of criteria
base on ridge endings and bifurcations found on the print of the suspect. The computer then
scan prints on file and converts the images into digital signals that match the criteria
established by the operator of the machine. The prints that can matched the criteria are then
examined usually by an expert who decides if any selected points of the machine match the
print used as evidence. Apparently, it is always the eye and conclusion of an expert to
determine whether or not the match has been established. This machine has also the
capability to digitize the fingerprint information produces inkless fingerprints. There is no rolling
of fingers to obtain such fingerprints, each of the finger are placed on a glass platen and laser
will read the prints and transfers the accepted print into the appropriate finger box on the
fingerprint card. Quality fingerprints are generated for later identification because this
machine reduces the possibility of smudging, smearing, too much inking or under inking
commonly associated with inked prints.
FINAL REQUIREMENT: Mock Court Presentation (Fingerprint Examination)

35

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Personal Identification Techniques

Notes in Personal Identification Techniques

Fingerprint science is a positive means of identification and in the hands of knowledgeable

Parts of the Hand (Palmar Area)

The Fingers and the Thumbs

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Pioneers and Personalities behind the Development of Fingerprint Science

2. John Evangelist Purkinje

4. Sir William J. Herschel

5. Dr. J.C.A. Mayer of Germany (1788)

6. Dr. Henry Faulds

7. Juan (Ivan) Vucetich 1855-1925

8. Sir Edward Richard Henry 1850-1931

9. Edward Foster 1863-1956

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Fingerprinting in the Philippines

Legal Aspect of Fingerprinting

Dogmatic Principles Involved in the Study of Fingerprint

Do identical twins have the same fingerprints?

2. Principle of Permanency – fingerprint remains constant and unchanging.

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Friction Skin Histology (Principle of Permanency)

1. Epidermal Layer (Epidermis)

General rules on ridge destruction

Can fingerprints be erased?

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Can fingerprints be forged?

Constancy of Friction Ridges

Friction Ridges or Papillary Ridges

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Identification of fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain

Types of Ridge Characteristics (Galton’s details)

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Type Lines and Pattern Area

Core and Delta Location

Rules in Core Location

Rules in Delta Location

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Other forms of Delta

Ridge Counting Ridge Tracing

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The Fingerprint Patterns and their Interpretation

Plain Arch Tented Arch

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Note: Reference used was right hand

Radial Loop Ulnar Loop

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The classification formula is composed of the following divisions:

1. Primary Classification (PC)

Arrangement of the Classification Formula:

The Primary Classification (PC)

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Radial Radial Plain Central Double

D = 16 N = 16 D=8 N=8 D=4

N=4 D=2 N=2 D=1 N=1

Radial Plain Plain Ulnar Double

D = 16 N = 16 D=8 N=8 D=4

The Secondary Classification (SC)

They are the following:

 Double Loop Whorl = D

The small letter group of Secondary Classification

The Sub-secondary Classification (SSC)

Right index finger – no. 2