Intro To Ai Chapter 1 & 2 (Rev)

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (Chapter 1)
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cenb01
1. There is little agreement about what

intelligence is.
Relatively easy question but hard to an-
2. There is little reason so far to believe swer for two reasons
that machine intelligence bears much re-
lationship to human intelligence
a founding father of the discipline, de-
scribed the process in 1955 as "that of
John McCarthy making a machine behave in ways that
would be called intelligent if a human
were so behaving."
Difficulty in defining/ measuring human
intelligence
How you approach the problem is as

Why Comparing Human and Machine
important as whether you solve it
Intelligence as Characterization of AI is
Flawed
Machines can perform lots of tasks that
people can't do at all
How gracefully we fail

Prior to World War II, a "___________"
was a skilled professional—usually
a female, interestingly enough, since
calculator
women were believed to be able to per-
form this painstaking work more meticu-
lously than most men.
Solid Theoretical Foundation Examples
Non-Euclidean Geometry of
_____________ set the stage for Ein-
Bernard Riemann
stein's theories of the curvature of
space-time
_____________1937 MIT master's the-
sis, in which he proposed that electron-
Claude Shannon's ic circuits can be modelled by Boolean
algebra, laid the groundwork for modern
computer science
1 / 15
more commonly known as binary arith-

Boolean algebra metic—laid the groundwork for modern
computer science
—indeed, the essence of intelli-
gence—is the ability to make appropriate
The essence of AI
generalizations in a timely fashion based
on limited data.
In a word, yes - but most likely in limited Can a computer ever really be smarter
ways than a human being?
Intelligence, as we might use the word
for machines, is likely to apply to well -
specified and measured .
defined activities in which the goals can
be easily ____________-
but not to others in which success is
subjective .
more________--
No matter how capable it becomes, it's
still the information-processing analogue
Swiss Army knife of the _______________—lots of useful
tools cleverly integrated into one easily
carried appliance
Relatively simple statistical methods,
when supplied with a sufficiently large
Machine Learning number of samples, are capable of tasks
that previously require comprehension
and insight
CHAPTER 2
The first use of "artificial intelligence"
can be attributed to a specific individ-
ual—______________ in 1956 an assis-
John McCarthy,
tant professor of mathematics at Dart-
mouth College in Hanover, New Hamp-
shire.
(Marvin Minsky of Harvard, Nathan
Along with three other, more senior re-
Rochester of IBM, and Claude Shannon
searchers
of Bell Telephone Laboratories),
2 / 15
McCarthy proposed a summer confer-
ence on the topic to take place at
____________. Several prominent re-
Dartmouth
searchers attended, many of whom went
on to make fundamental contributions to
the field.
"the scientific study of control and com-
cybernetics munication in the animal and the ma-
chine"
Placed in this historical context, the
___________could be seen as an at-
Dartmouth conference tempt to expand the use of comput-
ers beyond crunching numbers and pro-
cessing data to manipulating symbols.
McCarthy himself went on to create a
number of seminal inventions in the
list processing field, most notably the elegant program-
ming language LISP, which stood for
"_________"
Largely as a result, and in contrast
to more pedestrian fields, funding and
therefore progress in AI has gone
through several highly visible cycles
AI winters
of boom and bust, creating periodic
so-called "____________-" in which the
field was substantially out of favor with
governmental and industrial patrons
Some of the early groundbreaking work
involved highly visible accomplishments
such as ____________ 1959 check-
ers player.6 This remarkable program
Arthur Samuel's
demonstrated to the world the novel
proposition that a computer could be pro-
grammed to learn to play a game better
than its creator
_______________________- (who later
won a Nobel Prize in economics) creat-
3 / 15
ed the Logic Theory Machine in 1956,
proving most of the theorems in White-
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon
head and Russell's 1910 formalization of
mathematics, Principia Mathematica.
A few years later, the same team built the
_____________, which was designed
General Problem Solver explicitly to mimic the observed behavior
of human subjects in trying to solve logic
and other problems.
But this same expedient opened the
field to criticism and even ridicule.
_______________ excoriated the en-
tire enterprise in a 1965 report en-
titled "Alchemy and Artificial Intelli-
Herbert Dreyfus
gence," causing an uproar among AI re-
searchers. He later drolly observed, "The
first man to climb a tree could claim
tangible progress toward reaching the
moon.
But starting in the mid-1960s, the
field found a wealthy patron in the
__________________(now called the
Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency, or DARPA). Following an invest-
ment theory that it should fund centers
Advanced Research Projects Agency of
of excellence as opposed to specific pro-
the U.S. Department of Defense
jects, the organization poured millions of
dollars annually into three nascent acad-
emic AI labs at MIT, Stanford University,
and Carnegie Mellon University as well
as some notable commercial research
labs such as SRI International.
Another prominent research center was
University of Edinburgh located at the _______________in the
U.K.
At SRI, a team of researchers integrat-
ed the state of the art in computer vi-
4 / 15
sion, mapping, planning, learning, and
error recovery (among others) to build
__________the robot, one of the first
autonomous vehicles—____________,
Shakey a rolling cart, could navigate around
the relatively controlled environment of
SRI's labs and halls. Was Life magazine
right to refer to Shakey as the "first elec-
tronic person" in 1970?
Another development that illustrated the
significant progress being made but
also how the field was prone to hype
was ____________ MIT PhD thesis. His
demonstration program, named SHRD-
Terry Winograd's
LU after the second column of letters on
a typesetting machine, answered ques-
tions in natural language (plain English)
and moved blocks around in a virtual
world.1
Underlying SHRDLU was a lan-
guage called Planner, designed by
____________, also a graduate student
at MIT.15 Planner was one of the intellec-
Carl Hewitt
tual successors to Logic Theorist, follow-
ing in the tradition of using mathematical
logic, broadly construed, as a basis for
AI.
But around 1980, a new class
of systems, called at the time
_______________________," arose.
The idea was to capture and duplicate
"expert systems" or "knowledge systems
scarce human expertise in a computable
form, in the hope of making this capa-
bility available more widely and inexpen-
sively
These computer programs deconstruct-
ed tasks requiring expertise into two
components: the _____________"—a
5 / 15
collection of facts, rules, and relation-
ships about a specific domain of inter-
est represented in symbolic form—and
"knowledge base, inference engine
a generalpurpose "____________" that
described how to manipulate and com-
bine these symbols.
interpretation, prediction, diagnosis, de- A widely used textbook at the time clas-
sign, planning, monitoring, debugging, sified these systems, somewhat imper-
repair, instruction, and control fectly, into ten categories:
subfield of AI called "_________" which
is concerned with developing techniques
to address problems that require for-
mulating a series of steps to accom-
plish some desired goal. Examples in-
clude giving driving directions, playing
games, packing odd-sized boxes into a
planning,
truck, proving mathematical theorems,
analyzing legal contracts and regula-
tions, cooking recipes, laying out tran-
sistors on computer chips, assembling
equipment, describing regulations and
rules in computable form, and controlling
air traffic
With the exception of some probabilis-
tic techniques, most planning systems
engage in symbolic inference enhanced
with what's called _______________ .
tackles a common, if not universal, prob-
lem plaguing the symbolic systems ap-
proach—that the number of possible se-
heuristic reasoning. quences of steps can be very large
(called a "combinatorial explosion"), so
you can't simply examine all options, as
discussed in chapter 1 with respect to
the game of chess. Heuristics attempt
to reduce the so-called search space to
manageable dimensions using a variety
of approaches, some of which are guar-
6 / 15
anteed to reach a proper solution (if it
exists), while others run the risk of failing
to find a solution, or at least not the best
solution ("admissible" versus "inadmissi-
ble" heuristics, respectively).
An _________________- is a computer
program inspired by certain presumed
organizational principles of a real neural
artificial neural network network (such as your brain). The re-
lationship between artificial neural net-
works and real ones is mostly aspira-
tional.
Machine learning actually dates back to
at least 1943, when _______________,
then at the University of Chicago, ob-
served that a network of brain neurons
could be modeled by, of all things, logical
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts
expressions. In short, they recognized
that despite the fact that brains are soft,
wet, gelatinous masses, the signaling in
the brain is digital. Indeed it appears to
be binary.
Several subsequent researchers con-
tinued this early work, most notably
___________of Cornell (supported by
Frank Rosenblatt grants from the U.S. Navy), who rebrand-
ed his own implementation of an artificial
neuron as a "perceptron," garnering con-
siderable press attention.
They were later to become sparring de-
baters in many forums, promoting their
respectively favored approaches to AI,
until in 1969 ______________, along
Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert
with his colleague ______________ at
MIT, published a book called Percep-
trons, in which he went to pains to dis-
credit, rather unfairly, a 34 Artificial Intel-
7 / 15
ligence 34 simplified version of Rosen-
blatt's work.27
machines designed specifically to
process McCarthy's AI language
__________. A new attempt to develop
processors targeted to artificial neural
networks is currently under way, most
notably at IBM.30 Its latest effort is a
LISP
5.4-billion-transistor chip with 4,096 neu-
rosynaptic cores that integrates 1 mil-
lion neurons and 256 million synapses.
which was to become the dominant AI
programming language for the next 30
years.
A group of scientists led by
___________ at the Henry H. Wheeler
Jr. Brain Imaging Center of the University
Jack Gallant
of California at Berkeley is succeeding
in using machine learning techniques to
read minds
There are two promising aspects of this
research. First, the techniques currently
used to measure brain activity are quite
crude, mainly blood flow occurring in cu-
voxels
bic brain segments three millimeters on
a side (called "_________"), the modern
equivalent of Rosenblatt's low-resolution
twenty-by-twenty grid of photocells.
a group of researchers used a technique
called "____________" to evolve a pro-
genetic programming gram that plays at an expert level, giving
it access only to a database of human
grandmaster games.
improvements in computing speed and
memory,
the transition from physically to electron-

8 / 15
ically stored data,
were prime drivers in the refocusing of
easier access (mainly due to the Inter-
effort from symbolic reasoning to ma-
net),
chine learning (4 trends)
low-cost high-resolution digital sensors
Probably the first objective and easily
comprehensible milestone to capture the
public's imagination was the program
Deep Blue
_________, which beat Garry Kasparov,
then the world chess champion, in a
six-game tournament in 1997
An emerging technology call
_________(for light/laser detection and
ranging), mainly used for military map-
LIDAR
ping and targeting, proved just the ticket
for sensing, but interpreting the results
was another matter.
CHAPTER 2 (PPT VERSION)
First Work Recognized as Artificial Intel-
ligence
Warren McCulloch & Walter Pitts In 1943, _______________proposed a

model of artificial neurons in which each
neuron is characterized as being "on" or
"off"
In 1949, _____________ demonstrated
a simple updating rule for modifying the
connection strengths between neurons.
Donald Hebb, Hebbian learning
• His rule, now called
___________________, remains an in-
fluential model to this day
First neural network computer built by
Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforce- Harvard undergraduate students Marvin
ment Calculator Minsky and Dean Edmonds. • Used 3000
vacuum tubes and a surplus automatic
9 / 15
pilot mechanism from a B-24 bomber to
simulate a network of 40 neurons
In 1950 his article "Computing Machin-
ery and Intelligence", Alan Turing intro-
Turing Test duced the ______________, machine
learning, genetic algorithms, and rein-
forcement learnin
"We propose that a 2 month, 10 man
study of artificial intelligence be carried
out during the summer of 1956 at Dart-
mouth College in Hanover, New Hamp-
shire.
...The study is to proceed on the basis

of the conjecture that every aspect of
learning or any other feature of intelli-
gence can in principle be so precisely
described that a machine can be made
to simulate it. Dartmouth workshop proposal
...An attempt will be made to find how

to make machines use language, form
abstractions and concepts, solve kinds
of problems now reserved for humans,
and improve themselves.
...We think that a significant advance can

be made in one or more of these prob-
lems if a carefully selected group of sci-
entists work on it together for a summer."
(1952-1969) Early enthusiasm, great expectations
Written by Allen Newell, Herbert Simon,
& John Clifford Shaw First program delib-
erately engineered to perform automat-
Logic Theorist (1956) ed reasoning Regarded as the "first arti-
ficial intelligence program" Coded using
an early version of IPL (Information Pro-
cessing Language) programming lan-
10 / 15
guage Established the field of heuristic
programming Proved 38 of the first 52
theorems in chapter 2 of Prinicipia Math-
ematica
Written by Allen Newell, Herbert Simon,
& John Clifford Shaw Designed to im-
General Problem Solver (1959) itate human problem-solving protocols
Probably the first program to embody the
"thinking humanly" approach
has the necessary and sufficient means
Physical Symbol System (1976) for general intelligent action" -Allen
Newell & Herbert Simon
Herbert Gelernter (1959): Geometry ______________ Was able to prove the-
Theorem Prover (First AI Programs at orems that many students of mathemat-
IBM) ics would find quite tricky
Arthur Samuel (1952): checkers pro- _____________________ Was able to

gram (First AI Programs at IBM) learn to play at a strong amateur leve
Defined high-level language ________-,
Lisp (John McCarthy's Crucial Contribu- which was to become the dominant AI
tions in 1958) programming language for the next 30
years.
Invented ____________, which is the
time-sharing (John McCarthy's Crucial
sharing of a computing resource among
Contributions in 1958)
many users at the same time.
Published a paper entitled Programs
with Common Sense, in which he de-
Advice Taker (John McCarthy's Crucial
scribed the___________-, a hypotheti-
Contributions in 1958)
cal program that can be seen as the first
AI system.
___________was able to solve
James Slagle's SAINT program (1963)
closed-form calculus integration prob-
(Microworlds)
lems typical of firstyear college courses.
_______________solved geometric
Tom Evan's ANALOGY program (1968)
analogy problems that appear in IQ
(Microworlds)
tests.
11 / 15
Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT program __________-solved algebra story prob-
(1967) (Microworlds) lems
A scene from the blocks world. SHRDLU
(Winograd, 1972) has just completed the
Blocks world command "Find a block which is taller
than the one you are holding and put it
in the box
Most early programs knew nothing of
their subject matter; they succeeded by
means of simple syntactic manipula-
tions.
Interactability of many of the problems Difficulties that have arisen

that AI was attempting to solve.
Some fundamental limitations on the ba-

sic structures being used to generate
intelligent behavior.
Developed in Stanford by Ed Feigen-
baum, Bruce Buchanan, and Joshua
Lederberg Aimed to solve the problem
of inferring molecular structure from the
Expert System: The DENDRAL Program
information provided by a mass spec-
(1969)
trometer Regarded as the first success-
ful knowledge-intensive system: its ex-
pertise derived from large numbers of
special-purpose rules
Feigenbaum, Buchanan, and Dr. Edward
Shortliffe developed ______________
to diagnose blood infections.
.Unlike DENDRAL rules, no general the-

MYCIN Expert System (1972)
oretical model existed from which the
MYCIN rules could be deduced
2. The rules had to reflect the uncertainty

associated with medical knowledge
12 / 15
Developed by Terry Winograd at MIT as
an early natural language understanding
computer program Its dependence on
syntactic analysis caused some of the
SHRDLU System (1972)
same problems as occurred in the ear-
ly machine translation work It was able
to overcome ambiguity and understand
pronoun references
Developed by John P. McDermott of
CMU in 1978 to assist in the order-
ing of Digital Equipment Corporations'
VAX computer systems by automatically
R1 Program/ XCON (for eXpert CONfig- selecting the computer system compo-
urer) nents based on the customer's require-
ments. Regarded as the first successful
commercial expert system. By 1986, it
was saving the company an estimated
$40 million a year
In______-, Japan announced the "Fifth
Generation" project, a 10 year plan to
1981 (AI Industry Boom)
build intelligent computers running Pro-
log.
In response, USA formed the
Microelectronics and Computer Tech-
_____________________ as a re-
nology Corporation (MCC) (AI Industry
search consortium designed to assure
Boom)
national competitiveness.
In Great Britain, the Alvey report rein-
Lighthill report (AI Industry Boom) stated the funding that was cut by the
___________-
(1986-present) The return of neural networks ______
Two aspects of HMMs are relevant:
Based on rigorous mathematical theory
Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) in
Speech Recognition
Generated by a process of training on a
large corpus of real speech data
13 / 15
In 1988, Judea Pearl's Probabilistic Rea-
soning in Intelligent Systems led to a
new acceptance of probability and deci-
sion theory in AI. The _______formalism
was invented to allow efficient represen-
Bayesian network
tation of, and rigorous reasoning with,
uncertain knowledge. This approach al-
lows for learning from experience, and
combines the best of classical AI and
neural nets.
(1995-present) The emergence of intelligent agents
An _________is just something that
acts: operate autonomously, perceive
agent their environment, persist over a pro-
longed time period, adapt to change, and
create and pursue goals.
A _________is one that acts so as to
achieve the best outcome or, when there
rational agent
is uncertainty, the best expected out-
come
An ___________________________
refers to an autonomous entity which
intelligent agent acts upon an environment using obser-
vation through sensors and consequent
actuators towards achieving goals
A complete agent architecture created
by John Laird, Allen Newell, and Paul
Rosenbloom at Carnegie Mellon Univer-
sity.
• Goal is to develop the fixed computa-

SOAR (1990)
tional building blocks necessary for gen-
eral intelligent agents
• Both a theory of what cognition is and

a computational implementation of that
theory
14 / 15
Realization that the previously isolated
subfields of AI might need to be reorga-
nized somewhat when their results are
to be tied together. Consequences of building complete
agent
AI has been drawn into much closer con-
tact with other fields, such as control the-
ory and economics, that also deal with
agents.
Symposium first held in 2004 in effort to
require very large knowledge bases for
AI and to discuss where these knowl-
Human - Level AI (HLAI) edge bases might come from. Based on
the belief that AI should return to its
roots of striving for, in Simon's words,
"machines that think, that learn, and that
create."
A related idea which held its first confer-
ence in 2007. Organized the Journal of
___________ in 2008. Looks for a uni-
Artificial General Intelligence
versal algorithm for learning and acting
in any environment, and has its roots in
the work of Ray Solomonoff.
The availability of very large data
(2001-present)
sets_________--
- work on word-sense disambiguation
Yarowsky (1995) showed accuracy of above 96% with no
labelled examples.
- shows a mediocre algorithm with 100
million words of unlabeled training data
Banko and Brill (2001)
outperforms the best known algorithm
with 1 million words.
- defined an algorithm to find matches in
photographs and found out performance
Hays and Efros (2007) of their algorithm was excellent when
they grew the collection from 10,000 to
2 million photos.
15 / 15

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (Chapter 1)

Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cenb01

1. There is little agreement about what

How you approach the problem is as

How gracefully we fail

more commonly known as binary arith-

the transition from physically to electron-

Warren McCulloch & Walter Pitts In 1943, _______________proposed a

...The study is to proceed on the basis

...An attempt will be made to find how

...We think that a significant advance can

Arthur Samuel (1952): checkers pro- _____________________ Was able to

Interactability of many of the problems Difficulties that have arisen

Some fundamental limitations on the ba-

.Unlike DENDRAL rules, no general the-

2. The rules had to reflect the uncertainty

• Goal is to develop the fixed computa-

• Both a theory of what cognition is and

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