BIOCHEM: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
Glucose Metabolic Pathways
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- is the aerobic process by which living
cells break down glucose molecules,
release energy, and form molecules of
ATP. Overall, this three-stage process
involves glucose and oxygen reacting
to form carbon dioxide and water.
- Cellular respiration is the process
through which cells convert sugars
into energy.
- cellular respiration begins in the
cytoplasm, but most of the reactions
occur in the mitochondria.
- In cellular respiration, cascading
electrons release energy in small
steps and finally reduce O2 and form
water. The energy released is in
quantities easily used to form ATP.
(NADH is a niacin-containing
coenzyme that delivers H+ to the
electron
- carbon atoms released leave the
- cells as carbon dioxide,
- and the hydrogen atoms removed
(which contain energy-rich electrons)
are eventually combined with oxygen
to form water.
Metabolic Pathway
• The events of the three main
metabolic pathways involved in
cellular respiration are
1. glycolysis,
2. Krebs cycle, and
3. electron transport chain
• Oxidation via the removal of
hydrogen atoms (which are
temporarily passed to vitamin-
containing coenzymes) is a major role
of glycolysis and the Krebs
The events of the three main metabolic
pathways involved in cellular respiration are
1. glycolysis
• which takes place in the
cytosol, also energizes each
glucose molecule so that it
can be split into two pyruvic
acid molecules and yield a
small amount of ATP in the
process
• Occur both in aerobic and
anaerobic organism
• Catabolic path way
• During glycolysis, each
glucose molecule is broken
down into two molecules of
pyruvic acid as hydrogen
atoms containing high-energy
electrons are removed.
2. The Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle,
also known tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
cycle
• is a series of chemical
reactions in the cell that
breaks down food molecules
into carbon dioxide, water,
and energy.
• most important metabolic
pathway for the energy
supply to the body.
• occurs in the mitochondria
and produces virtually all the
carbon dioxide that results
during cell respiration.
• yields a small amount of ATP
by transferring high- energy
phosphate groups directly
from phosphorylated
substances to ADP, a process
called substrate-level
phosphorylation.
• Free oxygen is not involved.
• The pyruvic acid enters the
mitochondrion, where Krebs
cycle enzymes remove more
hydrogen atoms and
decompose it to CO2. During
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle,
small amounts of ATP are
formed.
3. The electron transport chain
• action is for ATP production.
• The hydrogen atoms removed
during the first two metabolic
phases are loaded with
energy.
Eva Marie Gaa, R.N.
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BIOCHEM: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
• These hydrogens are
delivered by the coenzymes
to the protein carriers of the
electron transport chain,
which form part of the
mitochondrial cristae
membranes
• hydrogen atoms are split into
hydrogen ions
• (H+) and electrons (e−).
• The electrons “fall down an
energy hill” going
• from each carrier to a carrier
of lower energy.
• They give off their “load” of
energy in a series of steps in
small enough amounts to
enable the cell to attach
phosphate to ADP and make
ATP.
• Ultimately, free oxygen is
reduced (the electrons and
hydrogen ions are united with
molecular oxygen), forming
water and a large amount of
ATP.
Role of Liver in Carbohydrate Metabolism
• The liver is vitally important in helping
to maintain blood glucose levels
within normal range (around 70-90
mg/100 ml).
1. Glycogenesis
– “glycogen formation” (genesis
= beginning)
– After a carbohydrate-rich
meal, thousands of glucose
molecules are removed from
the blood and combined to
form the large polysaccharide
molecules called glycogen
which are then stored in the
liver.
– Simply the synthesis of
glycogen from glucose.
2. Glycogenolysis
– “glycogen splitting.”
– When blood glucose levels
begin to drop liver cells break
down the stored glycogen.
– The liver cells then release
glucose bit by bit to the blood
to maintain homeostasis of
blood glucose levels.
3. Gluconeogenesis
– “formation of new sugar”
– If necessary, the liver can also
make glucose from non-
carbohydrate substances,
such as fats and proteins.
– helps to maintain normal
blood- glucose levels in times
of inadequate dietary
carbohydrate intake
Hormones Responsible in regulating blood
sugar level.
1. Insulin-lowers blood glucose levels by
enhancing the formation of glycogen
from glucose (glycogen synthesis;
secreted produced in the pancreas
2. Glucagon- increases blood-glucose
concentration by speeding up the
conversion of glycogen to glucose
(glycogenolysis); elicits the opposite
effects of insulin; secreted/produced
in the pancreas
3. Epinephrine- also called adrenaline;
released by the adrenal gland in
response to anger, fear and
excitement; similar function with
glucagon; stimulates glycogenolysis
– are vitally important in controlling the
blood sugar levels and in the handling
– of glucose in all body cells
Carbohydrate Metabolism
• Carbohydrates
– Metabolism includes all
chemical breakdown
(catabolic) and building
(anabolic) reactions needed
to maintain life.
– provide a ready, easily used
source of food energy for cells
Eva Marie Gaa, R.N.
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BIOCHEM: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
– glucose is at the top of the
“cellular menu.”
– When glucose is oxidized
(combined with oxygen) in a
complex set of chemical
reactions, it is broken down
into carbon dioxide and
water.
• In the Mouth
– Carbohydrate digestion
begins in the mouth. The
salivary glands in the mouth
secrete saliva, which helps to
moisten the food.
– The food is then chewed
while the salivary glands also
release the enzyme salivary
amylase, which begins the
process of breaking down the
polysaccharides in the
carbohydrate food.
• Major site of metabolism is in the
small intestine
– preferred fuel to produce
cellular energy (ATP).
– Glucose, also known as blood
sugar, is the major breakdown
product of carbohydrate
digestion.
– Glucose is also the major fuel
used for making ATP in most
body cells.
– Glucose is the food of the cell
– Most abundant in the CSF-
brain cells
– The microvilli of small
intestine cells bear a few
important enzymes, the so-
called brush border enzymes,
that break down double
sugars into simple sugars.
Metabolism of carbohydrates in the Small
Intestine.
- Foods entering the small intestine are
literally deluged with enzyme-rich
pancreatic juice ducted in from the
pancreas, as well as bile from the
liver.
- Pancreatic juice contains enzymes
that (1) along with brush border
enzymes, complete the digestion of
starch (pancreatic amylase). In
addition to enzymes, pancreatic juice
contains a rich supply of bicarbonate,
which makes it very basic (about pH
8).
- When pancreatic juice reaches the
small intestine, it neutralizes the
acidic chime coming in from the
stomach and provides the proper
environment for activation and
activity of intestinal and pancreatic
digestive enzymes.
Enzymes (catalysts)
- Essential to virtually every
biochemical reaction in the body;
increase the rates of chemical
reactions by at least a millionfold; in
their absence (or destruction),
biochemical reactions cease.
- While the substrates are bound to the
enzyme’s active site they undergo
structural changes that result in a new
product.
- Once the reaction has occurred, the
enzyme releases the product.
- Because enzymes are not changed in
doing their job, they are reusable, and
the cells need only small amounts of
each enzyme.
- No enzyme, no reaction
- Without enzymes, biochemical
reactions would occur far too slowly
to sustain life.
Carbonic anhydrase
• anhydrase
Eva Marie Gaa, R.N.
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BIOCHEM: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES

–  an enzyme that catalyzes the  • is a chemical reaction in which water

removal of water from a com is used to break down the bonds of a
pound. particular substance
• carbonic anhydrase  • polymers must be broken down or
– an enzyme that catalyzes  digested to their monomers, the
the decomposition of carboni reverse process
c acid into carbon dioxide and  • water molecule is added to each
water, facilitating transfer of c bond, the bond is broken, releasing
arbon dioxide the monomers.
from tissues to blood and fro
m blood to alveolar air. Carbohydrates Saccharides
– Present in: • Carbohydrates
o Renal tubular cells – Sugars and starches contain
o Red blood cells carbon, hydrogen, and
o Gastric parietal cells oxygen.
o Except in Plasma – With slight variations, the
hydrogen and oxygen atoms
Organic Compounds appear in the same ratio as in
• Most organic molecules are very large water; that is, two hydrogen
molecules atoms to one oxygen atom.
• interactions with other molecules – which means “hydrated
typically involve only small, reactive carbon,”
parts of their structure called – molecular formulas of sugars.
functional groups (acid groups, a. glucose is C6H12O6
amines, and others). b. ribose is C5H10O5.
• biological molecules
• carbohydrates and proteins are classified according to size and solubility in
polymers. water as:
• Polymers are chainlike molecules 1. Monosaccharides
made of many similar or repeating - structural units, or building
units (monomers), which are joined blocks, of carbohydrates.
together by dehydration synthesis 2. disaccharides, or
3. polysaccharides.
Dehydration Synthesis
• hydrogen atom is removed from one MONOSACCHARIDES
monomer and a hydroxyl group (OH) • structural units, or building blocks, of
is removed from the monomer it is to carbohydrates.
be joined with. • means one(mono) sugar (saccharide)
• As a covalent bond unites the • are also referred to as simple sugars.
monomers, a water molecule is • They are single-chain or single-ring
released. structures
• This removal of a water molecule at • The most important monosaccharides
the bond site occurs each time a in the body are:
monomer is added to the growing - glucose,
polymer chain. - fructose,
- galactose,
- ribose, and
- deoxyribose.
• comes from the Greek word for
Hydrolysis "sweet.
• C6H12O6

Eva Marie Gaa, R.N.

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BIOCHEM: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
• Glucose
- also called blood sugar, is the
universal cellular fuel.
- the most important simple
sugar in human metabolism
- Insulin is a hormone that
moves glucose from your
blood into the cells for energy
and storage.
- High blood glucose for a long
period of time
• Fructose
- C6H12O6
- Natural sources of fructose
include fruits, vegetables
(including sugar cane), and
honey
• Galactose
- C6H12O6
- Galactose is found in dairy
products, avocados, sugar
beets, other gums and
mucilages.
- are converted to glucose for
use by body cells
 FRUCTOSE & GALACTOSE
- Both fructose and galactose
are converted to glucose for
use by body cells.
• Ribose
- ribose is C5H10O5
- ribose is a kind of sugar that is
produced by the body. it is
used as medicine.
- Ribose is used by mouth to
decrease chest pain and
improve heart function in
people with coronary artery
disease
- Healthcare providers
sometimes give ribose
through the vein (by IV) as
part of a procedure used to
measure the extent of
damaged heart muscle in
people with coronary artery
disease.
• Deoxyribose
- C5H10O4
- found in DNA, is a modified
sugar, lacking one oxygen
atom (hence the name
"deoxy").
 Deoxyribose and Ribose
• form part of the
structure of nucleic
acids, another group
of organic molecules.
DISSACHARIDES
• Some of the important disaccharides
in the diet are:
1. sucrose (glucose-fructose),
which is cane sugar;
2. lactose (glucose-galactose),
found in milk; and
3. maltose (glucose-glucose), or
malt sugar.
• too large to pass through cell
membranes, they must be broken
down (digested) to their
monosaccharide units
• to be absorbed from the digestive
tract into the blood; this is
accomplished by hydrolysis
POLYSACCHARIDES
• Long, branching chains of linked
simple sugars
• (literally, “many sugars”)
• large, insoluble molecules
– Ideal storage products.
– lack the sweetness of the
simple and double sugars.
• Only two polysaccharides:
1. starch and
2. glycogen,
• major importance to the body.
• Starch is the storage polysaccharide
formed by plants.
• We ingest it in the form of “starchy”
foods, such as grain products and root
vegetables (potatoes and carrots.)
• major importance to the body.
• Glycogen is a slightly smaller, but
similar, polysaccharide found in
animal tissues (largely in the muscles
and the liver).
Eva Marie Gaa, R.N.
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BIOCHEM: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES

• Storage polysaccharide made by

animals
• formed of linked glucose units

Some of the energy released as the glucose

bonds are broken is trapped in the bonds of
high-energy ATP molecules, the energy
“currency” of all body cells.

If not immediately needed for ATP synthesis,

dietary carbohydrates are converted to
glycogen or fat and stored.

Eva Marie Gaa, R.N.

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