UNIT II

DIATHERMY

IR LAMP AND ITS APPLICATIONS:

 Introduction

 Production of IR Radiation

 Heating

 IR Light Therapy

 Applications of IR

Introduction:

 Infrared (IR) lamps are electrical devices which emit infrared radiation.

 Infrared lamps are commonly used in radiant heating for industrial processes and
building heating.

 Infrared LEDs are used for communication over optical fibers and in remote
control devices.

 Infrared lamps are also used for some night vision devices where visible light
would be objectionable.

 Infrared lamp sources are used in certain scientific and industrial instrument for
chemical analysis of liquids and gases; for example, the pollutant sulfur dioxide in
air can be measured using its infrared absorption characteristics.

Production of IR radiation:

 Incandescent light bulbs use a tungsten filament heated to high temperature to

produce visible light and, necessarily, even more infrared radiation.

 Round bulbs, often tinted red to reduce visible light, provide infrared radiant heat
suitable for warming of people or animals, but the power density available is low.

 The development of quartz halogen linear lamps allowed much higher power
density up to 200 watts/inch of lamp (8 w/mm), useful for industrial heating,
drying and processing applications.

 By adjusting the voltage applied to incandescent lamps, the spectrum of the

radiated energy can be made to reduce visible light and emphasize infrared energy
production.
  Different wavelengths of infrared radiation are differently absorbed by different
materials.

 Solid-state light emitting diodes can be produced to be efficient sources of near-

monochromatic infrared energy.

 Such sources can be rapidly modulated for communication systems and control
signals.

 A light emitting diode can be closely coupled to an optical fiber, allowing infrared
signals to be sent up to scores of kilometres without amplification.

Heating:

 Infrared heating uses infrared lamps, commonly called heat lamps to transmit
infrared radiation to the body that is being heated.

 When bodies with a large surface area need to be heated, infrared lamps are often
used in banks.

 Infrared heat lamps are commonly incandescent bulbs which are able to produce
infrared radiation.

 Infrared lamps have many industrial applications including curing coatings and
preparing plastic for forming, commercial applications such as cooking and
browning food, and personal applications such as providing heat (especially in
bathrooms and for pets).

IR Light Therapy:

 IR Therapy – Infrared Therapy.

 IR A – Short wave infrared, 760 to 1400 nm, 37% visible light.

 IR B – Medium wave infrared, 1400 to 3000 nm, 16% visible light.

 IR C – Long wave infrared, 3000 to 10,000 nm, 3% visible light.

 Shortwave – High frequency and low wavelength.

 IR light therapy provides many of the health benefits of natural sunlight without
any of the dangerous effects of solar radiation.

 IR heat, is not UV radiation. Each wavelength transports a certain amount of

energy the higher frequency of wave, shorter its wavelength and it can transport
more energy.

 IR energy travels 2 to 3 inch deep into the body and increases blood circulation.
  The shortwave IR is to heat the body, but they have a major drawback. The
central nervous system does not receive any high temperature volume.

 This light therapy will probably only be possible under doctors supervision. Lot of
people don’t like the ultra rapid heating of shortwave IR.

 So it is recommended to use long wave IR. Every kind of heat that we feel from a
distance is transported by IR rays.

 Whether it is a heat from a stove, a light bulb or even from a body heat from another
human body.

 Our body emits IR rays in a wavelength range from 300 to 5000 nm and our hand
palms emit radiation from 800 to 1400 nm.

 IR light therapy is very old. Healing by laying hands is practised in china for 3000
years and is based on this emission of IR rays.

 Indian yoghi’s mainly performed laying of hands in cases of sore eyes.

Applications of IR:

(i) Communication:

 IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among

computer peripherals and personal digital assistants.

 These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared

Data Association.

 Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow
beam.

 The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data. The
receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an
electric current.

 It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and
filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light.

 Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population
density.

 IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in
adjoining rooms.

 Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances.
(ii) Medical Applications:

(IR Light Therapy)

(a) Muscle Pain:

 Muscle pain, for those who experience it, can be a dreadful thing to have to
live with. Muscle pain can tie you up in knots.

 Fortunately, the FDA has recently cleared a new therapy that is particularly
effective against muscle pain: infrared light therapy.

 Technically, infrared light therapy has been proven both safe and highly
effective at treating the root causes of pain.

 And unlike many other pain treatments that rely on pharmaceuticals, light
therapy is perfectly natural. Infrared light is as natural as sunlight itself.

(b) Back Pain Muscle Spasms:

 Back pain muscle spasms can be quite painful, but they're rarely a cause for
serious concern.

 Although in a few cases, back pain muscle spasms can be a symptom of a

more serious problem.

 Back pain muscle spasms can happen anywhere along the spine, from the
base of the neck to the coccyx.

 This is because of long muscles that run along the spine called the erector
spinae muscles.

 When you have a back pain muscle spasm, these are more often than not the
guilty party.

 A spasm is an involuntary contraction of the muscle for a sustained period

of time. Typically, a spasm occurs when the muscle has been suddenly
stressed somehow.

 This can include injury, sprains, tears or bruising. The spasm can actually
start in the nerves that lead into the muscle. However, the feeling is the same
no matter where the spasm starts.

 Gentle heat, of the type created by light therapy, can often ease these
spasms.

 Infrared light is about as natural as it gets. And when you use the Light
Relief as directed, there's nothing to worry about in terms of either short-term
or long-term harm.
  Light therapy warms the tissues slightly and eases muscle and joint pain
and stiffness.

(c) Other Applications in Medicine:

 Used increase blood circulation.

 Used to stimulate the production of hallogen.

 Used to increase RNA and DNA synthesis.

 Used to heal process of worns, weer and inflamed tissue.

 Used to increase lymphatic system activity.

 Used to relieve pain.

 Used to induce a thermal like effect in tissues. The light races the temperature
of tissue treated which can kill or disable temperature sensitive bacteria and
viruses.

UV LAMP AND ITS APPLICATIONS:

 Introduction

 Electromagnetic Spectrum of Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR)

 Artificial Sources

 Applications of UV

Introduction:

 Ultraviolet (UV) lamps are electrical devices which emit ultraviolet radiation.

 Ultraviolet (UV) is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm

(30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-
rays.

 UV radiation is present in sunlight. It is also produced by electric arcs and

specialized lights such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights.

 Although lacking the energy to ionize atoms, long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation

can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce.

 Consequently, biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and
many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic
molecules.

Electromagnetic Spectrum of Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR):

The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as
10–400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO
standard ISO-21348 are shown in Table 3.1:

Table 3.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum Ranges for UVR

Artificial Sources:

(i) Short-wave Ultraviolet Lamps:

 A shortwave UV lamp can be made using a fluorescent lamp tube with no

phosphor coating.

 These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UVC band at 253.7 nm
and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp.

 From 85% to 90% of the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas
only 5–10% is at 185 nm.

 The fused quartz glass tube passes the 253 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm
wavelength.

 Such tubes have two or three times the UVC power of a regular fluorescent
lamp tube.
  These low-pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately 30–40%,
meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the lamp, they will
produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV output.

 These "germicidal" lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in

laboratories and food-processing industries, and for disinfecting water
supplies.

(ii) Gas-discharge Lamps:

 Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV

radiation at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes.

 Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources, either
windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride.

 These are often the emitting sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for

chemical analysis.

 The excimer lamp, a UV source developed, is seeing increasing use in scientific

fields.

 It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a

variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet.

(iii)UV Germicidal Lights:

 Ultraviolet germicidal or bactericidal lamps are often used in the medical field
to help keep disease under control so it doesn’t spread.

 These lamps give a strong effect of ultraviolet energy which makes them
excellent for sanitizing the air and killing germs and bacteria.

 They also get rid of molds, mildews, fungi and many kinds of viruses.

 Hospitals use UV germicidal lamps for sterilizing surgical instruments and even
the air in operating rooms.

 These lamps are installed safely to keep anyone from being exposed to them.

(iv) Other Artificial Sources:

 It includes black lights, ultraviolet LED’s, Ultraviolet lasers, Tunable vacuum

ultraviolet (TVU), Extreme ultraviolet (EVU) etc.,

Applications of UV:

(i) Medical Applications:

(UV Light Therapy)
 Introduction:

 Part of the radiation from the sun is called ultraviolet light.

 This electromagnetic radiation is a shorter wavelength than visible light and kills
microorganisms.

 The medical industry uses ultraviolet light to sterilize rooms, equipment and
medical instruments.

 It is also used as a medical treatment. Medical uses of ultraviolet light include

disinfection and sterilization without the use of chemicals.

 Ultraviolet light is also used to destroy bacteria and viruses.

 Ultraviolet light is also used as a safe medical treatment.

 It stimulates the immune system and has shown good results in killing blood borne
pathogens.

Benefits of UV Light:

 Ultraviolet light is environmentally friendly which makes it ideal for use in the
medical field.

 It deactivates the DNA from pathogens and makes it impossible for them to
multiply.

 Ultraviolet light damages the nucleic acid of microorganisms which keeps the
organism from reproducing.

 Some microorganisms destroyed by ultraviolet light are bacillus anthracis,

salmonella or food poisoning, shigella dysentariae or dysentery, bacteriophage or
E. coli, hepatitis and influenza.

 Ultraviolet light can be combined with other therapies. Ozone or hydrogen

peroxide combined with light therapy to restore oxidative metabolism. This treats
chronic diseases.

Phototherapy:

 Some kinds of skin conditions can improve with the exposure of ultraviolet light.
This is called phototherapy. UVA phototherapy is generally used along with
psoralen which is a light sensitizing tablet.

 Psoralen is called PUVA therapy.

 Broad band UVB is another ultraviolet light therapy but can only be used on the
areas of skin without folds.
  Narrowband UVB uses one wavelength to treat skin diseases and is very beneficial
for psoriasis.

 It is also used to treat pruritus, vitiligo and lichen planus.

 These treatments help heal inflamed tissues, damaged cells and wounds.

 There may be some side effects and people with medical problems shouldn’t be
treated.

 Ultraviolet (UV) light therapy has been used for centuries to help in the treatment
of many skin conditions, disorders and diseases.

 While exposure to excessive UV rays can be harmful and it is important to protect

our eyes and skin with appropriate sunglasses and sunblock, specific amounts of
UV light can be prescribed for various medical treatments.

Uses of UV Light Therapy:

 Whether UV light is natural, in the form of sunlight, or artificially created through

medical devices, it can be used to treat:

 Psoriasis, a chronic skin condition with silvery-pinkish scales especially over the
extensors (elbows and knees) and genital areas.

 Neonatal jaundice, a yellowish discoloration of skin due to deposits of liver

proteins especially in infants.

 Skin eczema.

 Acne vulgaris.

 Persistent itching (chronic pruritis).

 Vitiligo, white patches of skin secondary to loss of skin pigment.

 Graft-versus-host disease, a complication associated with some cases of bone

marrow transplants.

 Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, which is a rare form of cancer involving the skin.

(ii) Applications of Ultraviolet (UV) Light in Dental Medicine:

 Because of the ability of UV to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in

materials, ultraviolet light has a huge number of useful applications in modern
medicine, for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

 In dental medicine, the diagnostic uses are concerned with the fluorescence of teeth
with radiation exposures to small areas and doses no more than 5 J/cm2.
  A number of dental procedures involve the use of ultraviolet radiation in the oral
cavity.

 Illumination of root canals with ultraviolet light may be an effective supplementary

means to achieve immediate disinfection of infected root canals.

 Different mechanisms causing a beneficial effect for the oral cavity include:

1. Vitamin D beneficially affects calcium metabolism, and

2. Vitamin D induces cathelicidin, an antimicrobial peptide, which attacks oral

bacteria linked to dental caries.

 The application of UV light to eliminate endodontic pathogens may be possible.

 UV-A and UV-C light induced hydrophilization of dental implants.

 The wettability of implant surfaces can be improved by UV irradiation.

 UV light of 405 and 532 nm is used for dental bleaching.

(iii)Other Applications:

 Photography

 Electrical and Electronics industry

 Fluorescent Dye uses

 Analytic use

 Material Science uses

 Biology-related uses

SHORT WAVE DIATHERMY:

(SHORT WAVE THERAPY UNIT)

 Introduction

 Circuit Description

 Automatic Tuning in Short-wave Diathermy Machines

 Application Technique of short-wave Therapy

 Dia-pulse Short Wave Diathermy Unit

Introduction:
 The term ‘diathermy’ means ‘through heating’ or producing deep heating directly
in the tissues of the body.

 Externally applied sources of heat like hot towels, infrared lamps and electric
heating pads often produce discomfort and skin burns long before adequate heat
has penetrated to the deeper tissues.

 But with the diathermy technique, the subject’s body becomes a part of the
electrical circuit and the heat is produced within the body and not transferred
through the skin.

 Another advantage of diathermy is that the treatment can be controlled precisely.

 Careful placement of the electrodes permits localization of the heat to the region that
has to be treated.

 The amount of heat can be closely adjusted by means of circuit parameters.

 The heating of the tissues is carried out by high frequency alternating current
which generally has a frequency of 27.12 MHz and a wavelength of 11 m.

 Currents of such high frequencies do not stimulate motor or sensory nerves, nor
do they produce any muscle contraction.

 Thus, when such a current is passed through the body, no discomfort is caused to
the subject.

 The current being alternating, it is possible to pass through the tissues currents of a
much greater intensity to produce direct heating in the tissues similar to any other
electrical conductor.

 The method consists in applying the output of a radio frequency (RF) oscillator to a
pair of electrodes which are positioned on the body over the region to be treated.

 The RF energy heats the tissues and promotes healing of injured tissues and
inflammations.

 Fig. 3.1 shows the block diagram of a short wave diathermy.

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram of a Short Wave Diathermy Unit

Circuit Description:

 The short wave diathermy machine consists of two main circuits: an oscillating
circuit, which produces a high frequency current and a patient circuit, which is
connected to the oscillating circuit and through which the electrical energy is
transferred to the patient.

 Earlier models of diathermy machines employed single-ended or push-pull power

oscillators operating from unfiltered or partially filtered power supplies.

 They usually made use of a valve circuit, a typical example of which is shown in
Fig. 3.2.

 Transformer Tl, the primary of which can be energized from the mains supply, is a
step-up transformer for providing EHT for the anode of the triode valve.

Fig. 3.2 Simplified Circuit Diagram of a Short-wave Diathermy Unit

 A second winding can provide heating current for the cathode of the triode valve.

 The tank (resonance) circuit is formed by the coil AB in parallel with the condenser
Cl.

 The positive feedback is generated by coil CD.

 There is another coil EF and a variable condenser C2 which form the patient’s
resonator circuit due to its coupling with the oscillator coil AB.

 The anode supply of such a circuit is around 4000 V.

 The conduction in the triode takes place during the positive half-cycle and the high
frequency is generated only during this period.

 More usually, the supply voltage is rectified before supplying to the anode of the
oscillator valve.

 In such a case, the oscillations produced are continuous and more power thus
becomes available.
  In order to ensure that the oscillator circuit and the patient’s resonator circuit are
tuned with each other, an ammeter is placed in series with the circuit.

 The variable condenser C2 is adjusted to achieve a maximum reading on the meter,

the needle swinging back on either side of the tuned position.

 The maximum power delivered by these machines is 500 W.

 A thermal delay is normally incorporated in the anode supply which prevents the
passage of current through this circuit until the filament of the valve attains
adequate temperature.

 The patient circuit is then switched on followed by a steady increase of current

through the patient.

 A mains filter is incorporated in the primary circuit to suppress interference

produced by the diathermy unit itself.

 There are several ways of regulating the intensity of current supplied to the patient
from a short-wave diathermy machine.

 This can be done by either:

(i) controlling the anode voltage, or

(ii) controlling the filament heating current, or

(iii) adjusting the grid bias by change of grid leak resistance R1, or

(iv) adjusting the position of the resonator coil with respect to the oscillator coil.

 However, the best way of finely regulating the current is by adjusting the grid bias,
by putting a variable resistance as the grid leak resistance.

Automatic Tuning in Short-wave Diathermy Machines:

 Any short-wave therapy unit would give out the desired energy to the patient only
if and as long as, the unit is correctly tuned to the electrical values of the object
(part of the body).

 Therefore, tuning must be carefully carried out at the beginning of the treatment
and continuously monitored during the treatment.

 There is a possibility of the tuning getting affected due to unavoidable but

involuntary movements of the patients and the resultant fall of dosage.

 In order to overcome the problem of making tuning adjustments during the course
of treatment, an additional circuit is fitted in the machine.
  The RF current in the patient circuit changes a capacitor to a voltage, whose
polarity and magnitude is a measure of the detuning of the patient circuit.

 This voltage accordingly moves a servo-motor, adjusting the tuning capacitor so

that resonance is restored.

 Fig. 3.3 shows a diathermy machine with automatic tuning in operation.

Fig. 3.3 Short-wave Therapy Unit with Automatic Tuning in use (Courtesy: Siemens,
Germany)

Application Technique of Short-wave Therapy:

 The pattern of tissue heating is greatly affected by the method of short-wave

diathermy delivery.

 The two most common forms of application include the capacitor plate method and
the inductive method (Fig. 3.4).

(a) (b)
 Fig. 3.4 Method of Applying Electrodes in Short-wave Diathermy Treatment
(a) Condenser method
(b) Inductive method

 In the capacitor plate method, the output of the short-wave diathermy machine is
connected to metal electrodes which are positioned on the body over the region to be
treated.

 These electrodes are called ‘PADS’ in the terminology of the diathermy.

 These pads or electrodes do not directly come into contact with the skin.

 Usually layers of towels are interposed between the metal and the surface of the
body.

 The pads are placed so that the portion of the body to be treated is sandwiched
between them.

 This arrangement is called the ‘Condenser Method’ (Fig. 3.4 (a)) wherein the
metal pads act as two plates while the body tissues between the pads as ‘dielectric’
of the capacitor.

 When the radio frequency output is applied to the pads, the dielectric losses of the
capacitor manifest themselves as heat in the intervening tissues.

 The dielectric losses may be due to vibration of ions and rotation of dipoles in the
tissue fluids (electrolytes) and molecular distortion in tissues which are virtually
insulators like fats.

 Fig. 3.4a shows the use of air-spaced condenser electrodes for short-wave
diathermy treatment.

 Alternatively, the output of the diathermy machine may be connected to a flexible

cable instead of pads.

 This cable is coiled around the arm (Fig. 3.4(b)) or knee or any other portion of the
patient’s body where plate electrodes are inconvenient to use.

 When RF current is passed through such a cable, an electrostatic field is set up

between its ends and a magnetic field around its centre.

 Deep heating in the tissue results from electrostatic action whereas the heating of
the superficial tissues is obtained by eddy currents set up by a magnetic effect.

 This technique is known as ‘inductothermy’.

 Although most short-wave diathermy machines have an output power control, yet
there is no indication of the amount of converted and absorbed heat within the body
 tissues. Therefore, the intensity of treatment is dependent on the subjective
sensation of warmth felt by the patient.

Dia-pulse Short Wave Diathermy Unit:

 Instead of continuous R.F. waves, R.F. pulses of 65 μs with an interval between

pulses of 1600 μs are also used. This is called dia-pulse short wave diathermy.

 The rate of pulsations is adjustable in steps from 80 to 600 pulses per second with
peak power of the pulse ranges from 293 to 975 W.

 By this method, the excess tissue fluid associated with cellular damage is reduced.
The healing rate is enhanced.

 The depth of penetration is correctly adjusted. There is no danger of burns or

hyperthermic complications.

ULTRASONIC DIATHERMY:

(ULTRASONIC THERAPY UNIT)

 Introduction

 Circuit Description

 Dosage Control

 Application Technique

Introduction:

 Ultrasonics are used for therapeutic purposes in the same manner as a short-wave
diathermy machine is used.

 The heating effect in this case is produced because of the ultrasonic energy
absorption property of the tissues.

 The property of specific heat distribution in tissue and the additional effect of a
mechanical component have given rise to a number of special therapeutic
applications of ultrasonics.

 The effect of ultrasonics on the tissues is thus a high speed vibration of micro-
massage.

 Massage as a modality in physical medicine has been used in the treatment of soft
tissue lesions for centuries.

 Ultrasonic energy enables this massage to be carried out, firstly to a greater depth
than is possible manually, and secondly at times (in acute injuries) when pressure
cannot be exerted by hand because of intolerable pain caused to the patient.
  The thermal effects of ultrasound are dependent on the amount of energy
absorbed, the length of time of the ultrasound application and the frequency of the
ultrasound generator.

 The electrical power required in most of the applications is usually less than 3
W/cm2 of the transducer area that is in contact with the part of the body to be
treated.

 Ultrasonic generators are constructed on the piezo-electric effect.

 A high-frequency alternating current (e.g., 0.75-3.0 MHz) is applied to a crystal

whose acoustic vibration causes the mechanical vibration of a transducer head,
which itself is located directly in front of the crystal.

 These mechanical vibrations then pass through a metal cap and into the body tissue
through a coupling medium.

 The therapeutic ultrasonic intensity varies from 0.5 to 3.0 W/cm2.

 Applicators range from 70 to 130 mm in diameter.

 The larger the diameter of the applicator, the smaller would be the angle of
divergence of the beam and the less the degree of penetration.

Circuit Description:

 The equipment required for ultrasonic therapy is electronically very simple.

 Fig. 3.5 shows the block diagram of an ultrasonic therapy unit.

 The heart of the system is a timed oscillator which produces the electrical
oscillations of the required frequency.

 The oscillator output is given to a power amplifier which drives the piezo-electric
crystal to generate ultrasound waves.

 Power amplification is achieved by replacing the transistor in typical LC tuned

Colpitt oscillator by four power transistors placed in a bridge configuration.
 Fig. 3.5 Block Diagram of an Ultrasonic Therapy Unit

 The delivery of ultrasound power to the patient is to be done for a given time.

 This is controlled by incorporating a timer to switch on the circuit.

 The timer can be a mechanical spring-loaded type or an electronic one, allowing

time settings from 0 to 30 minutes.

 The output of the oscillator can be controlled by either of the following two
methods:

 Using a transformer with a primary winding having multi-tapped windings and

switching the same as per requirement;

 Controlling the firing angle of a triac placed in the primary circuit of the
transformer, and thereby varying the output of the transformer.

 The power output in case of triac controlled machines can be continuously varied
from 0 to 3 watts/cm2.

 The machine can be operated in either continuous or pulsed mode.

 A full-wave rectifier comes in the circuit for continuous operation.

 The mains supply is given to the oscillator without any filtering.

 The supply voltage is therefore at 100 Hz which causes the output 1 MHz to be
amplitude modulated by this 100 Hz.

 In pulsed mode, the oscillator supply is provided by the half-wave rectifier and the
oscillator gets the supply only for a half cycle.

 Thus the output 1 MHz is produced only for one half of the cycle and is pulsed.

 The transducer may be barium titanate or lead zirconate titanate crystal, having
5-6 cm2 effective radiating area.
  The length of the cable connecting the transducer with the oscillator is of critical
dimension and should not be altered.

 In front of the crystal lies a metal face plate which is made to vibrate by the
oscillations of the crystal.

 Ultrasonic waves are emitted from this plate.

 The crystal has a metal electrode pressed against its back surface by a coiled spring.

 Voltage is applied to the crystal via this electrode.

 The front diaphragm is grounded and provides a return path for the excitation
voltage.

Dosage Control:

 The dosage can be controlled by varying any of the following variables.

1. Frequency of ultrasound;

2. Intensity of ultrasound; or

3. Duration of the exposure.

 The frequency is involved because the absorption of ultrasonics by the tissues is a

frequency dependent phenomenon.

 The question as to which ultrasonic frequency to use has been the subject of much
investigation and thought but it has been established that a frequency of
approximately 1 MHz is the most useful.

 The amount of energy absorption in the human tissue has been measured
experimentally and in soft tissue, a reduction of 50% occurs with a 1 MHz
ultrasonic transmission at a depth of 5 cm.

 The higher the frequency the quicker the energy loss and thus with a transmission of
3 MHz, this reduction of 50% occurs at a depth of only 1.5 cm.

 Below a frequency of 1 MHz, the beam of ultrasonic energy tends to diffuse and no
efficient treatment can be expected.

 A frequency in the range of 800 kHz to I MHz is, therefore, most widely adopted.

 Unlike the operation of a short-wave therapy unit, no tuning is necessary while the
treatment is in progress.

 The operating frequency is also not very critical and may vary to the extent +(-)l0%.
  The output power of an ultrasonic therapy unit can be varied continuously between
0 and 3 W/ cm2.

 The calibrated positions are marked in steps.

 The steps indicate the average value of intensity monitored in terms of electric
power converted into acoustic energy.

 Standard values concerning dosing in ultrasonic therapy have been established on

the basis of experimental studies.

 In order to achieve maximum therapeutic efficiency, it is necessary to ascertain the

correct ultrasonic intensity and duration of application for a given indication.

 To make matters simpler, some instruments are equipped with a ‘dose tabulator’
from which the data concerning dosing can be taken at a glance.

 In this table, a dose mark is given for every indication (disease) and all that is
required is to set a pointer appropriately to ensure that the apparatus is providing the
correct output intensity.

 Apart from continuous and mains frequency modulated modes, ultrasonic output
can also be modulated by any other frequency.

 The idea behind a pulsed operation is that the predominant effect of ultrasound is
not the heating effect but the direct mechanical effect (micro-massage).

 The thermal effect is reduced by repeatedly interrupting the supply of energy

through brief pauses.

Application Technique:

 There are several ways for applying ultrasonics to the body.

 The probe can be put in direct contact with the body through a couplant provided the
part to be treated is sufficiently smooth and uninjured.

 In case a long area is to be treated, the probe is moved up and down, and for small
areas it is given a circular motion to obtain a uniform distribution of ultrasonic
energy.

 If there is a wound or an uneven part (joints etc.), the treatment may be carried out
in a water bath.

 This is to avoid mechanical contact with the tissues which may damage an already
injured surface.

 It should be ensured that air bubbles are not present either on the probe or the skin.
  For this treatment any vessel with warm water would be suitable.

 The part of the body to be treated is rubbed with alcohol or soaped.

 The probe is moved over the area to be treated but held at a distance of about 1–2
cm from the area under treatment.

 This method is not generally preferred because of the difficulty of controlling the
exact amount of dosage.

MICROWAVE DIATHERMY:

(MICROWAVE THERAPY UNIT)

 Introduction

 Production of Microwaves

 Schematic Diagram of a Microwave Diathermy Unit

 The Delay Circuit

 The Magnetron Circuit

 Safety Circuits

Introduction:

 Microwave diathermy consists in irradiating the tissues of the patient’s body with
very short wireless waves having frequency in the microwave region.

 Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency range of

300-30,000 MHz and wavelengths varying from 10 mm to 1 m.

 In the electromagnetic spectrum, microwaves lie between short waves and

infrared waves.

 The most commonly used microwave frequency for therapeutic heating is 2450
MHz corresponding to a wavelength of 12.25 cm.

 The heating effect is produced by the absorption of the microwaves in the region of
the body under treatment.

 Microwave diathermy provides one of the most valuable sources of therapeutic

heat available to the physician.

 However, in many conditions, though the therapeutic effects of microwave

diathermy are similar to short-wave diathermy, yet in others, better results are
obtained by using microwave.
  The technique of application of microwave diathermy is very simple.

 Unlike the short-wave diathermy where pads are used to bring in the patient as a
part of the circuit, the microwaves are transmitted from an emitter, and are directed
towards the portion of the body to be treated.

 Thus, no tuning is necessary for individual treatments.

 These waves pass through the intervening air space and are absorbed by the surface
of the body producing the heating effect.

Production of Microwaves:

 Microwaves are produced by high-frequency currents and have the same frequency
as the currents which produce them.

 Such currents cannot be produced with oscillators using ordinary vacuum tube
valves or solid-state devices.

 A special type of device called ‘magnetron’ is used for the production of high
frequency currents of high power.

 The magnetron consists of a cylindrical cathode surrounded by an anode structure

that contains cavities opening into the cathode-anode space by means of slots.

 The output energy is derived from the resonator system by means of a coupling
loop which is forced into one of the cavities.

 The energy picked up on the coupling loop is carried out of the magnetron on the
central conductor of a co-axial output tube through a glass seal to a director.

 The director consists of a radiating element of antenna and a reflector which directs
the energy for application to the patient.

 The electrical current is transformed into electromagnetic radiation on passing

through the antenna.

 The reflector then focuses this electromagnetic energy and beams it to the tissues
where it is subsequently absorbed, reflected or refracted, according to the electrical
properties of the tissue.

 Tissues of lower water content (i.e., subcutaneous) are penetrated to a greater depth
but little is absorbed, whereas tissues of high water content (i.e., muscle) absorb
more of the electromagnetic energy but allow little penetration.

 The output power of a magnetron depends upon anode voltage, magnetic field and
the magnitude and phase of the load impedance to which the magnetron output
power is delivered.
  Therefore, the cable used to carry the energy from the magnetron to the director is
always of a definite length for a particular frequency.

 A part of the energy fed to the magnetron is also converted into heat in the anode on
account of the collision of the electrons with the anode so that the output energy is
considerably less than the input energy.

 The efficiency of a magnetron is usually 40 to 60%.

 The heat produced at the anode must be removed which is usually done by using
water or air as a means of cooling.

Schematic Diagram of a Microwave Diathermy Unit:

 The essential parts of a microwave diathermy unit are shown in Fig. 3.6.

 The mains supply voltage is applied to an interference suppression filter.

 This filter helps to bypass the high frequency pick-up generated by the magnetron.

 A fan motor is directly connected to the mains supply.

 The fan is used to cool the magnetron.

Fig. 3.6 Simplified Circuit Diagram of a Microwave Diathermy Machine

The Delay Circuit:

 It is necessary for the magnetron to warm up for 3 to 4 minutes before power may
be derived from it.

 A delay circuit is incorporated in the apparatus which connects the anode supply to
the magnetron only after this time elapses.
  The arrangement is such that a lamp lights up after 4 minutes indicating that the
apparatus is ready for use.

The Magnetron Circuit:

 The magnetron filament heating voltage is obtained directly from a separate

secondary winding of the transformer.

 The filament cathode circuit contains interference suppression filters.

 The anode supply to the magnetron can be either DC or AC.

 A DC voltage is obtained by a full wave rectifier followed by a voltage doubler

circuit.

 A high wattage variable resistance is connected in series which controls the current
applied to the anode of the magnetron.

 When using AC, the voltage is applied to the anode of the magnetron through a
series connected thyratron so that the AC voltages of both tubes are equal in phase.

 By shifting the phase of the control grid voltage with respect to the phase of the
anode voltage, the amount of current through the magnetron can be determined and
thus the output power can be varied.

 The phase shift can be achieved by using a capacitor resistor network.

Safety Circuits:

 There are chances of the magnetron being damaged due to an excessive flow of
current.

 It is thus protected by inserting a fuse (500 mA) in the anode supply circuit of the
magnetron.

 The protection of both the patient and the radiator is ensured by the automatic
selection of the control range depending on the type of the radiator used.

 The considerable interference produced by the apparatus necessitates the use of

large self inductance coils in the primary supply.

 Since the cores are likely to become saturated in view of the small dimensions, the
coils are split up and fitted in such a way that no magnetization occurs.

 Excessive dosage can cause skin burns and in all cases, the sensation experienced
by the patient is the primary guide for application.

 The skin should be dry as these waves are rapidly absorbed by water.
  The duration of irradiation generally ranges from 10 to 25 minutes.

ELECTRO SURGERY MACHINE:

(SURGICAL DIATHERMY/ELECTRO SURGICAL UNIT-ESU)

 Introduction - Diathermy

 Tissue Responses

 Surgical Diathermy

 Special Features

 Electrotherapy

 Types of Waveforms (Current Waveforms)

 Typical Specifications of an Electro-diagnostic Therapy Unit

Introduction:

Diathermy:

 Diathermy is the treatment process by which cutting, coagulation, etc., of tissues

are obtained.

 It is found that when high frequency current in the range 1-3 MHz is applied,
heating of the tissue takes place.

 The evolving steam bubbles in the tissues at the surgical tip continuously rupture
the tissue and by that way the cutting action is obtained.

 Similarly during the passage of the high frequency current through the tissue, the
tissue is heated locally.

 So that the tissue is melted instantaneously and sealing of the capillary and other
blood vessels is taking place.

 Thus the coagulation of the tissues takes place.

 The use of high frequency current is to avoid the intense muscle activity and the
electrocution hazard which occurs if low frequencies are used.

Tissue Responses:

(Electrosurgery Techniques)

 There are various electrosurgery techniques using diathermy unit.

1. Fulguration:
  By passing sparks from a needle or ball electrode of small diameter to the
tissue, the developed heat dries out the superficial tissue without affecting
deep – seated tissues.

 This is called ‘Fulguration’ in which the electrode is held near the tissue
without touching it and due to the passage of the electric arc, the destruction
of superficial tissue takes place.

 Thus it is related to the localised surface level destruction of the tissues.

2. Desiccation:

 The needle point electrodes are stuck into the tissue and kept steady while
passing electric current.

 This creates a high local increase in heat and drying of tissues is taking place.

 This is called ‘desiccation’ which produces dehydration in the tissues.

3. Electrotomy:

 When the electrode is kept above the skin, an electrical arc is sent.

 The developed heat produces a wedge shaped narrow cutting of the tissue on
the surface.

 By increasing the current level, deeper level cutting of the tissues takes
place.

 Normally continuous R.F. current is used for cutting.

4. Coagulation:

 When the electrode is kept near the skin, high frequency current is sent
through the tissue in the form of bursts and heating it locally so that it
coagulates from inside.

 The concurrent of use of continuous R.F. current for cutting and a R.F.
wave burst for coagulation is called Hemostasis mode.

5. Blending:

 When the electrode is kept above the skin, the separated tissues or nerves
can be welded or combined together by an electric arc. This is called
blending.

 Fig. 3.7 shows the different types of waveforms used in electrosurgical

diathermy techniques.
  Fig. 3.8 shows the block diagram of an electrosurgical diathermy unit.

Fig. 3.7 Different Types of Waveforms Used in Electrosurgical Diathermy Units

Fig. 3.8 Block Diagram of Surgical Diathermy Unit

Surgical Diathermy:

 The logic board is the main part of the unit which produces the necessary
waveforms for cutting, coagulation and hemostasis modes of operation.

 An astable multivibrator generates 500 kHz square pulses.

 The output from this oscillator is divided into a number of frequencies using binary
counters.
  These frequencies are used as system timing signals.

 A frequency of 250 kHz provides a split phase signal to drive output stages on the
power output board.

 A frequency of 15 kHz provides a gating signal which gives the repetition rate for
the three cycles of the 250 kHz signal which makes up the coagulating output
having a pulse width of 12 μs.

 The frequency of 250 kHz is used for cutting, after the high power amplification
by push pull amplifier.

 The output of the push pull amplifier is given to a transformer so that the voltage is
stepped up and the output signal from the unit is well isolated.

 To indicate the each mode of operation, the diathermy unit is provided with an
audio tone generator.

 When the coagulation output is delivered 1 kHz audio signal is heard from it.

 Similarly 500 Hz for cutting and 250 Hz for hemostasis.

 The isolator switch provides an isolated switching control between the active hand
switch and the rest of the unit.

 The logic board receives information from the foot switch, finger switch and alarm
sensing points.

 The construction of the foot switch is to avoid any explosion formed by the existence
of anaesthesia gases near the electrical contacts.

Special Features:

1. There are a number of design features to secure safety for the patient or operator
during the operation of the unit. The output circuit in the diathermy unit is isolated
and insulated from the low frequency primary and secondary voltages.

2. The bipolar electrodes are used such that the active electrode is mounted in an
insulated handle having a finger switch and indifferent electrode is placed at the
back of the patient in the form of a plate.

3. The output of the unit may be earth referenced or isolated. The isolated output
does not produce any fibrillation and any serious burns. But there is a chance of
getting shocks and small burns. In the isolated output, the indifferent electrode is
in the floating condition. In the earth referenced output, the indifferent electrode is
connected to the ground via a capacitor.

4. The active electrodes for cutting are in the form of needle electrode which is used
for epilation and desiccation, angulated and straight lancet electrodes which are
 used for cutting exsecting or opening up the channels. The active electrodes for
coagulation are in the form of a ball or plate.

5. There are circuit integrity monitors like dispersive electrode cable continuity
monitor, patient circuit continuity monitor, alternate-path currents monitor, etc.

6. The frequency of operation is from 20 kHz to 1 MHz. The output power for cutting is
about 400 W in 500  load at 2000 V. For coagulation it is 150 W, with a burst
duration is 10-15 μs and repetition frequency of the burst is 15 kHz.

Electrotherapy:

 Electrotherapy, employing low-volt, low-frequency impulse currents, has become

an accepted practice in the physiotherapy departments.

 The biological reactions produced by low-volt currents have resulted in the

adoption of this therapy in the management of many diseases affecting muscles and
nerves.

 The technique is used for the treatment of paralysis with totally or partially
degenerated muscles, for the treatment of pain, muscular spasm and peripheral
circulatory disturbances, and for several other applications.

Current Waveforms:

(Types of Waveforms)

 Different types of waveforms are used for carrying out specific treatments.

 The most commonly used pulse waveforms are discussed below.

(i) Galvanic Current:

 When a steady flow of direct current is passed through a tissue, its effect is
primarily chemical.

 It causes the movement of ions and their collection at the skin areas lying
immediately beneath the electrodes.

 The effect is manifested most clearly in a bright red coloration which is an

expression of hyperaemia (increased blood flow).

 Galvanic current is also called direct current, galvanism, continuous current or

constant current.

 Galvanic current may be used for the preliminary treatment of atonic paralysis
and for the treatment of disturbance in the blood flow.
 It is also used for iontophoresis, which means the introduction of drugs into the
body through the skin by electrolytic means.

 In general, the intensity of the current passed through any part of the body does not
exceed 0.3 to 0.5 ma/sq cm of electrode surface.

 The duration of the treatment is generally 10–20 minutes.

(ii) Faradic Current:

 Faradic current is a sequence of pulses with a defined shape and current intensity.

 The pulse duration is about 1 minutes with a triangular waveform and an interval
duration of about 20 minutes.

 Faradic current acts upon muscle tissue and upon the motor nerves to produce
muscle contractions.

 There is no ion transfer and consequently, no chemical effect.

 This may be used for the treatment of muscle weakness after lengthy
immobilization and of disuse atrophy.

(iii)Surging Current:

 If the peak current intensity applied to the patient increases and decreases
rhythmically, and the rate of increase and decrease of the peak amplitude is slow,
the resulting shape of the current waveform is called a surging current.

 The main field of application of the Faradic surge current is in the treatment of
functional paralysis.

 The surge rate is usually from 6-60 surges per minute in most of the instruments.

 The ratio of interval to the duration of the surging is also adjustable so that graded
exercise may be administered.

 This type of current is usually required for the treatment of spasm and pain.

(iv) Exponentially Progressive Current:

 This current is useful for the treatment of severe paralysis.

 The main advantage of this method lies in the possibility of providing selective
stimulation (Fig. 3.9) for the treatment of the paralysed muscles.

 This means that the surrounding healthy tissues even in the immediate
neighbourhood of the diseased muscles are not stimulated.

 The slope of the exponential pulse is kept variable.

 Fig. 3.9 Principle of Selective Stimulation of the Denervated musculature. Selective
Stimulation of the Denervated Muscle Without Irritation of the Sensible Receptors is Possible
in the Shaded Area of the Graph.

(v) Biphasic Stimulation:

 The cell recovery from the effect of a stimulus current can be hastened by the
passage of a lower intensity current of opposing polarity over a longer period so
that the net quantity of electricity is zero.

 Such type of combination of positive and negative pulses is called biphasic

stimulation.

 In a typical case, the stimulating pulse may be followed by a pulse of opposite

polarity of one-tenth the amplitude and 10 times the width.

 Biphasic stimulation also helps to neutralize the polarization of the recording

electrodes in case silver-silver chloride electrodes are not used.

 This means that there are no electrolytic effects, nor are any macroscopic changes
affecting either the skin or the electrodes observed.

 Also, there is reduced muscle fatigue, since each current pulse is immediately
followed by an opposite current phase of the same magnitude.

 The stimulation current intensity required during treatment is less as compared

with monophasic currents.

 Monophasic current forms, however, retain their importance in electro-diagnostic

evaluation since the necessary pulse shapes are defined mono-physically.

Typical Specifications of an Electro-diagnostic Therapy Unit:

  The output current waveforms generally required for electro-diagnostic therapy
unit are shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Current Waveforms Normally Employed in Electrodiagnosis and Electrotherapy

 The typical specifications of an electro-diagnostic therapy unit are as follows:

 Galvanic current up to 80 mA, ripple less than 0.5% as constant current or

surging current with adjustable surge frequency from 6 to 30 surges per minute.

 Exponentially progressive current pulse sequences with continuously variable

pulse duration from 0.01 to 1000 ms and independently adjustable interval duration
of 1 to 10,000 ms. The pulse form can be set continuously between triangular and
rectangular forms.

 Faradic surging current with 25 surges per minute, up to 80 mA. Precision and
constancy of the values set better than +(-)10%; peak current measurement facility.
Constant current circuit, both poles earth-free.
CONSTANT CURRENT THERAPY:

 For a given electrode geometry, constant current stimulation will provide better
reproducibility for a wide variation in preparation impedance.

 The advantages of constant current therapy are detailed below:

 The current flow is largely constant irrespective of the patient’s resistance. The
selected current intensity remains constant, even if the resistance in the tissue
between the electrodes should vary, as a result of, say, changes in the blood
circulation during treatment, or after previous therapy.

 The current waveform is applied, and distortion-free, since micro-voltages between

the electrode and the skin have no influence.

 Current therapy avoids accompanying symptoms such as irritating stimulatory

sensations between electrodes by applying electrodes firmly to the skin and keeping
them in one position.

CONSTANT VOLTAGE THERAPY:

 In case of constant voltage, the current flow is dependent on the resistance of the
patient, that is, if the electrical resistance of the tissue increases, less current will
flow, and vice versa.

 Irritating stimulatory sensations do not occur, even beneath electrodes that are not
firmly applied or are moved over the skin, for example, during the search for a
trigger point.

 This operating mode is recommended for the combined use of stimulation current
and ultrasound.

RANGE AND AREA OF IRRITATION OF DIFFERENT DIATHERMY

TECHNIQUES:

 The method of heat treatment is chosen to provide heat at the required depth.

 The depth of penetration varies with the different high frequency techniques.

 We know that the heat developed is due to the electrical and ultrasonic losses in the
tissues.

 These losses are different for fat, muscle, blood and bone due to different
absorption coefficients.

 Fig. 3.11 shows the relative amount of heating and depth of heating by high
frequency techniques.
Fig. 3.11 Depth of Heating by Different Techniques According to the Type of Tissue

 Except the short wave capacitive field diathermy, the electrical and ultrasonic
radiations are incident on side of the tissue of the only.

 Generally the heat developed is greater in the subcutaneous fat layers because of
their higher electrical resistivity and higher electrical losses, in the case of
shortwave diathermy using capacitive field.

 While in the case of shortwave diathermy using inductive field, the greatest heating
effect is obtained in the muscle, which has low resistivity.

 In this case the field is short circuited and the heating effect is due to the generation
of eddy currents.

 Between the fat and the muscle the heating effect is enormous.

 In the case of microwaves, the heating effect is sharply decreasing in the muscle
mass and there is no heating at all in the bone.

 But in the ultrasonic irradiation, the maximum heating effect is obtained in the
bone since the absorption of ultrasound is maximum in the bone.

 Thus depending upon the technique, the different layers are heated.