Presplitting and wall control

MODULE VII

BME Training Module – Wall Control

PRESPLITTING

Bulk Mining Explosives (Pty) Ltd

Member of the Omnia Group
P O Box 70040
Bryanston 2021

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Contents

INTRODUCTION..............................................................................4

BME Training Module – Wall Control

APPROACH......................................................................................5

THE MECHANICS OF PRESPLITTING.................................................5

CHOOSING YOUR HOLE DIAMETER..................................................7

CALCULATING EXPLOSIVE QUANTITY PER HOLE..............................8

WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOU DO NOT KNOW THE ROCK UCS AND TENSILE STRENGTH?
10

Calculating the distance between holes.............................................12

Waiver
The information that is presented in this document is given with the intention of
improving blast results through training. To this end, the best professional expertise and
resources have been applied. Because of possible drilling and application variance,
incorrect or incomplete data regarding the site and complex rock structure, Bulk Mining
Explosives (Pty) Ltd and the author of this document cannot assume liability for any
alleged or actual damages arising directly or indirectly out of the information provided in
this document.

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Competence

BME Training Module – Wall Control

You will need to be able to answer these questions after you have
completed this Module

1. What is peak borehole pressure?

2. Why is it important in designing presplit blasts?

3. Name two basic ways of charging a presplit hole.

4. If you were designing a presplit for a 10 m high road cutting, what

would be the best hole diameter to use - 76 mm, 165 mm or
250 mm? Explain.

5. If you do not know the rock strength, how would you calculate the
charge mass per hole?

6. What is the rule for working out hole spacing using hole diameter?

7. Is a vertical presplit safer than an inclined presplit? Give two

supporting reasons for your answer.

8. When should you stem presplit holes?

9. What is the longest stemming length you should use?

10. What is the best way to charge a water filled hole?

11. How can you control vibration from a presplit blast?

12. How can you control air blast from a presplit blast?

13. Name three reasons for presplitting in coal mines.

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Introduction

BME Training Module – Wall Control

This Module covers techniques for designing presplit blasts in surface
excavations. It provides basic and general rules for estimating hole
spacing, hole diameters and charge configurations for different rock types.
The effects of geological structure (faults, joints and weathering) on
presplit results is also discussed.

Presplitting is a technique which is used to create a final excavation

perimeter that is stable and safe. The degree of finish to a presplit will
depend on the purpose for the presplit, the location and the period of time
it is needed. For example, a road cutting through rock will need to be
stable for a long period of time and remain aesthetically pleasing. For this
purpose, a high quality split would be needed, whereas a temporary wall
in an open pit may only need to stand for a few years and would not
require a similar quality of finish.

The main objective in presplitting is to obtain a wall that is free of back

break and loose rock so that it is safe for the life of the excavation. In
strip mines presplitting is carried out for every strip to generate a vertical
face that is safe for coaling under and that ensures effective front row
burden control for best casting and fragmentation results.

Figure 1. A damaged highwall is dangerous to work under.

Presplitting helps to keep faces safe.

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Approach
The first decision to make is that of hole diameter. It is an important

BME Training Module – Wall Control

starting point, and will significantly affect the presplit results. A basic rule
is that the smallest possible hole diameter should be used. This will need
to be balanced against cost and drilling accuracy. Both these factors will
tend to swing the choice towards larger hole diameters with associated
increased spacing between holes. The fundamental conflict between cost
and perfect results therefore dictates that presplit designs must yield
optimum results.

The second decision that needs to be made is the spacing between holes
and finally, you will need to decide how mush explosive to place in each
hole.

The semantics of charge type, charge distribution in the hole, the use of
stemming and initiation system are equally important, but should only be
made after the basic design decisions of

1. hole diameter
2. hole spacing
3. charge mass per hole

The mechanics of presplitting

The basic principle in presplitting is that the peak pressures generated in a
hole by the detonation (referred to as the borehole pressure, Pb) must be
high enough to overcome the tensile strength of the rock, but not high
enough to cause crushing and damage in the surrounding rock. It is best
for the borehole pressure to be about equal to the compressive strength
of the rock in large diameter holes. It is possible in small diameter holes
(less than 102 mm) to use a value of Pb up to 2.5 times the UCS in
competent rock because the radius of rupture around small holes is
insignificant. The final choice of Pb will depend on how brittle the rock is.
Less brittle rocks will require a higher value than very brittle rocks, which
will tend to split more easily.

In order to keep the borehole pressure low, the explosive charge must be
decoupled in presplit holes. This is done either by using cartridges of
smaller diameter than the hole, and spaced if necessary, or by positioning
a slug of explosive in one position in the hole (See Figure 1). The air
surrounding the explosive provides the necessary decoupling that ensures
that very high borehole pressures are avoided.

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Rule 1.

BME Training Module – Wall Control

T < Pb  UCS

With Pb usually being close to the UCS in

value.

Pb is the borehole pressure in MPa

T is the tensile strength of the rock in MPa

UCS is the compressive strength of the rock

in MPa (megapascals)

De tona ting
cord 1 Cord 2
Downline

Ca rtridge s Explos ive

a tta che d to s us pe nde d in a
downline with ba g on a rope
ta pe or by or poure d into
looping cord the hole with a
a round me cha nica l plug
ca rtridge s. for pos itioning.

Explos ive
Ca rtridge

Figure 2. Two different methods for charging presplit holes. On

left (1), cartridges are suspended from a detonating cord
downline. On right (2), a slug of explosive is positioned in the
hole. This can be suspended on a rope in a bag (not on the
downline) or supported by a mechanical plug. The slug is
normally positioned in the hardest layer of rock. This is can be at
the hole bottom.

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Choosing your hole diameter

BME Training Module – Wall Control

This choice is normally dictated by the equipment available on site and on
the need to curtail the total number of holes drilled. The smaller the hole
diameter, the more closely spaced the holes will need to be. Another
consideration is the amount of deflection that will occur. Smaller holes
have a tendency to deflect more than larger holes. The advantage of
smaller holes, however, is that a clean, well-developed presplit plane can
be achieved more easily.

Table 1 provides an approximate guideline for the best hole diameters

dependent on rock type, application and bench height.

Table 1. Matching hole diameter to presplit result.

Hole Bench Height Rock Result
Diameter (m)
(mm)
50 - 102 From 1 m to about Will work in most Clean presplit results
30 m. Hole rock types, but with barrels showing.
deflection becomes better results in Best for high quality
a problem above brittle rock. Most presplits in cuttings and
5 m. favourable for rocks long-life excavations.
with closely spaced
joints or bedding
layers.
127 - 165 Between 5 m and Will work in most Clean presplit result with
35 m. Hole rock types, but barrels in massive rocks.
deflection becomes better in harder Results become
a problem above more brittle rocks. progressively worse in
20 m. Usually used in hard more structured rock.
rock quarries and
open cast mines.
178 - 250 Bench heights 10 m Used mostly in strip Generally clean presplit
and up. mines for in more competent
overburden rocks. Poor results in
sandstones and softer rocks or more
siltstones. structured rocks. Large
Sometimes used in diameter holes yield the
large hard rock open lowest quality presplit
cast mines. results.

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Calculating explosive quantity per Hole

BME Training Module – Wall Control

The quantity of explosive in a hole is determined by calculating the
borehole pressure as follows so that Rule 1 is satisfied:

Equation 1 Pb = the borehole pressure in MPa

 = Explosive density in g/cm2

V = VOD (velocity of detonation) of

the explosive in m/s

C = Percent explosive in a hole as a

fraction = (Length of
explosive)/(Length of hole).

De = Diameter of explosive in mm
Equation 2
Dh = Diameter of hole in mm

H = Hole Length (m)

Cl = Continuous charge length

By using Rule 1 to decide what the borehole pressure should be, it is

possible to determine the amount of explosive needed in a hole using
Equation 2

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Here are some example strengths for different rock types.

BME Training Module – Wall Control

Rock Type Uniaxial Tensile Hardness
Compressive Strength Classification
Strength, UCS
(MPa)
(MPa)

Andesites 350 35 Very Hard

Dolerites 300 30 Very Hard

Norites 280 28 Hard

Granites 220 22 Hard

Massive 220 22 Hard

Quartzite/Ironstone

Layered Quartzite 180 18 Medium Hard

Massive Sandstone 180 12 Medium Hard

Layered Sandstone 140 10 Medium

Mudstones/Shales 100 8 Medium

Micaceous Shales 80 3 Soft

Coal 40 4 Soft

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Here is a step-by-step example for calculating how much explosive to

charge each hole:

BME Training Module – Wall Control

Source Variable Example
Get from geotechnical Compressive Strength of Rock, UCS (MPa) 210
engineer
Get from geotechnical Tensile Strength (MPa), T 21
engineer Use UCS/10 if value is unavailable
Decide using Rule 1 Best Likely Borehole Pressure (MPa), Pb 210
Get from explosive data Explosives Density (g/cm3),  1.2
sheets
Get from explosive data Explosives VOD (m/s), V 4 000
sheets
Get from explosive data Cartridge Length (mm), cl 560
sheets
Choose a diameter that is Cartridge Diameter (mm), De 65
about 20 to 70% of the
hole diameter
From blast plan Hole Length (m), H 12
From blast plan Hole Diameter (mm), Dh 165
Calculate using Equation 1 Charge length (m), Cl 9.96
Calculate by dividing Cl by Number of Cartridges, n 15
the cartridge length

The result given in this example shows only that the charge quantity
chosen for presplitting the rock in question should be adequate.
Depending on geological conditions such as the occurrence of softer
layers, or the presence of closely spaced jointing, the design quantity may
not yield the expected results. It is important to realize that any blast
design will need optimization through trial and observation in the field.
The thing about the initial design is that it provides a sound point from
which to start.
What should you do if you do not know the rock UCS and
tensile strength?

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In most cases, the strength of the rock is not known. For this situation, a
less precise method can be used to determine the optimum amount of
explosive needed in a hole. Use Rule 2 for calculating optimum explosives

BME Training Module – Wall Control

charge.

Rule 2:

If you do not know the rock strength

apply the following quantities of
explosive per unit volume of hole.

Medium Hard Rock: 0,1 g/cm3

Hard Rock: 0,13 g/cm3
Very Hard Rock: 0,15 g/cm3

Here is a step-by-step example.

Source Variable Example

Blast site Rock type Granite
Estimate Classification Hard
Use Rule 2 Recommended Charge Mass, Mv 0.13
(g/cm3)
Blast Plan Hole Length, H (m) 12
Blast Plan Hole Diameter, Dh (mm) 165
Hole Volume, Vol (cm3) 256 589

Choose a diameter that Cartridge Diameter (mm), De 65

is about 20 to 70% of
the hole diameter
Get from explosive data Cartridge Length (mm) 560
sheets
Get from explosive data Cartridge Count per 25 kg Case 11
sheets
Mass per Cartridge (kg) M 2.27

Number of Cartridges per hole 15

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Calculating the distance between holes

BME Training Module – Wall Control

The spacing between holes in a presplit is a
function of the charge quantity in the hole
and the hole spacing. Spacing can therefore
be estimated using the borehole pressure Pb
and the hole diameter Dh. The tensile
strength of the rock (T) is also needed. If
this is not known, it can be estimated to be
between 10 and 17 percent of the UCS.
The equation used for working out hole
spacing is:

Equation 3
S = Hole spacing in m

Dh = Hole Diameter in mm

Pb = Borehole Pressure in MPa

T = Rock Tensile strength in MPa

Here is a step-by-step example:

Source Variable Example

Get from Compressive Strength of Rock, UCS (MPa) 210
geotechnical
engineer
Get from Tensile Strength (MPa), T 21
geotechnical Use UCS/10 if value is unavailable
engineer
Make this Borehole Pressure (MPa), Pb 210
about equal to
the UCS
Get from the Hole Diameter (mm), Dh 165
blast plan
Hole Spacing (m), S 1.8

The spacing that you calculate should be crosschecked with

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Rule 3.

Rule 3:

BME Training Module – Wall Control

Spacing between holes should range
between 10 and 15 hole diameters:

10 hole diameters for strong rock or for

rock with a high degree of jointing

15 hole diameters for weaker rocks that

have little jointing.

Powder Factor

During many years of field experienced by a number of operators, it has

been found that often presplitting will work if the charge mass per m2 of
presplit plane ranges between about 400g and 1800g (i.e. 0.4 kg/m2 for
medium rock and 1.8 kg/m2 for hard rock). This quantity is referred to
as presplit powder factor . It should not be confused with the powder
factors used in normal production blasting, which are related to rock
volume (m3) and not area of presplit plane (m2).

Use these equations for powder factor:

Equation 4: If you need to work out spacing

S = Hole spacing in m.
Q = Mass of explosives in
a hole (kg).
Equation 5: If you need to work out powder K = Presplit powder
factor factor in kg/m2.
Range between 0.4
and 0.8 kg/m2 in
general.
H = Hole length in m.
Equation 6: If you need to work out charge
mass per hole

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How does rock structure affect presplit results?

BME Training Module – Wall Control

Planar weaknesses in the rock
can have a major influence on What are planar weaknesses?
presplit results. Even where the
final presplit plane may appear Joint Planes.
good, the presence of a single Fault planes.
joint plane at an unfavourable Bedding Planes.
angle could strongly influence Geological Contact planes between
long-term stability of the final different rock types, e.g. a dyke.
wall. Schistocity or directionality of elongated
grains orientation within the rock mass
It is important, therefore, to have
a grasp of the frequency and
orientation of planes of weakness
and if possible the cohesion
across any planes of weakness.

In general, the shallower dipping

structures have a smaller
influence on the appearance of
the final presplit. Steeply dipping
structures have the largest
influence with the worst
orientations being close to parallel
to the presplit planes. The
illustration in this drawing shows
how planar weaknesses can
influence the appearance of
presplits.

Rock containing joint and fault

planes can be successfully
presplit. A common problem,
however, is the penetration of
high-pressure gases into these
planes from blasting in blocks of ground adjacent to the presplit. It is very
important that the design of the blasting next to the presplit is considered
very carefully in terms of damage control.

Joint planes will affect the propagation of the presplit plane. When the
joint spacing is significantly less than the spacing between presplit holes,
there is a strong likelihood that the presplit plane will not propagate

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through the joint planes. In general, the spacing between holes should
not exceed twice the predominant joint spacing.

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Pla ne s of We a kne s s
(e.g. joint pla ne s )
P re s plit
Hole
De s ire d
P re s plit
P la ne

Pre s plit
Surfa ce
Achieve d

Mos t fa voura ble

orie nta tion of Pla ne s orie nte d a t a s ma ll a ngle to the
pla ne s of we a kne s s inte nde d pre s plit re s ult in a ja gge d finis h
(right a ngle s to with only a few ba rre ls s howing
pre s plit line )

Figure 3. Plan view showing how the orientation of planes of

weakness in the rock can affect the appearance of a presplit
plane. It should be noted, that, although the presplit plane to the
right may not appear as good as the presplit to the left, the
stability is not necessarily worse. Back damage plays a major
role in the stability of a presplit, and this is generally caused by
the blast adjacent to the presplit.

Burden
By definition, presplitting is carried out prior to any adjacent blasting. If
the distance between the presplit plane and the nearest free face
becomes too small, poor results can be expected due to:

1. Breakage occurring preferentially to the free face rather than

between holes.
2. Blast damage from the blast that created the free face extending
beyond the located position of the presplit plane.

The presplit plane, if well developed, can help to limit back break because
it acts as a plane along which gases can vent to atmosphere and because
it is a dynamic stress barrier.

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It is important to ensure that the burden (distance to the nearest free

face) is adequate in presplit blasting. The best results are obtained where

BME Training Module – Wall Control

the free face is infinitely distant from the presplit blast. However, as a
rule, the free face should not be less than 30 presplit hole diameters from
the presplit plane.

Angle of the presplit plane

Presplit holes should be drilled at an angle of about 70 to 80 o from
horizontal. This will depend, however, on the angle of jointing in the rock.
Figure 4illustrates the principles involved.

More S table Condition

Wa ll is not de s ta bilis e d
through is ola te d blocks
fa lling out.

Le s s S table Condition
Entire ve rtica l wa ll
be come s uns ta ble through
a n is ola te d block fa lling
out.

Afte r Workmann and Calder (S EE 1993)

Figure 4

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The advantages of inclined presplit planes are (Workman and Calder1):

BME Training Module – Wall Control

1. Walls that are presplit at an angle tend to remain in good condition
longer than those that are presplit vertically. This is because the
toe of the wall is offset from the crest. If isolated blocks fall out
near the bottom of the presplit, the rock above may not necessarily
be undercut (Figure 4).
2. Where steep joint planes dip into the pit, inclined presplit planes
will be more stable. A presplit wall will be subject to toppling
failures under these conditions, which are made worse by vertical
presplit planes (Figure 5).
3. A third important reason is that inclined presplit planes allow the
toe of the adjacent buffer holes to be closer than the collar of the
holes. Clean breakage to the presplit plane can thus be achieved
without excessive over break. It is difficult to achieve this with
vertical presplit planes Figure 6.

More S table Condition

Toe he ld in by buttre s s ing
e ffe ct.

Le s s S table Condition
S liding out on uns upporte d
incline d pla ne s .

Figure 5

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Incline d pre s plit
pla ne le s s like ly to
be da ma ge d tha n a Bre a ka ge profile
ve rtica l pre s plit pla ne . from a dja ce nt
buffe r hole.
Figure 6

When there is more than one set of joints that intersect each other, the
most stable angle for the final wall will be at the plunge of the intersection
lines between the two sets of joint planes, when this plunge is towards
the open excavation.

Usually, structures that dip away from the open excavation give rise to the
most stable walls.

Stemming of presplit holes

Stemming in presplit holes is used for:

1. Prolonging the effect of the borehole pressure in the rock. This is

useful for tough presplitting conditions where the hardness of the
rock makes presplitting difficult for the charge quantities and hole
spacing being used.
2. Controlling noise in built up areas.

Stemming in presplit holes can be a problem in structured rock. The

increase in the duration of high pressure in the holes when stemming is
used, will usually lead to gas penetration into the structural planes in the
surrounding rock thus causing damage

More serious crest fracturing usually happens in stemmed presplit holes,

especially where sub-drill from a previous overlying blast has generated
damage. If serious damage does occur in the hole collar regions,
stemming should be discontinued.

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A plug must support the stemming so that the air void around the charges
is not closed up. A number of inexpensive mechanical devices are

BME Training Module – Wall Control

available for supporting the stemming. These devices can also be used
for supporting a slug of explosive at a certain position in the hole, rather
than using a rope and bag as illustrated in Figure1.

If stemming is used, the length of the stemming is typically less than that
used in normal production holes because of the lower borehole pressures.
Your stemming length should not be more than 11 hole diameters.

Rule 4:

Stemming length in
presplit holes should not
be more than 11 hole
diameters.

Water in presplit holes

Water in presplit holes can alter the effects of the borehole pressure and
resultant presplit quality.

Water has the effect of increasing local coupling with the surrounding rock
thus aggravating shock-induced damage around the hole. Water, under
dynamic pressure, will also act as a hydraulic ram and penetrate and
expand fractures and joints around the hole.

Water also acts as a weak type of stemming, thus preventing the equal
distribution of pressure throughout the borehole.

In order to minimize these effects, water

filled presplit holes should only be
charged with evenly spaced cartridges
and not with a slug of explosive at a
single point within the hole. Furthermore,
water filled presplit holes should not be
stemmed.
Rule 5:
If a presplit hole is
waterlogged, do not use a
slug of explosive in the hole.
Rather use cartridges spaced
evenly so that they cover
most of the hole length.

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Vibration and noise control

BME Training Module – Wall Control

Presplit holes are normally fired at the same time using detonating cord
on surface and detonating cord down the hole. This allows for more
effective interaction between holes. This interaction becomes more
important in helping develop a good presplit plane as the burden distance
decreases.

Because presplit holes are often left unstemmed and detonating cord is
used on surface between the presplit holes, presplit blasts tend to be very
noisy. If noise is a problem, stemming of presplit holes will need to be
considered. Also, the covering of surface detonating cord with a thick
layer of sand or soil will help to dampen noise levels.

Presplit blasting tends to generate higher levels of vibration per unit of

charge mass than does normal blasting. This is because of the high
confinement in presplit blasting where there is no free face to break to.
Where vibration is a problem, delays should to be introduced between
groups of holes.

Working out your holes per delay

To work out the maximum number of holes per delay period, the following
general Scaled Distance Equation can be used:

Equation 7

PPV = peak particle velocity in

mm/s
or:
R = distance from the blast in
metres
Equation 8
W = charge mass fired per
delay in kg

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Equations 7 and 8 are generalized scaled distance equations that have

been empirically derived from a large number of blasts worldwide. The
answers given tend to be conservative, and should therefore provide a

BME Training Module – Wall Control

good margin of safety.

Rule 8:
In noise sensitive areas, use
stemming in the presplit holes
and cover detonating cord
surface lines.

In vibration sensitive areas,

introduce short delays (25 ms or
less) between groups of holes to
ensure that maximum charge
mass per delay is within the
limits provided by Equation 8.

Presplitting in strip coal mines

The South African opencast strip mines commonly apply presplitting with
every blast in overburden blasting. This type of presplitting is aimed at:

1. Dewatering the block of ground requiring blasting by introducing an

open crack at the back of the blast, which allows water drainage
from the strata. The dewatering is useful in mines that use mainly
ANFO in the overburden blasting. ANFO dissolves easily and is
therefore destroyed by water.
2. Providing a near vertical highwall so that consistent toe burdens are
achieved for optimum casting and fragmentation results and to
ensure that coal damage does not occur through overburdening of
the front row.
3. To generate stable highwalls so that safe working conditions prevail
at the bottom of the highwalls where coaling operations are in
progress.

In order to contain costs, presplitting is carried out using large diameter

holes (typically 250 mm) spaced at about 4 m intervals. Usually a single
slug of explosive is suspended in each hole opposite the hardest layer in
the sequence.

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It is important to avoid overcharging a presplit of this nature because the

block can be shifted significantly. Movement is assisted by the horizontal
top coal contact that acts as a lubricant thus reducing friction. Block

BME Training Module – Wall Control

movement in excess of 50 to 100 mm is undesirable because it loosens
the block by generating open cracks along joints and bedding layers.
These open cracks act as conduits for blast generated gasses (which are
at high temperature and pressure) that can cause sympathetic initiation or
desensitization of unfired explosive. Open cracks also allow explosive run-
away during charging.

Block damage
Trim blasts are very prone to blast damage because of their narrow
geometry. In jointed rock, the susceptibility to damage is much higher.
The causes of blast damage to trim blocks are as follows:

1. Firing of presplits before drilling and blasting the trim blasts, but
after removing the core (ore) rock in the pit.
2. Firing the presplits together with the main blast.

A very important principle for achieving good fragmentation in blasting is

to keep the rock mass competent and intact until hole detonation occurs.
A loose rock mass with open joints will always fragment poorly.

Firing Presplits Next to Trim Blocks

Presplit blasts generate high horizontal forces that will cause an
unconfined rock mass, such as the narrow trim blasts, to displace as
shown in Figure 7.

Presplit blast
generates high
horizontal forces.

Horizontal displacement
occurs in the narrow trim
(limit) blocks causing joint
planes to open up in the rock mass.

Figure 7. Illustration showing that the narrow blocks do not provide much
resistance to the forces from a presplit blast and the displacement causes
opening up of joint planes.

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Solution
Presplits and trim blasts are fundamental to good quality final walls.
However, sequencing of the blasts is very important to avoid damage to

BME Training Module – Wall Control

the rock mass.

Presplit blasts should only be fired if there is sufficient rock volume in front
of the presplit to limit displacement.

Firing a Presplit Blast at the Same Time as the Trim Blast

This situation occurs frequently in South African mines and it is a practice
that has a very high risk of poor fragmentation results and poor presplit
results. The example given in Figure 8 shows a presplit and adjacent blast
at that was fired at the same time.

Figure 8. Plan of a blast showing the presplit timed to fire at the

same time as the first hole in the blast. The detonation of the
presplit will have caused downline cut-offs in the main blast
through rock displacement. There will also have been a very high
risk of out of sequence and sympathetic detonations in the
nearby buffer holes. Damage to unfired explosive would also
have occurred.

Recommended Solution
Firing a presplit at the same time as the adjacent blast should always be
avoided. If a situation does arise where the two have to be fired at the

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same time, the presplit should be treated as a postsplit and should be

timed to fire after the body of the blast.

BME Training Module – Wall Control

References
1. Workman, J L and Calder, P N, 1993, Considerations in Pre-split
blasting for mines and quarries, Proceedings of the 19th
International Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
Society of Explosives Engineers. pp 357 - 370.
2. Hoek, E and Bray, J W, 1977, Rock slope engineering, 2nd Ed,
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London.
3. Chiappetta, R F, 1991, Presplitting and controlled blasting
techniques, including air decks and dimensional stone criteria,
Third High-Tech Seminar, Blasting Technology, Instrumentation
and Explosives Applications, San Diego, California, USA.
4. Konya, C J, 1985, Rock Blasting, U S Department of Transport,
Federal Highway Administration, National Technical Information
Service, Virginia, USA.

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