NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS

(DE) ME453
UNIT 2

1
 Unit 2
CNC machine tools
Accuracy, precision, resolution and structure
Drives
Feedback devices
Actuators reciprocating ball screws
linear motion systems
rotary and linear transducers
DNC
Adaptive control systems (AC)

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 PROBLEM WITH NC MACHINE
• Part programming mistakes:
– In preparing the punched tape, part programming mistakes are
common.
– The mistakes can either be syntax or numerical errors.
• Non optimal speeds and feeds:
– In NC machines the control system does not provide the opportunity
to make changes in speeds and feeds during the cutting process.
• Punched tape:
– Another problem related to programming is the tape itself.
• Tape reader:
– The tape reader that interprets the punched tape is the least
reliable hardware component of the machine.
• Controller:
– The NC controller unit is hard wired. This means that its control features
cannot be easily alerted to incorporate improvements into the unit.
3
 INTRODUCTION: CNC MACHINES
• What is a CNC Machine?

• CNC : Computer and Numeric Control

• Conventionally, an operator decides and adjusts various

machines parameters like feed , depth of cut etc. depending on
type of job , and controls the slide movements by hand. In a CNC
machine functions and slide movements are controlled by
motors using computer programs.
5
6
7
Vertical knee milling machine

8
Drilling machines

9
Vertical boring machines

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 INTRODUCTION: CNC MACHINES
• Computer numerical control is an NC system that utilizes a
dedicated, stored program computer to perform some or all of
the basic numerical control functions.

• By integrating a computer processor, computer numerical control,

or “CNC” as it is now known, allows part machining programs to
be edited and stored in the computer memory as well as
permitting diagnostics and quality control functions during the
actual machining.

• All CNC machining begins with a part program, which is a

sequential instructions or coded commands that direct the
specific machine functions.

• The part program may be manually generated or, more commonly,

generated by computer aided part programming systems.
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 INTRODUCTION: CNC MACHINES

• CNC can control the motions of the work-piece or tool, the input
parameters such as feed, depth of cut, speed, and the functions
such as turning spindle on/off, turning coolant on/off.
• Dedicated microprocessors are built into the control to perform
basic and advanced NC functions.
• Control signals in CNC systems are in the form of binary words,
where each word contains fixed number of bits.
• 32 bits or 64 bits are commonly used, representing different axial
positions.

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 INTRODUCTION: CNC MACHINES

CNC machines offer the following advantages in manufacturing.

• Higher flexibility: This is essentially because of programmability, programmed
control and facilities for multiple operations in one machining center.

• Increased productivity: Due to low cycle time achieved through higher

material removal rates and low set up times achieved by faster tool
positioning, changing, automated material handling etc.

• Improved quality: Due to accurate part dimensions and excellent surface finish
that can be achieved due to precision motion control and improved thermal
control by automatic control of coolant flow.

• Reduced scrap rate: Use of Part programs that are developed using
optimization procedures

• Reliable and Safe operation: Advanced engineering practices for design and
manufacturing, automated monitoring, improved maintenance and low human
interaction
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 INTRODUCTION: CNC MACHINES

On the other hand, the main disadvantages of CNC systems are

• Relatively higher cost compared to manual versions

• More complicated maintenance due to the complex nature of the
technologies

• Need for skilled part programmers.

• The above disadvantages indicate that CNC machines can be
gainfully deployed only when the required product quality and
average volume of production demand it.

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 CNC MACHINES

COMPONENTS OF CNC SYSTEMS

Any CNC system consists of following components:

1. Part program

2. Program input device

3. Machine control unit

4. Drive system

5. Machine tool

6. Feedback system

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 MACHINECONTROLLERUNIT MCU
The machine control unit (MCU) is the backbone of CNC systems.
Consists of some electronic hardware that reads the NC program,
interprets it and conversely translates it for mechanical actions of
the machine tool.

Following six functions are being done by MCU:

• Read coded instructions
• Decode coded instructions

• Implement interpolations to generate axis motion commands

• Feed axis motion commands to amplifier circuits to drive axis mechanisms

• Receive the feed back signals of position and speed for each drive axis
• Implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant ON/OFF,
ON/OFF, and tool change
MACHINE CONTROLLER UNIT MCU

Dell 2135CN & 2155CN Machine Control Unit Board (MCU)

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 MACHINE CONTROLLERUNITMCU
The MCU may be of three types :

• Housed MCU Machine Control Unit

May be mounted on the machine tool or may be built in the
casing of the
Machine.
• Machine Control Unit
It is enclosed in a separate cabinet which is installed at
some remote or same place near to the machine.
107
• Swing Around MCU Machine Control Unit
It is directly mounted on the machine, which can swing
around it and can be adjusted as per requirement of the
operator’s position.
 105

Housed MCU Machine Control Unit

 106

Machine Control Unit

Swing Around MCU Machine Control Unit
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 (G&MCodeProgram)

ComputerNumericalControlMaster
MCU
ControlUnit

The Axis
amplifier
increases the
electrical
current from
the CNC
control unit
 MACHINE CONTROLLERUNITMCU
•The CNC program contains all the G&M code of that is interpreted
by the motion control unit.
•When the machine is instructed to move to a position in X, Y (lathe),
or X,Y and Z (for a 3 axis machine) then a designated number of pulses
are sent to the axis drive amplifier.
•This in turn pulses the drive motor which moves the machine table
or axis.
•There is axis feedback from the drive motor which is fed back into
the axis drive amplifier to ensure that the motor has moved the
correct amount of divisions.
•As the machine table or tool moves there is a linear encoder which
reads the actual position of the table/tool and feeds this back to the
motion control unit.
•This will be compared to the original value and the control unit will
adjust the amount of pulses needed to move the tool/table to the
correct position.
 A TYPICAL CNC LATHE/MILLING MACHINE PROGRAM BEING
INTERPRETED BY THE MACHINE CONTROL UNIT

CNC Program G
and M codes

Send signals to Encoder Are axis

G00 Servo interface Servo motors
servo interface for sends at
X20 z30 to amplify signals move axis
X and Z axis Positional data position?
ye
To control unit
s
Electrical pulse to
T01 Request Is T01 Is T01
Tool change yes
machine to have Fitted? Fitted?
T01 fitted ye no
s

Send signals Servo interface Servo motors to Encoder Is

M04
S200 to Spindle to amplify signals rotate spindle sends spindle
servo Positional data ye
at no s
interface To control unit speed?

Send signals to Encoder Are axis

G01 Servo interface Servo motors
servo interface for sends at
X20 Z0 to amplify signals move axis
X and Z axis Positional data position?
ye
To control unit
s
Program Continues
 TYPES OF CNC MACHINE CONTROL UNITS

 FANUC
CONTROLL
 SIEMENS
 GSK
 MECH 3 etc
 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS:

• The principles function of CNC are:

– Machine Tool Control

– In-process compensation
– Improved programming and operating features
– Diagnostics

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 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS: Machine Tool Control
• The primary function of the CNC system is control of the machine
tool.
• This involves conversion of the part program instructions into
machine tool motions through the computer interface and servo-
system.
• The capability to conveniently incorporate a variety of control
features into the soft-wired controller unit is the main advantage of
CNC.
• Some of the control function, such as circular interpolation can be
accomplished more efficiently on the hard-wired circuits from the
computer.
• This fact has lead to the development of two alternative controller
designs to CNC .
– Hybrid CNC
– Straight CNC 27
 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS: Machine Tool Control: Hybrid CNC
• In Hybrid CNC system, the controller consists of soft-wired
computer plus hard wired logic circuits.
• In hard-wired components perform the function which they do
best such as feed rate generation and circular interpolation.
• Use of these hard-wired circuits saves the computer from
performing less calculation and hence less expensive computer is
required in hybrid CNC controller.

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 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS: Machine Tool Control: Straight CNC
• It uses a computer to perform all the CNC functions.
• The only hard-wired elements are those required to interface the
computer with machine tool and the operator’s console.
• Interpolation, tool position feedbacks and all other functions are
performed by computer software.
• Hence the computer required in a straight CNC system must be
more powerful than that needed for a hybrid system.
• The advantage gained in the straight CNC configurations is
additional flexibility.

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 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS: In-process compensation
• This involves the dynamic correction of the machine tool motions
for changes or errors which occur during processing.

• Some of these in-process compensation are:

– Adjustments for errors sensed by in-process inspection probe and gauges.

– Re-computation of axis positions when an inspection probe is used to locate

a datum reference on a work piece.

– Offsets adjustments for tool radius and length.

– Adaptive control adjustments to speed and/or feed.

– Computation of predicted tool life and selection of alternate tooling when

indicated.
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 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS: Improved programming and operating features
• The flexibility of the soft-wired has permitted the introduction of
many convenient programming and operating features.

• Some of these are:

– Editing of part program on the machine.

– Graphic display of the of the tool path to verify the tape.
– Use of especially written subroutine.
– Manual data input (MDI).

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 CNC MACHINES
FUNCTIONS: Diagnostics

• CNC machine tools are complex and expensive system.

• The complexity increases the risk of component features which

lead to system down time.

• CNC machines are often equipped with a diagnostics capability to

assist in maintaining and repairing the system.

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 PARTS SUITABLE FOR CNC MACHINES
• Aerospace equipments.
• Automobile Parts.
• Complex shapes.
• Electronic industry uses CNC e.g.
Printed circuit board.
• Electrical industry uses CNC e.g. Coil
winding.
• For small to medium batch quantity.
• Where the set-ups are very large.
• Where the tool storage is a problem.
• Where much metal needs to be
removed.
• When the part geometry is so complex.
• The operations are very complex. 33
 PRECISION IN NC POSITIONING
Precision:
• Precision is a measure of the spread of different
readings.
• Precision and accuracy are unrelated to each other,
meaning that you can be very PRECISE but not
ACCURATE.
• Precision is also as a synonym for the resolution of the
measurement.
• Measurement that can distinguish the difference
between, 0.01 and 0.02 is more precise (has a greater
resolution) than one that can only tell the difference
between 0.1 and 0.2 even though they may be equally
accurate.
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The Green is more precise than the Red.

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Three measures of precision:

• Accuracy

• Control resolution

• Repeatability

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• Accuracy:
The “accuracy” of a measurement refers to how close a
measurement is to a “true” (actual) value.
Maximum possible error that can occur between the
desired target point and the actual position taken by the
system.

This is the Actual value. Accuracy is the distance of the

measurement from the Actual value. The Red is more accurate
than the Green. 37
Resolution:

Resolution refers to the smallest change that a sensor

can detect in the quantity it is measuring.

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 Repeatability:
The ability of an operator to consistently repeat the same
measurement of the same part, using the same gauge,
under the same conditions.
Operator 1 measures a single part
with Gauge A 20 times, and then
measures the same part with
Gauge B.
The solid line is the measurements
from Gauge A. The dashed line is
the measurements from Gauge B.
Gauge A has less variation, so it is
more repeatable than Gauge B.
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 STRUCTURE
Structure of an NC machine tool links all it’s components
and is the basic platform on which all these components
are laid upon.

Considerations
• Sustain loads over long periods of time.
• Vibration problem in machining process.
• Large quantity of swarf should be handled which
requires handling of hot chips along with thermal
distortions.
• Higher magnitudes of multidirectional forces.
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 STRUCTURE
Consequences

• NC machines tend to be heavier structures as they

have to provide adequate strength and rigidity.
• To avoid vibration problems the structure is properly
damped by means of spring, mass and dampers.
• Overhangs of cutting forces, motor forces and frictional
forces are to be reduced.
• Implementation of proper heat management arising
within the machine tool due to drives and pumps.
• Designs involving better swarf removal, like Slant bed
are employed.
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 STRUCTURE
Consequences
• Air conditioning is often maintained to eliminate the
distortion of the structure due to variations of
environmental temperatures.
• Alloyed Iron and fabricated steel structures are used
the structure.
• They are made of cast iron.

Slant Bed for a turning center for easy chip flow and operation 42
 DRIVES
Drives are the units which provide the desired cutting
speed at the main spindle.
• Basic function of a NC/CNC machine is to provide
automatic and precise motion control to its elements
such work table, tool spindle etc.
• Drives are used to provide such kinds of controlled
motion to the elements of a NC/CNC machine tool.
• A drive system consists of drive motors and ball lead-
screws.
• The MCU sends the amplified control signals to
actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-
screws to position the machine table or cause rotation
of the spindle. 43
 TYPES OF DRIVES

• Electrical drives
Small in size and easy to control. They have the following types
• Direct current (DC)
• Alternating current (AC)
• Hydraulic drives
Have large power to size ratio and provide step-less motion with
great accuracy.
- Difficult to maintain and are bulky.
- Petroleum based hydraulic oil is employed which may have
fire hazards at upper level of working temperatures.
- Hydraulic elements need special treatment to protect them
against corrosion.
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• Pneumatic drives
- This drives use air as working medium which is
available in abundant and is fire proof.
- Although simple in construction and quite cheap,
these drives generate low power having less
positioning accuracy and are noisy.

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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
The various drives used in CNC machines can be classified as:
a) Spindle drives to provide the main spindle power for cutting action
b) Feed drives to drive the axis

Spindle drives
Provide angular motion to the workpiece or a
cutting tool.
Requirements
• To maintain the speed accurately within a
power band which will enable machining
of a variety of materials with variations in
material hardness.
• The speed ranges from 10 to 20,000 rpm.
• High overload capacity.
• Compact drive with highly smooth Schematic of a spindle drive
operation.
• Mostly machine tools employ DC spindle
drives.
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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
Feed drives
These are used to drive the slide or a
table.
Requirements
Schematic of a Feed drive
• The feed motor needs to operate
with constant torque characteristics
• Low rotor inertia and quick response
to overcome friction and working
in case of contouring operation where
forces.
several feed drives have to work
• Extremely variable drive speed and
simultaneously.
small positioning resolution..
• High torque to weight ratio.
• The feed motor must run smoothly.

47
 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS

ELECTRICAL
DRIVES

Electric drives are mostly used in position and speed control

systems.

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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
DC MOTORS
• A DC motor is a device that converts direct current
(electrical energy) into rotation of an element
(mechanical energy).

DC MOTORS

BRUSHED BRUSHLESS
DC MOTORS DC MOTORS

49
 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
BRUSHED SERVOMOTORS
• This type of motor produces a magnetic
field in a wound rotor (the part that
rotates) by passing an electrical current
through a commutator and carbon
brush assembly.
• To produce a constant torque from the
motor, electric & magnetic fields must
remain constant in magnitude and in Brushed Motor

relative motion.
• This is achieved by constructing the
armature as a series of small sections
connected in sequence to the
segments a commutator.
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• DC servomotors are high performance motors and are useful as
prime movers in numerically controlled machine tools where starts
and stops must be made quickly and accurately.

• The light weight and low inertia armatures of DC servomotors

respond quickly to the excitation voltage changes.

• Brushes are used to connect the rotor winding.

• Brush wear occurs, and it increases dramatically in low‐pressure

environment.

• Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment

contains explosive materials.

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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
BRUSHLESS SERVOMOTORS
• The rotor becomes a permanent
magnet and the stator becomes a
wound iron core.
• Construction speeds up heat
dissipation and reduces rotor inertia.
• The major difference is that the brush
less motor maintains position by
electrical commutation, rather than
mechanical commutation.

Brushless Motor
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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
AC MOTORS

• Typical components of AC motors

are stator and a rotor.
• The stator is the stationary electrical
component.
• It consists of a group of individual
electro-magnets arranged in such a
way that they form a hollow
cylinder, with one pole of each •The objective of these motor components
magnet facing toward the center of is to make the rotor rotate which in turn will
the group. rotate the motor shaft.

• The rotor is located inside the stator
and is mounted on the AC motor's
shaft. The rotor then is the rotating
part of the AC motor.
•If you progressively change the polarity of
the stator poles in such a way that their
combined magnetic field rotates, then the
rotor will follow and rotate with the
magnetic field of the stator.

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57
As shown in the figure, the stator has six magnetic poles and the rotor
has two poles.

At time 1, stator poles A-1 and C-2 are north poles and the opposite
poles, A-2 and C-1, are south poles. The S-pole of the rotor is attracted
by the two N-poles of the stator and the two south poles of the stator
attract the N-pole of the rotor.

At time 2, the polarity of the stator poles is changed so that now C- 2

and B-1 are N-poles and C-1 and B-2 are S-poles. The rotor then is
forced to rotate 60 degrees to line up with the stator poles as shown.

At time 3, B-1 and A-2 are N- pole. At time 4, A-2 and C-1 are N. As each
change is made, the opposite poles on the stator attract the poles of
the rotor. Thus, as the magnetic field of the stator rotates, the rotor is
forced to rotate with it.
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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
• A synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed
fixed by frequency of the system and irrespective of load acting on
them.
• Synchronous motor are have high efficiency and are mainly used in
high precision application.

• 3 phase AC supply is given to stator to create rotating magnetic

field in stator.

• The rotor winding is fed with dc supply which magnetizes the rotor.

• The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they
rotate around very fast and interchange their position.
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•The constant speed characteristics is achieved by interaction
between a constant and rotating magnetic field.

•Rotor of a synchronous motor produces constant magnetic field and

stator produces revolving magnetic field.

•The field coil stator is excited by a three phase AC supply. This will
produce a revolving magnetic field which rotates at synchronous
speed.

NS = 120 f /P

NS = synchronous speed
f = frequency of electricity
P = No. of poles
• The main advantage of this motor is the low rotor inertia, high power
and low weight.

• So called because voltage is induced in the rotor, but for this to

happen, the rotor must rotate at a lower speed than the magnetic
field to allow for the existence of an induced voltage.

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 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
INDUCTION MOTOR
• However, most AC motors used today are not synchronous motors.
Instead, so-called "induction" motors.

• Induction motors are quite commonly used in industrial

automation.

• So how is an induction motor different? The big difference is the

manner in which current is supplied to the rotor. There is no
external power supply.

63
• When a conductor (aluminum bars in the case of a rotor, see Figure)
is moved through an existing magnetic field or when a magnetic
field is moved past a conductor, the relative motion of the two
causes an electric current to flow in the conductor.
• This is referred to as "induced" current flow. In an induction motor
the current flow in the rotor is not caused by any direct connection
of the conductors to a voltage source, but rather the influence of
the rotor conductors cutting across the lines of flux produced by
the stator magnetic fields. 64
 • The induced current that is
produced in the rotor
results in a magnetic field
around the rotor conductors
as shown in Figure.
• This magnetic field around each rotor conductor causes each
rotor conductor to act like the permanent magnet. As the
magnetic field of the stator rotates, due to the effect of the three-
phase AC power supply, the induced magnetic field of the rotor is
attracted and will follow the rotation. The rotor is connected to
the motor shaft, so the shaft rotates and drives the connection
load. 65
• The main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed is
more difficult to control in AC motors.

• To overcome this limitation, AC motors are equipped with variable

frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together
with a reduced power quality.

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 SERVOMOTOR
Electric Motor + Servomechanism

Servomotor

DC Motor + Servomechanism

DC Servomotor

AC Motor + Servomechanism

AC Servomotor

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• The main reason for using servomotor is to obtain angular
precision.

• Normal electric motor starts rotating as when power is supplied

and rotation continues unless power is switched off.

• With servomotor the desired angular position is obtained.

Suppose one wants to rotate the shaft from 0 to 35 degree. The
shaft will stop at 35 degree and there will be no further
movement.

65
 Servomechanism
• Servomechanism is an automatic closed loop feedback control system.
Motor
Output sensor
Control Device
1 Output signal of
the system
feedback
3
The signal 1st and 2nd Reference
are compared and Input Signal
the 3rd signal from 2
the error detecting
Error
amplifier is fed to
detector
the control device
amplifier
which is the motor.
Servo-system consists of the following components:
1.Control device
2.Output sensor 2
3.Feedback system 1
• Suppose we want to rotate the shaft from 0 to 5 degree and
then from 5 to 45 degree.
• Once it reaches 45 degree the output signal from the output
sensor will be automatically equal to the Reference electrical
Input .
• When they become equal the difference between signal 1st and 2nd
is zero and there will be no signal to be amplified hence there will
be no signal to power the control device. Therefore motor stops
rotating.
• And to produce a further action by the control dvice it requires a
3rd signal.
• As long as there is a logical difference between 1st and 2nd the 3rd
signal will be generated and once the motor achieves i6t7s desired
output the difference will get zero.
• This is SERVOMECHANISM.
• Servo control consists of all the activities, which allow several axes
to effectively maintain the trajectory calculated by the interpolator.

• In CNC systems the position and velocity of the machine tool axes
must be controlled closely and in a coordinated manner.

• Each axis is separately driven and follows the command signal

produced by the interpolator.

• The control system can be either open-loop (as in PTP systems) or

68
closed-loop (as in contouring systems).
 DC SERVOMOTORS
Working Principle of DC Servo Motor
A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor)
along with some other special purpose components that make a DC motor a
servo.

Potentiometer acts as transducer or output SPECIAL PURPOSE

sensor which takes position of the input of shaft
COMPONENTS
of the motor and generates voltage signal as
output.

GEAR INTELLIGENT
POTENTIOMETER
ARRANGEMENT CIRCUITRY

As we know, a small DC motor will rotate with high MAKES THE SERVO
speed but the torque generated by its rotation will ROTATE ACCORDING TO
not be enough to move even a light load. OUR WISHES
The gear mechanism will take high input speed of
the motor (fast) and at the output, we will get an
output speed which is slower than original input
speed but more practical and widely applicable.

25
WorkingPrinciple of DC ServoMotor
• Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the
potentiometer knob is such that there is no electrical signal
generated at the output port of the potentiometer.
• This output port of the potentiometer is connected with one of the
input terminals of the error detector amplifier.
• Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the
error detector amplifier.

• Now difference between these two signals, one comes from

potentiometer and another comes from external source, will be
amplified in the error detector amplifier and feeds the DC motor.

• This amplified error signal acts as the input power of the DC motor
and the motor starts rotating in desired direction.
• As the motor shaft progresses the potentiometer knob also rotates
as it is coupled with motor shaft with help of gear arrangement.
 • As the position of the potentiometer knob changes there will be
an electrical signal produced at the potentiometer port.
• As the angular position of the potentiometer knob progresses
the output or feedback signal increases.
• After desired angular position of motor shaft the
potentiometer knob is reached at such position the electrical
signal generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of
external electrical signal given to amplifier.

• At this condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier

to the motor input as there is no difference between external
applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer.

• As the input signal to the motor is nil at that position, the motor
stops rotating. This is how a simple conceptual servo motor
works.
 DC Servo Motor
• The motor which is used as a DC servo motor generally have a
separate DC source in the field of winding & armature winding.

• The control can be archived either by controlling the armature

current or field current. Based on the applications the control
should be applied to the DC servo motor.

• DC servo motor provides very accurate and also fast respond to

start or stop command signals due to the low armature inductive
reactance.

• DC servo motors are used in CNCmachines and similar DCServoMotor

equipments.
 AC Servo Motor
• AC servo motor is an AC motor that includes encoder used with
controllers for giving closed loop control and feedback.
• This motor can be placed to high accuracy and also controlled
precisely as compulsory for the applications.
• Frequently these motors have higher designs of tolerance or better
bearings and some simple designs also use higher voltages in order
to accomplish greater torque.
• Applications of an AC motor mainly involve in automation, robotics,
CNC machinery, and other applications a high level of precision and
needful versatility.
ACServoMoto 33
Servo Motor
4
3
 35

Electric motor rotor (left) and stator (right)

 36

Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.

 DRIVES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS
STEPPER MOTORS
• A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor
that changes the angular position of the
rotor in steps.
• A stepper motor is a device that converts
the electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical rotational motions of the
motor shaft.
• Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is
widely used in low cost, open loop
position control systems.
• Typical step resolution is 1.8 degrees.
However, micro-step motors are capable
of 0.0144 degree steps.
• Stepper motors are usually used in open
loop control systems, though an encoder
may be used to confirm positional
accuracy.
82
 ACTUATION SYSTEMS IN NC MACHINE TOOLS
Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a change
in a physical parameter usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)

• A transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into some

alternative form.
• Is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an amplifier is
often required to provide sufficient power to drive the actuator.
• Actuation Systems are provided corresponding to each of the automatic
control functions.
• Receive commands from the MCU.
• Desirables
⁻ Efficient
⁻ Stiff
⁻ Quick response
⁻ Virtually free from backlash influences

83
 ACTUATION SYSTEMS IN NC MACHINE TOOLS

Actuators used in an automated system in general

are of different types such as electrical, hydraulic or
pneumatic.
• Electrical actuators
– Electric motors
• DC servomotors
• AC motors
• Stepper motors
– Solenoids
• Hydraulic actuators
– Uses hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller
command signal
• Pneumatic actuators
– Uses compressed air as the driving force

84
 OPEN LOOP SERVO SYSTEM
No feedback to verify that the actual position achieved is the desired position

85
• Basic Length Unit (BLU): Position resolution of the axis of
motion.
For example,
• 1 BLU = 0.0001" means that the axis will move 0.0001" for
every one electrical pulse received by the motor. The BLU is
also referred to as Bit (binary digit).
• Pulse = BLU = Bit
Example 1
• The XY table of a drilling machine has to be moved from the
point (1,1) to the point (6,3). Each axis can move at a velocity
of 0.5"/sec, and the BLU is 0.0001", find the travel time and
resolution.

– Travel time in X-axis is (6-1)/0 .5 = 10 sec, in Y-axis is (3-1)/0 .5= 4

sec .
– Travel time = 10 sec
– Resolution = BLU = 0.0001

86
 Example 2
A CNC milling machine has to cut a slot located between the points
(0,0) and (4,3) on the XY-plane where the dimensions are in inches.
If the speed along the slot is to be 0.1 in/sec, find the cutting time
and axial velocities.

Distance traveled along the slot = (16+9)1/2 = 5"

Cutting time = 5/0.1 = 50 sec
Vx = xV/(x 2+y 2)1/2 = 4(0.1)/5 = 0.08 in/sec
Vy =yV/ (x 2+y 2)1/2 = 3(0.1)/5 = 0.06 in/sec

If the velocity in Y-axis is off by 10%, what would be the new

position ?
New velocity in y is 0.9 x 0 .06 = 0.054 in/sec
In 50 sec, the y- will move a distance [50(0.054)] = 2.7 in.
87
The stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses generated
by the MCU.

Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution.

The fraction is expressed in terms of the step angle, α given by
α = 360/N, degrees
where N = number of pulses required for one revolution
– If the motor receives "n" number of pulses then the total angle,

A = n (360/N), degrees
In terms of the number of revolutions, it would be (n/N)
If there is a 1 :1 gear ratio between the motor and the leadscrew, then
the leadscrew has (n/N) revolutions. If the pitch of leadscrew is p
(in/rev), then the distance traveled axially, say x, can be used to
achieve a specified x-increment in a point-to-point system.
88
The pulse frequency, f, in pulses/sec determines the travel speed of
the tool or the workpiece .
60 f = N (RPM)
where N = number of pulses per revolution,
RPM = RPM of the lead screw
The travel speed, V, is then given by V = p (RPM) where p pitch in
in/rev

89
 Example 3
A stepping motor has N = 150, p = 0.2"/rev; If n = 2250 pulses, what
is the distance traveled in x-direction ? What should be the pulse
frequency for a travel speed of 16 in./min ?

x = p (n/N)
x = (0.2) (2250)/150 = 3“

V= p (RPM)
16'= 0 .2 (RPM),
from which, RPM = 80

60 f = N (RPM)
f = (150) (80)/60 = 200 Hz

90
 Example 4

A stepping motor of 200 steps per revolution is mounted on the

leadscrew of a drilling machine. If the pitch is 0.1 in/rev.,

a. What is the BLU ?

b.If the motor receives a pulse frequency of 2000 Hz, what is the
speed of the table ?

BLU = p/step per revolution

BLU = 0 .1/200 = 0.0005“

Table speed = (p) (RPM)

= (p) (60f)/N
Table speed = (p) (RPM) = (0 .1) (60) (2000)/200 = 60 in/min

91
 CLOSED LOOP SERVO SYSTEM
Uses feedback measurements to confirm that the final position is the specified
position

92
• Closed -loop NC systems are appropriate when there is a force
resisting the movement of the tool/workpiece .
• DC/AC Servo motors are generally employed as the driving
component to provide the machine slide motion.

• Requires external encoders/sensors for observing the position of

the work table and sending the feedback signal to the feedback
controller.

• Both the input to the control loop and the feedback signals are a
sequence of pulses, each pulse representing a BLU unit.

• The two sequences are correlated by a comparator and gives a

signal, by means of a digital-to-analog converter, (a signal
representing the position error), to operate the drive motor (DC
servomotor) .
93
 Example 5
Consider a CNC worktable driven by a closed-loop control system
consisting of a servomotor, leadscrew, and optical encoder. The leadscrew
has a pitch, p = 0.2" and is coupled to the motor shaft with a screw to
motor gear ratio of 1 : 4. The encoder generates 150 pulses per
revolution of the leadscrew. If the number of pulses and the pulse rate
received by the control system are 2250 and 200 Hz respectively,
calculate:

a. Table speed
b. Motor speed in RPM
c. Distance traveled by the table

a. V= p(RPM) = 0.2(RPM) = (0 .2) (60 f)/N = (0 .2) (60) (200)/150

= 16 in/min
b. RPM of the leadscrew = (60) (200)/(150) = 80
RPM of the motor = 4X80=320
c. x = p(n/N) = (0.2) (2250)/150 = 3"

94
 Example 6
A dc servomotor is coupled to a leadscrew which drives the table of a
CNC machine tool. A digital encoder, mounted at the end of the
screw, emits 500 pulses per revolution. If the pitch is 5 mm per rev,
and the motor rotates 600 rpm (1 :1 gear ratio), calculate the

a. Table speed
b. BLU
c. Frequency of pulses transmitted by the encoder

a. V= p(RPM) = 5 (600) = 3000 mm/min = 3 m/min

b. BLU = p/N (pulses per revolution)
5/500 = 0.01 mm
c. RPM = 600 = (60f)/N = 60 f/500 from which f = 5000 Hz
95
 BALL SCREW MECHANISM
• A ball screw is a mechanical linear actuator that translates
rotational motion to linear motion with little friction.

• Sliding friction is reduced to rolling friction.

• A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball bearings which

act as a precision screw.

• As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads, they

can do so with minimum internal friction.

• They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable for
use in situations in which high precision is necessary.

96
• The ball assembly acts as the nut while the threaded shaft is the
screw.

• In contrast to conventional lead screws, ball screws tend to be

rather bulky, due to the need to have a mechanism to re-circulate
the balls.

• Efficiency is generally > 90% whereas sliding friction type lead

screws is rarely above 25%.
BALL SCREW MECHANISM

98
13
16
 FEEDBACK DEVICES IN CNC MACHINE TOOLS

• Feedback system is actually a measuring device.

• The feedback allows the control system to compare the machine’s

actual position with the programmed command.

• The result of this comparison provides the ability of velocity and

position control.

• The standard feedback devices are either digital transducers or

analogue transducers whose output is converted to digital
10
1
form.

• Transducers may be linear or rotary devices, where the rotary type

is more commonly used in the CNC machine tools.
 Positioning Feedback Devices

These are basically feedback devices for the positioning of the table,
and are classified as:

• Rotary Transducers
Generally connected directly to the screw or by means of precision
gearing.

• Linear Transducers
One part of the device is fixed to the machine tool structure,
whereas the other part is attached to a slide which moves
10
2 over the
stationary part.
 ROTARY TRANSDUCERS
Positioning Feedback Devices which are rotary in nature
There are following two basic types of rotary transducers.

• Resolvers
‒ Analog device.
‒ Require conversion of analog to digital form

• Encoders
‒ Numerical device.
10
‒ Outputs digital data directly 3
•Resolvers and Encoders are vastly different though they serve the
same purpose in many applications.

•In rotary applications, both of them are used to sense the speed,
direction and position of a rotating shaft.

•They function as transducers by transforming mechanical

motion into electronic information.

•This electronic information is feedback to electronic devices

controlling the mechanical motion.
10
4

•Feedback is the vital link that closes the control system loop to
improve the system performance.
SERVOMOTOR with RESOLVER

10
5
 ROTARY TRANSDUCERS

Resolver
Construction
• Typically small AC motors in construction.
• Consists basically of a stator and a rotor.
• Resolvers are made of tough materials
that withstand harsh environments over
extended periods of time like copper wire,
iron laminations, steel housings, and high
temperature coatings.
• With few exceptions, resolvers can
operate at higher temperatures.
• Electronic circuitry known as converter is
used to transform cyclic output signals
into digital representation of shaft angle.

Construction of a Resolver
106
Resolver:
•Resolvers use magnetic flux between windings on iron cores much
like transformers.
•Resolvers are rotary transformers with one primary winding and two
secondary windings (sine (SIN) and the cosine (COS) windings.
•The reference winding is
the primary winding that,
through a transformer
known as the rotary
transformer, is excited by
an AC voltage applied to
the primary side of the
transformer.
•The primary winding is
generally on the rotor and
the two secondary
windings are on the stator.
•The rotary transformer then passes the voltage off to the secondary
side of the transformer.

•As the motor spins, the voltage output from the SIN and COS
windings change according to the shaft position.
•The SIN and COS windings are mounted 90 degree from each other
in relation to the shaft.

• An AC voltage (6 V to 60 V, 400 Hz to 10,000 Hz) applied to the

rotating coil (rotor) induces a voltage across the gap in the stationary
coil (stator).
•As a result, transformer stator coil induces the input voltage across
the gap to the transformer rotor on the rotating member of the
resolver.
•The current in the transformer rotor flows through the resolver rotor
creating the magnetic field of the rotor coil.

•Again the voltage is induced back across the gap to the resolver stator
coils.
•The amplitude of the induced stator voltage is proportional to the
relative angular positions of the rotor and stator coils.

•As the reference winding spins, the angle of difference between the
reference and SIN/COS windings change, represented as the theta
rotation angle.
•The voltages induced upon the SIN and COS windings are equivalent
to the reference voltage multiplied by the SIN winding and COS
winding of angle theta.
Working of Resolver

Since there are two stator windings at 900, the output voltages are at
900 electrical phase. These voltages are called sine and cosine as
given by the equations:

Vs = VREF X sin θ
Vc = VREF X cos θ
Where
VREF = Reference voltage
θ = rotor angle with respect to the stator
The output of a resolver is therefore an analog AC voltage equivalent
to the absolute angle between the rotor and the stator. The
absolute position is calculated by:

θ = ARCTAN (sin θ / cos θ) = ARCTAN (Vs

111
/ Vc)
 ENCODER
• An encoder is a sensor of mechanical motion that generates digital
signals in response to motion.

• As an electro-mechanical device, an encoder is able to provide

motion control system users with information concerning position,
velocity and direction.

• There are two different types of encoders:

– linear and rotary
• A linear encoder responds to motion along a path, while a rotary
encoder responds to rotational motion.

• An encoder is generally categorized by the means of its output.

11
2

• An incremental encoder generates a train of pulses which can be

used to determine position and speed.

• An absolute encoder generates unique bit configurations

to track positions directly.
Encoders
Advantages
• low cost
• high accuracy
(e. g. by gear ratio)

Disadvantages
• elastic effects and back lash
OPTICAL ENCODER

• Device for measuring rotational position and speed.

• Common feedback sensor for closed-loop CNC control.

114
 OPTICAL ENCODER
Working of Rotary Encoders

• Optical encoders rely on opto electronic components to detect

rotary motion.
• A light source emits a beam across a gap onto a photodetector.
• A code-wheel with graduated patterns of opaque and clear
spaces rotates between the source and detector.
• The clear areas allow light to pass through the code-wheel to the
photodetector.

115
• The photodetector produces an electrical current proportional
to the intensity of the illumination reaching it.
• Opaque areas in the code-wheel interrupt the light beam
allowing little or no light to reach the photo detector.

• The optical encoder's disc is made of glass or plastic with

transparent and opaque areas.

• A light source and photo detector array reads the optical pattern
that results from the disc's position at any one time.

This code can be read by a controlling device, such as

a microprocessor or microcontroller to determine the angle of the
shaft. 116
LINEAR ENCODER Metal scale

Magnitude of movement • The encoder is

composed off REED
Light HEAD and the SCALE.
Reed Source
Head
Sensor
• The REED HEAD travels
Solar Cell with the axis, while the
produces
voltage scale is stationary.
Moved up and
down
• The scale can be made
Voltage Oscilloscope either of glass or metal.

• In the encoder metal

scale has reflective
Time (sec) markings.
57

• The light from the

source in the REED
HEAD reflects off
markings and are in turn
picked by the sensor.
• Each time the light touches the tick mark voltage is produced.

• If the tick mark is 1mm apart and if one gets voltage spikes, it is
known that it has travelled one tick mark i.e., 1 mm.

• So suppose one gets 5 voltage spikes then the movement is 5 mm.

• If oscilloscope is connected at the Reed Head voltage peaks are

generated on the oscilloscope.

• By counting these peaks the movement is known.

11
8
Direction of movement

Metal scale
Light
Reed Source
Head
Sensor
Solar Cell
produces
voltage
Moved
Oscilloscope downward
Voltage

Signal1 Signal2
Signal1
Signal 2

Time (sec)
11
9
• For this second light source and sensor are added to determine
direction.

• So we will have two bits of light emitted and after striking the
reflective tick will be received by the sensor.

• If moving downward first signal will on the top of the tick mark
first and its square/sine wave peak will be first as compared to
second signal.

• Signal 1 is in front of signal 2 hence we are travelling downward.

12
0
 Home
Reference Point
Metal scale
Light
Reed Source
Head
Sensor
Solar Cell
produces
voltage

Oscilloscope
Voltage

Signal1 Signal2
Signal1
Signal 2

Time (sec)
12
1
• This is accomplished by proximity sensors.

• When the axis is moved in the specific direction, they recognize the
home switch and call it (0,0) point.

• Hence it will be determine where the things are kept on table.

12
2
 DNC
Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
• Direct Numerical Control Software (DNC) solution is a multi-
threaded communications and file management system that
allows for simultaneous upload and download of multiple CNC
controls.
• It remotely uploads and downloads directly from the CNC control,
and files are automatically named, saved, and stored in the
correct folder.
• The remote sends back directory listing, and uses “long” file
names.
• DNC Software is easily connected to CAD/CAM systems over
industry standard networks and is available in a Client-Server
configuration.

123
DNC
Components of a DNC system
Central computer
Bulk memory, which stores the part program
Telecommunication lines
Machine tools

124
 DNC
The computer calls the part program instructions from bulk storage
an d sends them to the individual machines as the need arises.
It also receives data back from the machines.
The two way information flow occurs in real time, which means that
each machine’s requests for instructions must be satisfied almost
instantaneously.
Similarly computer must always be ready to receive information
from the machine and to respond accordingly.

125
 DNC
Depending on the number of machines and the computational
requirements that are imposed on the computer, it is sometimes necessary
to make use of satellite computers.
These satellites are minicomputers, and they serve to take some of the
burden off the central computer. Each satellite computer controls several
machines.
Group of of part program instructions are received from the central
computer and stored in buffers.
They are then dispensed to the individual machines as required.
Feedback data from the machines are also stored in the satellite's buffer
before being collected at the central computer.

126
 DNC

Direct numerical control (DNC)

Control of multiple machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection and in real time
• 1960s technology
• Two way communication

127
DNC
Distributed Numerical Control Configurations
Network consisting of central computer connected to machine
tool MCUs, which are CNC
• Present technology
• Two way communication

Switching
network

128
 TYPES OF DNC
Two types:
1. Behind the Tape Reader (BTR) 2. Special Machine Control Unit
1. Behind the tape Reader (BTR)
•Computer is linked directly to
regular NC controller unit.

•The connection is made behind

the tape reader.

•Two temporary storage buffers.

While one buffer is receiving a
block of data, the other is
providing control instructions to
the machine tool.

•Less cost. 129

 TYPES OF DNC
2. Special Machine Control Unit
• In this configuration the
regular NC controller is
replace with special MCU.
• This special MCU is a device
that is specifically designed to
facilitate communication
between the machine tool
and the computer.
• One area where this
communication link is
important is in circular
interpolation of the cutter
path.
• The special MCU is soft-wired
and, while the conventional
130
NC controller is hard–wired.
Advantages of DNC
1. Elimination of punched tape and tape reader
2. Greater computational capability and flexibility
3. Convenient storage of NC part programs in computer files
4. Programs stored as CLFILE
5. Reporting of shop performance
6. Establishes the framework for evolution of future computer
automated factory (CIM)
7. 2-5 % increase in operational efficiency of CNC machine tools.
Cost of DNC installation can be recovered quickly.

131
NC, CNC and DNC comparison

132
NC, CNC and DNC comparison

Advantages of DNC
1. Elimination of punched tape and tape reader
2. Greater computational capability and flexibility
3. Convenient storage of NC part programs in computer files
4. Programs stored as CLFILE
5. Reporting of shop performance
6. Establishes the framework for evolution of future computer automated
factory (CIM)
7. 2-5 % increase in operational efficiency of CNC machine tools. Cost of
DNC installation can be recovered quickly.

133
ADAPTIVE CONTROL: AC
Adaptive Control

• A control system that measures certain output process variables

like spindle deflection, force, torque, cutting temperature,
vibration amplitude, horse power and uses them to control
speed or feed.

• CNC reduces non productive time in a machining operation

whereas, AC determines proper speeds and feeds during
machining as a function of variation in work piece hardness,
width or depth of cut, air gaps in part geometry etc.

• The typical measures of performance in machining have been

metal removal rate and reduced cost per volume of metal
removed.
134
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
• Adaptive control system is a logical extension of the CNC-
mechanism.
• In CNC mechanism the cutting speed and feed rates are
prescribed by the part programmer. The determination of these
operating parameters depends on the Knowledge and experience
regarding the work piece, tool materials, coolant conditions and
other factors.
• By contrast in adaptive control machining, there is improvement
in the production rate and reduction in the machining cost as a
result of calculating and setting of optimal parameters during
machining.
• This calculation is based on measurements of process variables in
real time and followed by a subsequent on-line adjustments of
the parameters subjected to machining constraints in order to
optimize the performance of the overall system.
135
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
• Adaptive control possesses attributes of both feedback control
and optimal control.

• Like a feedback system measurements are taken on certain

process variables whereas in an optimal system, an overall
measure of performance is used.

• In adaptive control, this measure is called the index of

performance (IP).

• An adaptive control system is designed to operate for the

changing environment by monitoring its performance and
altering accordingly, some aspects of its control mechanism to
achieve optimal or near optimal routine.

136
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Where to use adaptive control?

Adaptive control is not appropriate for every operation situation.

In general, the following characteristics can be used to identify
situations where adaptive can be beneficially applied.

1. In-process time consumes significant portion of the machining

cycle time. (>40%)
2. Significant sources of variability in the job
3. Higher cost of operation of machine tool
4. Work material – steel, titanium, high strength alloys

137
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Sources of variability in machining.

•Variable geometry of cut in the form of changing depth or width of

cut (profile milling or contouring operations).
The feed rate is usually compensated for the variability.

•Variable work piece hardness and variable machineability.

Either speed or feed is reduced to avoid premature failure of
the tool.

• Variable work piece rigidity.

If the work piece deflects as a result of insufficient rigidity in
the setup, the feed rate must be reduced to maintain accuracy
in the process.

138
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Sources of variability in machining.

•Tool wear
As tool wears, cutting forces increases and AC will reduce the
feed rate.

•Air gap during cutting.

If the tool continue feeding through the air gaps at the same
rate, time would be lost. Accordingly, the typical procedure is
to increase the feed rate when the gaps are encountered.

139
ADAPTIVE CONTROL

Functions of adaptive control

The three functions of adaptive control are:
1. Identification function.
2. Decision function.
3. Modification function.

140
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Identification function.
• This involves determining the current performance of the process or system.
• Normally, the performance quality of the system is defined by some relevant
index of performance.
• The identification function is concerned with determining the current value of
this performance measure by making use of the feedback data from the
process.
• Since the environment will change overtime, the performance of the system
will also change.
• Accordingly the identification is one that must proceed over time or less
continuously. Identification of the system may involve a number of possible
measurements activities.
141
ADAPTIVE CONTROL

Decision function
• Once the system performance is determined, the next function is to decide
how the control mechanism should be adjusted to improve process
performance.
• The decision procedure is carried out by means of a pre-programmed logic
provided by the designer.
• Depending upon the logic the decision may be to change one or more of the
controllable process.

142
 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Modification function.

• The third AC function is to implement the decision. While the decision

function is a logic function, modification is concerned with a physical or
mechanical change in the system.
• It is a hardware function rather than a software function.
• The modification involves changing the system parameters or variables so as to
drive the process towards a more optimal state.
• The process is assumed to be influenced by some time varying environment.

143
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Modification function.
• The adaptive system first identifies the current performance by taking
measurements of inputs and outputs.
• Depending on current performance, a decision procedure is carried out
to determine what changes are needed to improve system performance.
• Actual changes to the system are made in the modification function.

144
Adaptive Control
Types of Adaptive Control
There are basically two groups of adaptive control.
1. Geometrical adaptive control.
2. Technological adaptive control.

145
Adaptive Control

Geometrical Adaptive Control

• This type of adaptive control is concerned with monitoring the shape and
dimension of a machined component.
• It relies on some in process gauging instrument to relay information with
a very short time response.
• The index of performance of such a system is the final dimension and
shape of the component.
• It may be said that the desired final goal of the automated machining
process is that the drawing of the work piece to be machined component
is the output.

146
Adaptive Control

Technological Adaptive Control System

Under the umbrella of technological AC two distinct systems are grouped:
1. Adaptive control constraint (ACC)
2. Adaptive control optimization (ACO)

147
Adaptive Control

Benefits of AC
1. Increased production rate
2. Increased tool life
3. Greater part protection
4. Increases machine life
5. Less operator intervention
6. Easier part programming

148
END OF 2nd UNIT

118