Basic Structures We l e a d

Week 1:
Monday, 17th October 2022
Tuesday, 18th October 2022
Reference:
R1: Ch.2
R2: Ch.1 & 3
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the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Section Summary We lead

1.1 Sets
• The Language of Sets
• Set Operations
• Set Identities

1.2 Functions
• Types of Functions
• Operations on Functions
• Computability

1.3 Sequences and Summations

• Types of Sequences
• Summation Formulae

1.4 Set Cardinality

• Countable Sets

1.5 Matrices
• Matrix Arithmetic

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 Section 1.3

Sequences and Summations

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Section 1.3
Section Summary We lead

✓ Sequences
• Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic Progression
✓ Recurrence Relations
• Example: Fibonacci Sequence
✓ Summations

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Section 1.3
Introduction We lead

Sequences are ordered lists of elements.

• 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 (sequence with five terms)
• 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….,3n , … (infinite)
Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer science,
and in many other disciplines, ranging from botany to music.
We will introduce the terminology to represent sequences and
sums of the terms in the sequences.

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Section 1.3
Sequences We lead

Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of the integers

(usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..} or {1, 2, 3, 4, ….}) to a set S.

The notation an is used to denote the image of the integer n. We

can think of an as the equivalent of f(n) where f is a function from
{0,1,2,…..} to S. We call an a term of the sequence.

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Section 1.3
Sequences We lead

Example: Consider the sequence an where;

1
an = an  = a1 , a2 , a3 ...
n
1 1 1
1, , ,
2 3 4

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Section 1.3
Geometric Progression We lead

Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of the form:

where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real numbers.
Examples :
1. Let a = 1and r = −1. Then :
bn  = b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ,... = 1, − 1, 1, − 1, 1,...
2. Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then :
cn  = c0 , c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 ,... = 2, 10, 50, 250, 1250,...
3. Let a = 6 and r = 1/ 3. Then :
 2 2 2 
d n  = d0 , d1 , d 2 , d3 , d 4 ,... = 6, 2, , , ,...
 3 9 27 
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Section 1.3
Arithmetic Progression We lead

Definition: A arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form:

a, a + d , a + 2d ,..., a + nd ,...
where the initial term a and the common difference d are real
numbers. Examples :
1. Let a = −1and d = 4 :
sn  = s0 , s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 ,... = 1, −{-1, 1, 1,...
1,7,−11,..}
1, 3,
2. Let a = 7 and d = −3 :
tn  = t0 , t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 ,... = 7, 4, 1, − 2, − 5,...
3. Let a = 1and d = 2 :
un  = u0 , u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ,... = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,...
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Section 1.3
Strings We lead

Definition: A string is a finite sequence of characters from a

finite set (an alphabet).
Sequences of characters or bits are important in computer
science.
The empty string is represented by λ (is the string that has no
terms, empty string has length zero).
The string abcde has length 5.

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Section 1.3
Recurrence Relations We lead

Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an equation

that expresses an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of
the sequence, namely, a0, a1, …, an−1, for all integers n with n ≥ n0,
where n0 is a nonnegative integer.
A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if its terms
satisfy the recurrence relation.
The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms that precede
the first term where the recurrence relation takes effect.

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Section 1.3
Recurrence Relations We lead

Example 1:
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
𝑎 n= 𝑎 n-1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and suppose that 𝑎0 = 2.
What are a1 , a2 and a3? [Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]

Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that;

a1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a3 = 8 + 3 = 11

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Section 1.3
Recurrence Relations We lead

Example 2:
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an =
an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5.
What are a2 and a3?
[Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ]

Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that;

a2 = a1 − a0 = 5 − 3 = 2
a3 = a2 − a1 = 2 − 5 = −3

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Section 1.3
Fibonacci Sequence
Definition: Define the Fibonacci sequence, f0 ,f1 ,f2,…, by:
• Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
• Recurrence Relation: fn = fn−1 + fn−2
Example: Find f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 and f6 .
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We lead
The Fibonacci sequence, also known
as Fibonacci numbers, is defined as
the sequence of numbers in which
each number in the sequence is equal
to the sum of two numbers before it.
Section 1.3
Solving Recurrence Relations We lead

Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence generated by

a recurrence relation is called solving the recurrence relation.

Such a formula is called a closed formula.

Various methods for solving recurrence

relations will be covered in Chapter 8
where recurrence relations will be
studied in greater depth.

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Section 1.3
Solving Recurrence Relations We lead

Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution. Let {an} be a sequence

that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2, 3, 4, ….
and suppose that a1 = 2.
Solution:
a2 = 2 + 3

Answer: 𝟐 + 𝟑(𝒏 − 𝟏)
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Section 1.3
Solving Recurrence Relations We lead

Method 1: Working downward, backward substitution. Let {an} be a

sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2, 3, 4, ….
and suppose that a1 = 2.
Solution:
an = an−1 + 3 Final term
an-1 = an−2 + 3 + 3
an-2 = an−3 + 3 + 3 + 3
…
a3 = a2 + 3
…
Answer: 𝟐 + 𝟑(𝒏 − 𝟏)
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Section 1.3
Summations We lead

Sum of the terms am , am + 1,..., an

from the sequence an 
The notation:
n

a  
n
j j =m
aj m  j n
aj
j =m

represents
am + am +1 +  + an

The variable j is called the index of summation. It runs

through all the integers starting with its lower limit m
and ending with its upper limit n.
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Section 1.3
Summations We lead

More generally for a set S :

 js
aj
Examples:
n
r + r + r + r +  + r =  r
0 1 2 3 n j

0

1 1 1 1
1 + + + +  = 
2 3 4 1 i

If S = 2,5, 7,10 then a

js
j = a2 + a5 + a7 + a10

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 Some Useful Summation Formulae
TABLE 2 Some Useful Summation Formulae.
Sum Closed Form Geometric Series:
n
ar n +1 − a We just proved this.
 ar ( r  0 )
k =0
k

r −1
, r 1
n
n ( n + 1)
k
k =1 2
Later we will
n
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
prove some
k2
k =1 6
of these by
induction.
n 2 ( n + 1)
n 2

k 3

k =1 4

1
 ,| x |< 1
x k

1− x
k =0
Proof in text

1
 kx
k =0
k −1
,| x |< 1
(1 − x )
2
(requires calculus)

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