Complex Numbers and Functions

HTE - Ekim 2021

0. Graphical view of complex number and the requirement

The graphical view of real and imaginary axes is displayed in Fig. 0.1

Fig. 0.1 Graphical view of real and imaginary axes.

The main idea carried in Fig. 0.1 is that real axis is not adequate to represent some physical
quantities only with numeric quantities on a single (real) axis, therefore we need a second one.
Hence we place an axis perpendicular to the existing real axis, called imaginary axis to alleviate this
inadequacy. Of course the numeric quantities on the imaginary axis must be differentiated from
those on the real axis. The way to do this is to introduce a unity scaling factor, which is
j  1  1  1 . It is important to realize that imaginary numbers can be represented
0.5 1/ 2

in angular differences as well. The same applies to positive and negative real numbers. Thus we can
write the followings

2 j  900 shifted version of 2

 2700 shifted version of 2
2  1800 shifted version of 2
 1800 shifted version of 2
2 j  900 shifted version of 2
 2700 shifted version of 2 (0.1)

Exercise 0.1 : Write for 5 and 5 j as in (0.1). 5 and 5 j ’i (0.1)’deki gibi yazın.

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 1

1. Basics

The representation of a complex number will be

z  x  jy (1.1)

where x is the real part of z , y is the imaginary part of z , while z is the absolute value of z . They
are also indicated as

x  Re  z  y  Im  z  x2  y 2  z
2
, ,
x  real  z  , y  imag  z  z  abs  z  in Matlab notation
if z  x , then z is purely real, if z  jy , then z is purely imaginary (1.2)

Note that j  1  1  1 .

0.5 1/ 2

1.1 Addition and Multiplication Rules

Given two complex numbers, z1 and z 2 such that

z1  x1  jy1 , z2  x2  jy2 (1.3)

we perform the addition and multiplication as follows

Re z  z  Im z  z 
    1
 2
  1 2

Addition : z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2 
Multiplication : z1  z2   x1  jy1  x2  jy2    x1  jy1  x2  jy2 
Re z1  Re z2 Im z1  Im z2 
Re z  Im z  Im z  Re z 
  1 2 1 2

 x1 x2  jx1 y2  jy1 x2  j y1 y2   x1 x2  y1 y2   j  x1 y2  y1 x2 
2
(1.4)

For the last line of (1.4), we have used the fact that j 2  1 .

1.2 Subtraction and Division Rules

Given two complex numbers, z1 and z 2 such that

z1  x1  jy1 , z2  x2  jy2 (1.5)

we perform the subtraction and division as follows

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 2

 Re z  z  Im z  z 
       1 2 1 2

Subtraction : z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2 
z1 x  jy1  x  jy1  x2  jy2 
Division : z  x  jy   z1 / z2  1  1
z2 x2  jy2  x2  jy2  x2  jy2 
 x
  y

x x  y1 y2 y x  x1 y2
 1 22  j 1 22 (1.6)
x2  y2
2
x2  y22

For the last line of (1.4), we have used the fact that j 2  1 .

Example 1.1 : Given

z1  8  j3  8  3 j , z2  9  j 2  9  2 j (1.7)

Find z1  z2 , z1  z2 , z1  z2 and z1 / z 2

Solution : Using (1.4) and (1.6), we get

 y  
Re z  z  Im z  z 
        x x y

1 2 1 2
2

j 3 2  17  j
1 2

Addition : z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2   8  9 
 
Re z1  Re z2 Im z1  Im z2 
Re z  Im z  Im z  Re z 
  1 2 1 2

Multiplication : z1  z2   x1 x2  y1 y2   j  x1 y2  y1 x2 
 89  32  j 82  39  78 11 j
Re z  z 
  1


2
Im z  z 
  1
 y 
2y

Subtraction : z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2   8  9  j 3  2  1  5 j

1 2

 
x
  y

z1 x1 x2  y1 y2 y1 x2  x1 y2 89  32 39  82
Division : z  x  jy   2 j 2   j
x2  y2 x2  y2 92  2 9 2  2
2 2 2 2
z2
66 43
 j (1.8)
85 85

Exercise 1.1 : Test the numeric results of (1.8) in Matlab.

1.3 Complex Plane

It is possible to show the complex number z , as a vector on the complex plane where horizontal axis,
x represents the real part of z , while the vertical axis, y is the imaginary part of z . Two such
illustrations are given in Fig. 1.1.

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 3

 Imaginary axis
y
y
z =x +jy
y 1 1 1
1

1 2 3 4
0
x x
0 x Real axis
1
-1

-2

-3
z =4-3j
2

Fig. 1.1 Two examples on the representation of complex numbers on the complex plane.

It is possible to perform addition and subtraction of complex numbers using the plane of Fig. 1.1. Such
cases are plotted in Fig. 1.2.

y
y Addition of complex numbers Subtraction of complex numbers

z
z z=z +z 2
2 1 2

z
1
0
x
z
1
x
0 z=z -z
1 2
-z
2

Fig. 1.2 Addition and subtraction of complex number on the complex plane.

1.4 Complex Conjugate

The complex conjugate of a complex number is defined as

Given z  x  jy , Complex conjugate of z : z *  x  jy (1.9)

The graphical representation of complex conjugate corresponds to going to the opposite side of the
imaginary axis or taking a mirror image with respect to the real axis. Such an illustration is given in Fig.
1.3.

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 4

 y

y z =x +jy
1 1 1 1

0 x
x
1

-y z* = x - j y
1 1 1 1

Fig. 1.3 Illustration of complex conjugate.

From (1.9), we get the following equalities

1 1
Re  z   x   z  z*  , Im  z   y   z  z*  (1.10)
2 2j

Furthermore, complex conjugate has the following properties

 z1 
*

   z1
*

 z1  z2   z  z ,  z1  z2   z  z  z1  z2   z  z
* * *
*
1
*
2
*
1
*
2
, *
1
*
2
,  z  (1.11)
2
z2*

Example 1.2 : Given

z1  4  3 j , z2  2  5 j (1.12)

Prove the identities in (1.10) and (1.11) by hand derivation and also using symbolic toolbox facility of
Matlab.

Solution : To use the symbolic toolbox facility of Matlab, on the command window, we type in and get
the following answers

>> syms z1 z2

>> syms x1 x2 y1 y2 real

>> z1 = x1 + j*y1;z2 = x2 + j*y2;

>> real(z1)

ans =

x1

>> conj(z1 + z2)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 5

ans =

x1 + x2 - y1*i - y2*i

For (1.10), by hand derivation we have the followings

x y
1 1
x y 2 2

z1  x1  jy1  4  3 j , z2  x2  jy2  2  5 j
x 1  
z
  z

*
1

Re  z1   x1   z1  z1   4  4  3 j  4  3 j   4  4
1
1 1

* 
2 2  

x 1  
z
  z
 
*

Re  z2   x2   z2  z2   2  2  5 j  2  5 j   2  2
2 2

1
2

* 
2 2  

 z  z 
y 1    
*
1

1
Im  z1   y1   z1  z1   3 
1 1

 4  3 j  4  3 j   3  3
*

2j 2j  
 
  
 1     
*
y z z 2 2

1
Im  z2   y2   z2  z2*   5 
2

 2  5 j   2  5 j 
  5  5 (1.13)
2j 2j 
 
 

On the other hand, for (1.11), we have the followings

x y 1 1
x y 2 2

z1  x1  jy1  4  3 j , z 2  x2  jy2  2  5 j
     
z z *


1 2

 z1  z2   z  z  4  3 j  2  5 j   4  3 j   2  5 j 
* * * * *
1 2
 

 6  8 j   4  3 j  2  5 j  6  8 j  6  8 j
*

        
    
z z * * *
z z

1 2 1 2

 1 2   
          
    
  j
*
z z z z 4 3 j   2 5 j 4 3 j 2 5
* *

   
1 2

 
 7  26 j   7  26 j   7  26 j  7  26 j
*
(1.14)

Exercise 1.2 : Test the remaining identities of (1.14), i.e.

 z1 
*

   z1
*

 z1  z2   z  z
* * *
, (1.15)
1 2
 z2  z2*

for z1 and z2 of (1.12)

Exercise 1.3 : Prove and solve the followings and verify your results using Matlab. When working in
Matlab, you can also use the symbolic notation as explained in Example 1.2.

a) Show that j 2  1, j 3   j , j 4  1, j 5  j, , 1/ j   j, 1/ j 2  1, 1/ j 3  j,  .

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 6

 b) Given z1  2  3 j , z2  4  5 j , find 5 z1  3 z2  , z1 / z1* , z2* / z2 .
2

c) Given z  x  jy , find Re  z   and Re  z   .

* 2 2 *

   

2. Polar Form of Complex Numbers

By associating real and imaginary parts of the complex number to their polar equivalent

x  r cos   , y  r sin   (2.1)

we can write z in polar form as

z  r cos    j sin   (2.2)

Where r becomes the absolute value of z , sometimes known as modulus and can be equated to

z  r   x2  y 2    zz* 
0.5 0.5
(2.3)

In polar coordinates,  is called the argument of z , denoted as arg  z  and related to real and
imaginary parts as follows

 y  y  y
  arg  z   arctan    atan    tan -1   ,   angle  z  in Matlab notation (2.4)
 x  x  x

Because of the 2n , n : integer periodicity of sinusoidal functions, the argument can also be
expressed as

    2n
z  r cos    j sin    r  cos   2n   j sin   2n  (2.5)

Here, we make the following distinction

  arg  z   Arg  z   2n ,    Arg  z    (2.6)

(2.6) means (only) the argument part of z is multivalued and It is usually Arg  z  which is also known
as principle value is the one inserted into (2.2). It is important to realize that z itself is single valued
as shown on the second line of (2.5), the multivalue property of the argument makes z periodic in
2n .

Graphically, for a given z1  r1 cos 1   j sin 1  , r1 will correspond to the length of z1 , while 1
is the angle that z1 vector makes with the horizontal real axis, as shown in Fig. 2.1.

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 7

 Imaginary axis
y
y
z = r [ cos (  ) + j sin (  ) ]
y 1 1 1 1 z
1 1
|z
1 -z
| 2 |

|
|z
1

1
|z
=
r
1

| z 2| z
1 2
) x x
0 x Real axis
0
1

Fig. 2.1 Illustration of complex number in polar notation and the distance between two complex
numbers.

Based on the principle of vector lengths, we can also measure the distance between their end points
as indicated on the right hand side of Fig. 2.1.

Exercise 2.1 : By considering the right hand side plot of Fig. 2.1, draw on the complex plane z1  z2 .
From there prove that

z1  z2  z1  z2 (2.7)

Example 2.1 : Given

z  1 j (2.8)

write z in polar form and find arg  z 

Solution : From (2.2), (2.3), (2.4) and (2.6) we can write

z  1  j  x  jy
 y 1 
  arg  z   arctan    arctan     2n  Arg  z   2n , n  0, 1, 2, 
 x 1 4
     
r  z   x 2  y 2   2 , z  r cos    j sin    2  cos    j sin    1  j (2.9)
0.5

  4   4 

2.1 Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

Given

z1  r1 cos 1   j sin 1  , z2  r2 cos 2   j sin 2  (2.10)

for multiplication, we get

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 8

 z  x  jy  z1  z2  z1 z2  r1r2 cos 1   2   j sin 1   2 
 y  r r sin 1   2  
z  z1 z2  r1r2 ,   arg  z   arctan    arctan  1 2    

 x  1 2
r r cos 1
  
2 
1 2

1
2

arg  z   arg  z1   arg  z2  (2.11)

According to (2.11) the argument of the product, z1 z2 , is equal to the sum of individual arguments of
z1 and z 2 .

For division we get

z1 r1 cos 1   j sin 1  r1 cos 1   j sin 1  cos 2   j sin  2 
z  x  jy      
z2 r2 cos  2   j sin  2  r2 cos  2   j sin  2  cos  2   j sin  2 
  
r1 cos 1  cos  2   sin 1  sin  2   j sin 1  cos 2  cos 1  sin 2 

r2 cos 2  2   sin 2  2 

cos 1  cos 2   sin 1 sin 2   j sin 1  cos 2  cos 1 sin 2 
r1

r2
z1 r
z  1
z2 r2
 r1  
  sin 1  cos  2   cos 1  sin  2  
 y r 
  arg  z   arctan    arctan  2 
 x  r1  
 r cos 1  cos  2   sin 1  sin  2  

 2 
 sin 1 2  
 arctan    1  2 ,
 arg  z   arg  z1   arg  z2 
  1
cos    2  

r
z  1 cos 1  2   j sin 1  2  (2.12)
r2

where on the last three lines of (2.12), we have used the identities

2sin 1  cos  2   sin 1  2   sin 1   2 

2 cos 1  cos  2   cos 1  2   cos 1   2 
2sin 1  sin  2   cos 1  2   cos 1   2  (2.13)

Example 2.1 : Given

z1  2  2 j , z2  3 j (2.14)

find z1 z2 and z1 / z 2 using polar form.

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 9

Solution : Using (2.11), (2.12), we can write

x1
y1  y2
x2

z1  x1  jy1  2  2 j , z2  x2  jy2  0  3 j
r1  z1   x12  y 
2 0.5
 4  4  2 2 , r2  z2   x22  y22   0  9  3
0.5 0.5 0.5
1

y   2  3 y   3 
1  arctan  1   arctan    ,  2  arctan  2   arctan    arctan  
 
 x1   2  4  x2   0 2
  5   5 
z1 z2  r1r2 cos 1   2   j sin 1   2   6 2 cos    j sin  
  4   4 

 3  
 6 2 cos    j sin  3 
  4   4 
z1 r1  2 2       
 cos 1  2   j sin 1  2   cos    j sin   (2.15)
z2 r2 3   4   4 


Note that the writing on the second line of z1 z2 in (2.15) is due to the range limitation in Arg  z  as
stated in (2.6).

By taking the first line of (2.11), and setting z1  z2  z , then using (2.2), we get

z 2  r 2  cos 2   j sin 2   r 2  cos    j sin  

2
(2.16)

or in general

z n  r n  cos n   j sin n   r n  cos    j sin  

n
(2.17)

(2.17) means

cos n   j sin n    cos    j sin  

n
(2.18)

The relation in (2.18) is known as De Moivre’s formula. By equating the real and imaginary parts on
both sides, it can be used to find cos n  and sin n  in terms of powers of cos   and sin   .
For instance, when n  2 , it is found that

cos 2   cos2   sin 2   , sin  2   2cos   sin   (2.19)

Exercise 2.1 : By considering De Moivre’s formula given in (2.18), find cos 3  and sin 3  in terms
of powers of cos   and sin   . Note you can verify your result by typing the following on the
command window of Matlab

>> syms tet

>> expand(cos(3*tet))

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 10

ans =

4*cos(tet)^3 - 3*cos(tet)

3. Roots

If z  wn , with n  1, 2, 3,  , then by keeping w constant, but incrementing n , we obtain a new

value of z . Conversely, for a given z , there are n roots of w in the relation of

w  n z   z
1/ n
(3.1)

This way, w is multivalued. To find the n values of n

z , initially we write z and w in polar form

z  r cos    j sin   , w  R cos    j sin   (3.2)

Then using z  wn , we equate the two expressions of (3.2)

z  r  cos    j sin    wn  R n  cos    j sin    R n  cos n   j sin n 
n
(3.3)

From (3.3), we get r  R n or R  n r , where r is positive real. Then equating the arguments  and
n taking into account (2.6), we get

  2 k
n    2k ,  , k  0, 1, 2, , n 1 (3.4)
n

By incrementing k as shown on the far right hand side of (3.4), we get n distinct values of w or
correspondingly roots. Provided z  0 , then n
z has the n distinct values (roots) given by

   2k  
n
z  n r cos    j sin   2k  (3.5)
  n   n 


These n distinct values lie on a vertices of a polygon n sides encircled by a circle of radius R  n r .
Taking the simplest case of z  1 , we get

  2k    2k 
n
1  cos    j sin   (3.6)
 n   n 

By setting n  3, 4, 5 in (3.6), we get the corresponding n th roots of unity as listed in (3.7) and as
shown in Fig. 3.1.

3
1  1,  0.5  0.5 j 3,  0.5  0.5 j 3
4
1  1, j , 1,  j
5
1  1, ?, ?, ?, ? (3.7)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 11

 y y y

- 0.5 + 0.5 j  3 j ?
?
1 -1 1 1
x x x

?
- 0.5 - 0.5 j  3 -j ?

roots of 3 1 roots of 4 1 roots of 5 1

Fig. 3.1 Illustration for the roots of n

1 for n  3, 4, 5 .

Exercise 3.1 : Using (3.6), find the remaining roots of 5 1 shown with question marks. Verify that all
roots listed in (3.7) and given in Fig. 3.1 are indeed root by applying the following evaluation (in
Matlab!) such as the following sample calculation

0.5  0.5 j 3
3
1 (3.8)

Exercise 3.2 : Represent the followings in polar form

1 j 2j
z1  , z2  (3.9)
1 j 5 4 j

Exercise 3.3 : Determine the principle value of the arguments for the followings

z1  1  j  , z2   2
7
(3.10)

Exercise 3.4 : Find, plot and verify the roots for the followings

z1  5 1 , z2  3 3  4 j (3.11)

Note that we also can find the roots of z1  5 1 by typing in Matlab the commands : syms
z;solve(z^5 +1)

4. Exponential Function

For a complex z , we define the exponetial function as

exp  z  or e z (4.1)

By setting z  x  jy , we get

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 12

 exp  z   exp  x  jy   exp  x exp  jy   exp  x  cos  y   j sin  y  (4.2)

From (4.2), we have the Euler’s formula and additionally using (2.17), (2.18) and (3.3)

exp  jy   cos  y   j sin  y 

 exp  jy   exp  jny   cos  ny   j sin  ny 
n

  (4.3)

Hence the polar form in (2.2) can also be written as

z  r cos    j sin    r exp  j  (4.4)

From (4.3), we see that

exp  j 2   1 , exp  j / 2  j , exp  j / 2  exp  j 3 / 2   j

exp  j   exp  j   1 (4.5)

By letting

z1  x1  jy1 , z2  x2  jy2 (4.6)

For multiplication of exponential function, we get

exp  z1  exp  z2   exp  z1  z2   exp  x1  cos  y1   j sin  y1  exp  x2  cos  y2   j sin  y2 
 exp  x1  x2  cos  y1  y2   j sin  y1  y2  (4.7)

To arrive at the second line of (4.7), we have benefited from the relations in (2.13).

Taking the absolute value of (4.3), we find

exp  jy   cos  y   j sin  y   cos 2  y   sin 2  y   1 (4.8)

The implication of (4.8) is that when z is purely imaginary, then its value is always unity. For a general
case however,

 y

exp  z   exp  x , arg  exp  z   Arg  exp  z   2n  y  2n , n  0, 1, 2,  (4.9)

From (4.9), we have two deductions, these are

exp  z   0 , exp  z   exp  z  2 jn  (4.10)

Similar to the definition of the principal argument, we define the fundamental region of y as

  y   (4.10)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 13

Example 4.1 : Find the real and imaginary parts, the absolute value and the (principle) argument of the
following complex exponential function

exp  z   exp 1.4  0.6 j  (4.11)

Solution : Using (4.2) and (4.9), we can write

exp 1.4  0.6 j   exp 1.4  cos 0.6  j sin 0.6  4.055 0.8253  0.5646 j 
 3.347  2.289 j
exp 1.4  0.6 j   exp 1.4  4.055 , Arg  exp 1.4  0.6 j   0.6 (4.12)

The result in (4.12) can be verified by typing the followings on Matlab command window

>> exp(1.4 - 0.6*j)

ans =

3.3469 - 2.2897i

Example 4.2 : Solve the equation

exp  z   3  4 j or exp  z   3  4 j  0 (4.13)

Solution : Using (4.9), we can write

exp  z   exp  x , 3  4 j  5 , hence exp  x  5 or x  ln 5  1.609

exp  x  cos  y   3 , cos  y   3/ 5  0.6 , y  0.927
exp  x  sin  y   4 , sin  y   4 / 5  0.8 , y  0.927
z  1.609  0.927 j  2 jn (4.14)

Exercise 4.1 : Compute the exponential forms of z1 and z2

1 j 2j
z1  , z2  (4.15)
1 j 54 j

Exercise 4.2 : Write the followings in polar form

z1  1.5  2.4 j , z2  9 (4.16)

Exercise 4.3 : Find the solutions to the following equations

exp  z   4 , exp  z   2 , exp  z   0 , exp  z   4  3 j (4.17)

5. Sinusoidal Functions

By writing the Euler’s formula of (4.3) in two different ways

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 14

 exp  jx   cos  x  j sin  x , exp  jx  cos  x  j sin  x  (5.1)

we get

1 1 
cos  x   exp  jx  exp  jx , sin  x   exp  jx   exp  jx (5.2)
2 2j

Note that the same definitions are valid for complex z , thus replacing x in (5.2) with z , we get

1 1 
cos  z   exp  jz   exp  jz  , sin  z   exp  jz   exp  jz  (5.3)
2 2j 

Similarly, Euler’s formula is valid for complex z , hence (4.3) can be written as

exp  jz   cos  z   j sin  z  (5.4)

Example 5.1 : Given z  x  jy , prove that

cos  z   cos  x cosh  y  j sin  x  sinh  y  , sin  z   sin  x cosh  y   j cos  x  sinh  y 
cos  z   cos 2  x  sinh 2  y  sin  z   sin 2  x   sinh 2  y 
2 2
, (5.5)

Solution : Using (5.3), we can write

exp  j  x  jy   exp  j  x  jy

1
cos  z  
2
1 1
 exp  y   cos  x   j sin  x  exp  y  cos  x   j sin  x
2 2
cosh  y  sinh  y 
 
1 1
  exp  y   exp  y  cos  x  j exp  y   exp  y  sin  x 
2 2
cos  z   cos  x cosh  y   j sin  x  sinh  y  (5.6)

From the last line of (5.6), we have

cos  z   cos 2  x cosh 2  y   sin 2  x sinh 2  y  , use cosh 2  y   1  sinh 2  y 

2

cos  z   cos 2  x   sinh 2  y 

2
(5.7)

Exercise 5.1 : Prove the right hand side identities on the first and seconds lines of (5.5), benefiting from
(5.6) and (5.7). Check your results in Matlab by assigning, z  0.14  2.25 j .

By using the first line of (5.5), we can evaluate cos  z  for a sample calculation of z  2  3 j to get

cos  z   cos  x  cosh  y   j sin  x  sinh  y   cos  2 cosh 3  j sin 2 sinh 3
 4.19  9.109 j (5.8)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 15

The numeric value on second line of (5.8) demonstrates that, when a complex argument is used, the
restriction

cos  x  1 or sin  x  1 (5.9)

no longer applies.

Example 5.2 : Solve the equation

cos  z   5 or cos  z  5  0 (5.10) .

Solution : By using the definition given in (5.3), we can write

1
cos  z   5  0  exp  jz   exp  jz   5  0
2
exp 2 jz  10 exp  jz   1  0 (5.11)

The equation on the second line of (5.11) can be converted into a quadratic equation by setting
exp  jz   t . Solving in this manner, we get

exp  jz   5  25 1  9.899 and 0.101 (5.12)

From the numeric result of (5.12), we can write

exp  y   9.899 or 0.101 , y  2.292

exp  jx   exp 0  1 , x  2n
z  x  jy  2n  2.292 j n  0, 1, 2,  (5.13)

To verify the result in (5.13), we perform the following tests in Matlab for n  0, 1

>>cos(2.292*j)

ans =

4.9979

>> cos(-2.292*j)

ans =

4.9979

>> cos(2*pi-2.292*j)

ans =

4.9979 - 0.0000i

>> cos(-2*pi-2.292*j)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 16

ans =

4.9979 + 0.0000i

>> cos(-2*pi+2.292*j)

ans =

4.9979 - 0.0000i

%%% Alternative solution

syms z

kok = solve(cos(z) – 5,z)

cos(kok(1)) – 5 == 0

Exercise 5.2 : Solve the following equations

cos  z   0 , sin  z   0 (5.14)

Relations similar to (2.13) also hold for z being complex, hence

cos  z1  z2   cos  z1  cos  z2   sin  z1  sin  z2 

sin  z1  z2   sin  z1  cos  z2   cos  z1  sin  z2  (5.15)

Similarly

cos 2  z   sin 2  z   1 (5.16)

Exercise 5.3 : Test the relations in (5.15) for

z1  1.5  2.4 j , z2  5.3 (5.17)

6. Hyperbolic Functions

These are defined as

1 1
cosh  z   exp  z   exp z  , sinh  z   exp  z  exp z  (6.1)
2 2

From (5.3) and (6.1) we see that sinusoidal and hyperbolic functions are related as

cosh  jz   cos  z  , sinh  jz   j sin  z 

cos  jz   cosh  z  , sin  jz   j sinh  z  (6.2)

Example 6.1 : Show that

cosh 2  z   sinh 2  z   1 (6.3)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 17

Solution : The simplest way is to use the definitions given in (6.1), hence
cosh  z  sinh  z 
       
2 2

1 1
exp 2 z   exp 2 z   2   exp 2 z   exp 2 z   2  1 (6.4)
4 4

Example 6.2 : Convert the followings into a form of x  jy

cos 1  j  , sin 1  j  (6.5)

Solution : By using definitions in (5.3), we have

cos 1  j   0.5 exp  j 1  j   exp  j 1  j   0.5  exp 1  j   exp 1 j 
 0.5 exp 1  cos 1  j sin 1  exp 1  cos 1  j sin 1
 0.8337  0.9889 j
sin 1  j   0.5 j exp  j 1  j   exp  j 1  j   0.5 j  exp 1  j   exp 1 j 
 0.5 j exp 1  cos 1  j sin 1  exp 1  cos 1  j sin 1 
 1.2985  0.635 j (6.6)

The numeric results of (6.6) can be tested in Matlab by typing

>> cos(1 + j)

ans =

0.8337 - 0.9889i

>> sin(j + 1)

ans =

1.2985 + 0.6350i

Example 6.3 : Solve the followings

cosh  z   0 , cos  z   2 j (6.7)

Solution : For the first equation of (6.7), we use (6.1) to get

1
cosh  z   0  exp  z   exp z   0
2
exp 2 z   1  0  exp  z   exp  x  jy    j
exp  x   1 , x0 , exp  jy    j  cos  y   0 , sin  y   1
 j
y  2n , z  x  jy    2 jn , n  0, 1, 2,  (6.8)
2 2

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 18

For the second equation of (6.7), we use (5.3) to write

1
cos  z   2 j  0  exp  jz   exp  jz   2 j  0
2
exp 2 jz   4 j exp  jz   1  0  
exp  jz   j 2  5 
     
 
exp  y  jx  exp  y   cos  x  j sin  x   2  5  cos    j sin  
  2   2 


y   ln 2  5  , x

2
 2n

z  x  jy 

2
 2n  j ln 2  5   (6.9)

The result in (6.9) can be tested in Matlab by typing

>> cos(-j*log(2-sqrt(5)) + pi/2)

ans =

-0.0000 + 2.0000i

Exercise 6.1 : Convert the followings into a form of x  jy

cosh 2  3 j  , sin  2  j  (6.10)

Exercise 6.2 : Solve the followings

cosh  z   1 , sin  z   100 (6.11)

7. Logarithm and General Power

Logarithm is the inverse of exponential, thus for z  x  jy , then we can write

ln  z   w  u  jv , exp  w  z (7.1)

By using the polar form given in (4.4), we can set

z  exp  w  exp u  jv  exp u  exp  jv  r exp  j  (7.2)

From (7.2) it is possible to identify,

exp u   r , u  ln r  , v  (7.3)

Eventually using (7.1) and (7.3), we have

ln  z   u  jv  ln r   j , r z ,   arg  z  (7.4)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 19

Since arg  z  is multivalued as stated in (2.5) and (2.6), ln  z  is also multivalued, then we define
Ln  z  as the principle value

Ln  z   ln r   jArg  z   ln  z   jArg  z  (7.5)

From (2.5), we see that ln  z  and Ln  z  are related as follows

ln  z   Ln  z   2 jn , n  1, 2,  (7.6)

Exercise 7.1 : The following operations are performed in Matlab. Interpret these operations in terms
of (7.5).

>> z = 2+ 3*j;

>> log(z)

ans =

1.2825 + 0.9828i

>> ans + 4*pi*j;ans

ans =

1.2825 +13.5492i

>> exp(ans)

ans =

2.0000 + 3.0000i

Example 7.1 : The following table lists for some z the values of ln  z  and Ln  z 

z ln  z  Ln  z  - Matlab result
1 0,  2 j ,  4 j ,  6 j ,  0
4 1.386294,  2 jn ,  1.386294
1  j ,  3 j ,  5 j ,  7 j ,  j
3 1.0986,  2n 1 j ,  1.0986  j
4 1.386294,  2n 1 j ,  1.386294  j
j j / 2,  3 j / 2, 5 j / 2,  j / 2
4j 1.386294  j / 2  2 jn ,  1.386294  j / 2
4 j 1.386294  j / 2  2 jn ,  1.386294  j / 2
3 4 j 1.609438  0.927295 j  2 jn ,  1.609438  0.927295 j

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 20

Table 7.1 The values of ln  z  and Ln  z  for some z

Exercise 7.2 : Test the ln  z  and Ln  z  values in the table of Example 7.1, following the Matlab steps
of the same example or otherwise.

The following relations are also valid for complex values

ln  z1 z2   ln  z1   ln  z2  , ln  z1 / z2   ln  z1   ln  z2  (7.7)

Because of the multivalued situation, the relations in (7.7) are to be interpreted as each value of one
side is included among the values of the other side. The following example illustrates this point.

Example 7.2 : For z1  z2  exp  j   1 , test the relations given in (7.7)

Solution : If we take the principal value, then

ln  z1 z2   ln 1  0,  2 j ,  4 j ,  6 j , 
z  z 
 ln
1
  ln 1

ln  z1   ln  z2    j ,  3 j ,  5 j ,  7 j ,   j ,  3 j ,  5 j ,  7 j ,  (7.8)

As seen from (7.8), in order to match the two sides of the first relation in (7.7), some manipulation is
needed.

8. General Power

General complex power c of z  x  jy is defined by the formula

z c  exp  c ln  z  (8.1)

Since z is multivalued, z c is also multivalued, then the principal value of z c can be obtained from

z c  exp  cLn  z  (8.2)

Example 8.1 : Find the values of j n with n being integer

Solution : By using (8.1)

j n  exp  n ln  j  (8.3)

For ln  j  , we can benefit from Table 7.1 to get

j n  exp  nj  / 2,  3 / 2, 5 / 2,  (8.4)

Example 8.2 : Find the values of j j

Solution : Again by using (8.1)

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 21

 j j  exp  j ln  j  (8.5)

Again inserting for ln  j  from Table 7.1, we have

j j  exp  j  j / 2,  3 j / 2, 5 j / 2,   exp  / 2  2n  (8.6)

As seen all values of j j are real. Note that to verify (8.6) for multivalue case, we have to write it in
Matlab as (for n  1 ), j   exp 3 / 2
1/ j
.

Example 8.3 : Find the values of 1  j 

2 j

Solution : To sort out ln 1  j  , we use (7.4), thus

ln 1  j   ln 1  j  arg 1  j   ln  2  j / 4  2 jn (8.7)

Then for 1  j 
2 j
, we have


1  j   exp 2  j  ln 1  j   exp 2  j  ln  2   j / 4  2 jn 
2 j

exp x  jy 
 
 




 
 

 exp 2 ln 2   / 4  2n  j  / 2  4n  ln 2  
 

  
 

x y 

 j  
 2 exp  / 4  2n  j exp 
   
2 ln 2  4n  

 2 

 

 2 exp  / 4  2n sin  0.5ln  2  j cos  0.5ln  2  (8.8)

We can test the result in (8.8) by the typing the following lines in Matlab

(1 + j)^(2 - j)

ans =

1.4900 + 4.1257i

>> 2*exp(pi/4)*(sin(0.5*log(2)) + j*cos(0.5*log(2)))

ans =

1.4900 + 4.1257i

To show that (8.8) will function properly at n values of n  0 , we have to implement the following in
Matlab.

>> exp((2 - j)*(log(sqrt(2)) + j*pi/4 -2*j*pi))

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 22

ans =

0.0028 + 0.0077i

>> 2*exp(pi/4 - 2*pi)*(sin(0.5*log(2)) + j*cos(0.5*log(2)))

ans =

0.0028 + 0.0077i

Exercise 8.1 : Sort out the following general powers like done in the solution of Example 8.3.

j 2 j , 2 j  , 43 j , 1 j  , 1  j  j 0.5 , 1 , 3  4 j 

j 1 j 1 j 12 j 1/ 3
, (8.9)

Sample problems from [3]

1) Text : 658-659, Solution :1176

13.5 : Q3, Q5, Q7, Q11, Q10, Q15

2) Text : 662, Solution :1176

13.6 : Q3, Q7, Q9, Q19

3) Text : 666, Solution :1176

13.7 : Q19, Q21, Q23, Q25, Q28

4) Text : 667, Solution :1176

Review Questions : Q11, Q13, Q21, Q23, Q31, Q33, Q35

These notes are based on

1) MATLAB m files.
2) My own Lecture Notes.
3) Erwin Kreyszig, “Advanced Engineering Mathematics”, John Wiley and Sons, 2006.

EEM 225 - HTE Ekim 2021 Sayfa 23