CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1General
The engineering field has over the years improved immensely through the application of modern day
techniques and technology used in carrying out various forms of analysis on a wide range of
engineering structures for production, maintenance and even investigative purposes. The aerospace
industry has benefited from these modernized techniques and technologies, some of the pros being;
reduced manual labour, increased longevity of aircraft's and product life cycle. From the beginning of
innovation in aeronautics, reduction of drag is one of the significant task for every aircraft designer An
aircraft with lower drag is not only more economical in every aspect but also less harmful to the
environment, which has become increasingly important in the last decades and will be even more
important in the future. Though jet engine technology has provided much of the efficiency
improvements in the past, but it’s structural and thermodynamic limits are already reached, further
improvements will be smaller and it will comes under higher cost. By understanding the fact that
aerodynamics has improved only in small steps since the beginning of Aviation Era, It will be suitable
to focusing on aerodynamic improvements. In aerodynamics the maximum drag will be encounter
during the turbulent flow throughout the aircraft body. However, there is room for substantial drag
improvements by laminar flow control. The boundary layer flow on today’s large aircraft is turbulent
on almost the entire wetted surface. This results in viscous drag five to ten times larger than that of
laminar boundary layers. Introduction of laminar technology into series of production can reduce the
huge compensation given to the Aerodynamics in terms of more drag, but it requires multidisciplinary
work on aerodynamics, structural engineering and system engineering.
Laminar flow is a type of flow of fluid in which fluid travels smoothly or in regular
paths. The Surface of fluid is in contact with horizontal surface and other layer moves over each other.
Laminar flow control refers to method of controlling the behavior fluid flow boundary layers. It may be
desirable to reduce flow separation on fast vehicle to reduce the size of the wake which may reduce
drag. Boundary layer separation is generally undesirable in aircraft high lift coefficient systems and jet
engine intakes. Laminar flow produces less skin friction than turbulent but turbulent boundary layer are
more resistant to separation. The energy in a boundary layer may need to be increased to keep it
attached to its surface. Fresh air can be introduced through slots or mixed in from above, The low
momentum layer at the surface can be sucked away through perforated surface or bled away when it is
in a high pressure duct. It can be scooped off completely by a diverted or internal bleed ducting. Its
energy can be increased above that of the free stream by introducing high velocity air. In the case of
free steam flow past a cylinder, three methods may be employed to control the boundary layer
separation that occurs due to adverse pressure gradient. Rotation of the cylinder can reduce or eliminate
the boundary layer that is formed on the side which is moving in the same direction as the free steam
the side moving against the flow also exhibits only partial separation of the boundary layer. Suction
applied through a slit in the cylinder near a separation point can also delay the onset of separation by
removing fluid particles that have been slowed in the boundary layer. Alternatively fluid can be blown
from a paired slit such that the slowed fluid is accelerated and thus the point of separation is delayed.
1.2 Methodology
Different research paper has been closely monitored in order to determine as to how dimples on the
golf ball and airfoil effects the boundary layer flow separation. For this NACA 63012a and
NACA63212a were chosen for this project as it produces low drag and high lift coefficient at low
Reynold’s Number. At the same time, they were optimized for high speed. The design of all these
models were carried out in Dassault System Catia V5. These airfoils were designed by placing the
inward dimples and the outward dimples at 50 percent of the chord and the 75 percent of the chord
respectively. These dimples were designed as per the golf ball dimensions and were later meshed using
ICEM-CFD and later they were simulated on the ANSYS Fluent with different RANS K-omega
models. But moreover, the detailed simulation were carried out in K-Omega SST model as it was able
to determine the flow separation accurately.
CHAPTER 2. STUDY AREA
2.1 REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that The turbulent flow, is generally characterized by random
movements and intermixing of fluid particles, where there is a great exchange of energy throughout the
fluid. In this type of flow high velocity and viscosity generally prevails. The Reynolds's number is a
dimensionless quantity and it is use to determine the state of flow of the fluid. The flow visualization
can be analyzed slowly and steadily by injecting a dye into a pipe. There are many practical
applications of Reynolds number as it provides engineers with direct information about the behavior of
flow throughout pipes, streams, and soils, which ultimately helps them to apply the proper relationships
to solve the problem at hand. For instances the type of forces acting on an aircraft must be studied in a
laboratory for design purposes. In that Experiment on throwing water though the pipe at different flow
rate, he observed that as the flow rate is increases water is began to oscillate back and forth and dye
becomes diffuses throughout the Pipe. he also observed that oscillations are increased with pipe width
and decreased by viscosity of the fluid. and afterwards he came with a dimensionless quantity called
Reynolds Number. Re=uɩ/ν
where ‘ν’ is the kinematic viscosity of the water u is the mean flow velocity and ‘ɩ’ is the
width of the pipe. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is the ratio of the inertial
(destabilizing) force to the viscosity (stabilizing) force. With increase in Reynolds's number there is a
destabilization of the flow and further increase the flow becomes turbulent. Through this experiment he
determined the critical Reynolds number which laminar flow (Re<2000) becomes transitional
(2000<Re<4000) and the transitional flow becomes turbulent (Re>4000).

2.2 BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION

Separation of Boundary Layers The boundary layer may lift off or separate from the body and create an
effective shape much different from the physical shape. This happens because the flow in the boundary
has very low energy and is more easily driven by changes in pressure. Boundary layer separation
occurs when the portion of the boundary layer closest to the wall reverses in flow direction. As a result,
the overall boundary layer initially thickens suddenly and is then forced off the surface by the reversed
flow at its bottom. Separation is bound to occur in a sufficiently large adverse pressure gradient.
Boundary layers tend to separate from a solid body when there is an increasing fluid pressure in the
direction of the flow. Increasing the fluid pressure is akin to increasing the potential energy of the
fluid, leading to a reduced kinetic energy and a deceleration of the fluid. When the boundary layer
separates, its displacement thickness increases sharply, which modifies the outside potential flow and
pressure field. In the case of airfoils, the pressure field modification results in an increase in pressure
drag, and if severe enough will also result in loss of lift and stall. Another effect of boundary layer
separation is shedding vertices, known as Kármán vortex sheet. The shedding of the vertices then could
cause vibrations in the structure .Flow separation is the reason for wing stall at high angle of attack.
Wing Stall Due to Boundary Layer Separation Vortex Shedding due to Boundary Layer Separation
Effects of Boundary Layers on Flight. In high-performance designs, such as sailplanes and commercial
transport aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize
drag. Two effects have to be considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the
body, through the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the shear
forces at the surface of the wing.
2.3 FLOW PHYSICS IN LOW REYNOLDS NUMBER
Because of inherently lower kinetic energy of the laminar boundary layer, the flow separates as a shear
layer. This shear layer gains momentum from the free-stream and reattaches as a turbulent boundary
layer, creating a laminar separation bubble . Because the turbulent boundary layer is energized from the
free-stream, it is much less prone to separation and usually remains attached till the trailing edge.
However, at sufficiently high angles of attack, the turbulent boundary layer will begin to separate close
to the trailing edge, resulting in increased pressure drag and decreased lift. As the angle of attack is
further increased, the turbulent separation point propagates along the airfoil surface toward the leading
edge and in doing so, the drag rises dramatically along with an abrupt drop in lift. The airfoil is
considered stalled. This form of separation is known as trailing edge separation and is typically
associated with thick, rounded leading edge airfoils. At lower Reynolds numbers , the separation
bubble and turbulent boundary-layer thickness both increase in size, resulting in increased parasitic
drag. the separated shear layer still gains enough momentum from the free-stream to reattach to the
airfoil surface as a turbulent boundary layer. However, in this Reynolds number range, the reattachment
point is relatively far back on the airfoil. As the angle of attack increases, the reattachment point moves
toward the trailing edge, creating relatively large separation bubbles (15–40% chord) . When the airfoil
is close to stall, the flow fluctuates between reattachment and complete separation, resulting in
hysteresis, which can result in an unsteady aerodynamic phenomenon with large variations in pitching
moment as well. At much lower Reynolds numbers the laminar separation point is delayed until close
to the trailing edge of the airfoil, even at very low angles of attack, because of the increased stability of
the boundary layer, which is more resistant to flow transition.

Literature Review
Thibert et al (1990) have shown that skin-friction drag could amount to about 50% of the total drag for
a subsonic transport aircraft. Total drag is a function of the aircraft size. Since laminar skin friction can
be as much as 90% less than turbulent skin friction at the same Reynolds number, it is obvious that
Laminar flow would be more desirable than turbulent flow for reducing the drag of aerodynamic
vehicles.

Arcara et al (1991) projected 1995 technology improvements into a HLFC design. With 50% chord
Laminar Flow on the upper wing surfaces and horizontal and vertical tails and 40% on the engine
nacelles, the LFC aircraft would have projected reductions in Gross Take-off weight of 9.9%, in
operational empty weight of 5.7%, and in BF of 18.2%, and an increase in L/D of 14.7% compared
with the turbulent-flow baseline.

Robert (1992) discussed the potential benefits of HLFC applied to Airbus A320 and A340 subsonic
transports. For the A320, which has a range of 500 nautical miles (nm), cruise represented only 35% of
the total fuel burn, while for the A340, which has a 3000-nm range, cruise represented 80% of the total
fuel burn.

Anscombe & Illingworth (1952), Explained that at a critical speed, striations in the surface flow
visualizations appear, and as the speed of the free-stream continues to increase, the transition location
moves forward. The presence of Tollmien-Schlichting and cross flow disturbances in the boundary-
layer flow depends on the pressure gradient and on the wing sweep angle. Based on numerous
investigations.

By Albert L. Braslow and Fioravante Visconti (Washington, DC October 1948) A low turbulence wind
tunnel investigation was made of an aerodynamically smooth NACA 65(215)-114. airfoil having faired
surfaces back to 37 percent chord to determine the magnitude of the boundary layer Reynolds number
at various positions of transition from laminar to turbulent flow along both airfoil surfaces. In addition
to boundary layer measurements, values of the section drag- coefficient were obtained by means of the
wake survey method. The boundary layer Reynolds number was found to vary in magnitude from
approximately 6700 to 8000 at positions of transition ranging from 50 percent chord to 25 percent
chord.

By Dale L. Burrows and Milton A. Schwartz berg (1952) An investigation has been made of boundary-
layer suction through flush surface slots as a means for increasing the extent of laminar flow on the
NACA 64A010 airfoil section. The 3-foot-chord model was designed according to an analysis
presented here in to maintain nearly full chord laminar flow at Reynolds, numbers up to 25x10⁶ with
the use of 4l suction slots on each surface. Laminar flow was maintained over at least 0.91 chord on
one surface up to a Reynolds number of 10 X10⁶. A like extent of laminar flow on the other surface
would have resulted in a net drag saving of about 50 percent over the plain smooth airfoil at Reynolds
numbers as high as 10 X 10⁶.

Sourabh S Diwan and O N Ramesh (IISE Banglore,2007)There work is an experimental investigation

of the dynamics and control of the laminar separation bubbles which are typically present on the
suction surface of an aerofoil at a large angle of attack. A separation bubble is produced on the upper
surface of a flat plate by appropriately contouring the top wall of the wind tunnel. First, a basic
(unforced) separation bubble is obtained to set a benchmark for further experiments. Parametric study
is done where the reference velocity is decreased to quantify its effect on the aspect ratio of the bubble.
It is found that with decrease in Reynolds number, the height of the bubble increases at a greater rate
than the length. This feature could be useful in characterizing separation bubbles especially from the
point of view of low Reynolds number airfoil design.

Aaron Alexander Tucker (December 2012) Demonstrated the span wise-periodic discrete roughness
element laminar flow control technology at operationally relevant flight regimes requires extremely
stable flow conditions in flight. A balance must be struck between the capabilities of the host aircraft
and the scientific apparatus. A safe, effective, and efficient flight experiment is described to meet the
test objectives, a flight test technique is designed to gather research-quality data, flight characteristics
are analyzed for data compatibility, and an experiment is designed for data collection and analysis.

CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
For this Analysis CFD tool is used to conduct the experiments. After creating a required Geometrical
model is undergone descritization of non uniform meshing and Run the test case for different
computational models.All numerical investigations have been performed with the general purpose
commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software Establishing the Boundary and Initial
Conditions. Since a finite flow domain is specified, physical conditions are set up on the boundaries of
the flow domain. The simulation generally starts from an initial solution and uses an iterative method to
reach a final flow field solution. Next is generation of grid. The flow domain is discretized into a grid.
The grid generation involves defining the structure and topology and then generating a grid on that
topology. Most all cases involve multi-block, structured grids or unstructured grids. The major
computational model used in this experiment were 1. K-ω SST 2.Transitional SST

4.1 K- ω SST MODEL

K- omega model is the most commonly used for the turbulent model. Here K is the kinetic energy
and omega denotes specific dissipation rate which is defined as the rate at which turbulent kinetic
energy is converted to the thermal internal energy per unit volume and per unit time. It is also most
often defined as the mean frequency of the turbulence .It is the two-equation model which solves
the two-transport equation PDEs which is in closure for Reynold’s average Navier stokes equations.
This model was basically developed as a response to rectify the problems arise by the K-epsilon as
it was not able to determine boundary layers with adverse pressure gradient accurately-omega
model can be used in the low Reynold’s number where the boundary layer is thick and viscous sub
layer can be resolved we can say that both epsilon and omega accounts for the dissipation of
turbulent model. K-omega model is used near to wall flow region where adverse pressure gradient
can be observed. It has better performance boundary layer for complex boundary layer flows under
the adverse pressure gradient. Hence, it is widely used for the simulation of the various
turbomachinery and the flow separation over the bluff bodies or an aerofoil and it also predicted
excess and early flow separation. K-omega model depends on the free stream turbulent model but it
is very sensitive to the turbulence viscosity and skin friction coefficient. Generally, K- Omega
model has the three different variation which includes the standard K- Omega model, K-Omega
BST model and the K-omega SST model.
K-Omega SST model stands for shear stress transport model So in order to avoid the sensitivity K-
omega model is blend K-Epsilon model which forms the base for this SST model .K-Omega SST
model generally provides the better prediction of the flow separation than any other RANS models.
And it provides better performance for the adverse pressure gradient. It generally involves the extra
term F1 added to dissipation equation which is also known as the blending function. The mesh cell
SST models also uses the viscosity limiter which gives the better results for the separated flow.
Viscosity limiter is defined as the limiting value of the specific viscosity at zero concentration of
the fluid. The SST model generally blends the empirical constants as well. The boundary layer is
also formulated by using k-omega SST model which makes it usable all the way to the walls

3.2 TRANSITIONAL SST MODEL

The transition sst is also known as gamma r thetha equation. The goal of developing the gamma-Re
transition model was to develop a transition model based on local variables which could be easily
implemented into modern CFD code with unstructured grids and massive parallel execution. Transition
sst model is used to model turbulent flows ,where a significant portion of boundary layer is laminar.
The transition sst model depends on Reynolds number, Turbulence intensity and pressure gradient .The
transition SST model is based on the coupling of the SST D −E transport equations with two other
transport equations, one for the intermittency and one for the transition onset criteria, in terms of
momentum-thickness Reynolds number. An empirical correlation (Langtry and Mentor) has been
developed to cover standard bypass transition as well as flows in low freestream turbulence
environments. In addition, a very powerful option has been included to allow you to enter your own
user-defined empirical correlation, which can then be used to control the transition onset momentum
thickness Reynolds number equation. It is used to model at Reynolds approximately 10^5 .It uses k-ω
model near the wall and the k-ε model in the far field . The Transition SST model expands upon the
traditional SST transport equations by implementing two additional equations to track the intermittency
and transition onset Criteria using empirical correlations. The turbulence intermittency tells us about
the state of flow locally. If turbulence intermittency is 0 ,the flow is laminar. If the flow is between 0
and 1 the flow is transitional. If it is equal to 1 it is turbulent . The intermittency acts on the production
term of the turbulent kinetic energy transport equation in the SST model to simulate laminar/turbulence
flows. The transition and sst model can be coupled by modification of by the k-equation .In order to
capture laminar and transitional boundary layer correctly the mesh should be located at a distance of y
in a positive direction. Then we can move up the transition on set location while coupling transition
and sst transport equation.