The objective here is to give you experience of the broad range of flow measurement technology

that is available to the aerospace or ocean engineer. You will also observe, in practice, a flow you
have met only in theory up to now.

The flow past a two-dimensional cylinder is one of the most studied of aerodynamics. It is relevant to
many engineering applications. The flow pattern and the drag on a cylinder are functions of the
Reynolds number ReD = U∞D/n, based on the cylinder diameter D and the undisturbed free-stream
velocity U∞. Recall that the Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces in the
flow. The drag is usually expressed as a coefficient C d = d/(½ρU∞2D), where d is the drag force per
unit span.

The flow pattern at high Reynolds numbers (ReD > 10000) is sketched in Figures 1(a) and 1(b) . At the
leading edge of the cylinder a stagnation point is formed where the oncoming flow is brought to rest.
The pressure here is equal to the stagnation pressure. The pressure coefficient Cp = (p - p∞)/(½ρU∞2)
there is therefore equal to 1 by Bernoulli's equation (see Figure 2 from Bertin and Smith, 1989). To
either side of the stagnation point the flow accelerates around the forward surface of the cylinder
producing a drop in the pressure (Figure 2). Immediately adjacent to the cylinder surface a thin
boundary layer is formed. The boundary layer is a region where the velocity drops rapidly to zero to
satisfy the no slip condition at the cylinder surface. The direct effects of viscosity are felt only within
the boundary layer.

If ReD is less than about 400,000 the boundary layer remains laminar from the stagnation point at the
front of the cylinder to the point where it separates. The resulting flow pattern (Figure 1(a)), termed
sub-critical, is associated with a high drag on the cylinder (see Figure 3 from Bertin and Smith,
1989), Cd being about 1.2. The laminar boundary layer separates just upstream of the maximum
thickness (see Figure 1(a)). Separation occurs because the boundary layer anticipates the
deceleration of the flow (and therefore positive pressure gradient) that would otherwise occur on
the rearward face of the cylinder. Downstream of separation the flow quickly becomes turbulent and
a broad wake is formed. The wake as a whole is unstable and rolls up into vortices that are shed
antisymmetrically at regular intervals from the cylinder (Figure 1(a)). This type of wake is called a von
Kármán vortex street (see for example, von Kármán (1963)). Because of separation the pressure
remains low and approximately constant over the rearward face of the cylinder. This causes a net
imbalance of pressure forces on the cylinder (Figure 2), usually referred to as the pressure drag.
Pressure drag accounts for about 90% of the total drag on the cylinder in this regime. The remaining
10% is due to skin-friction drag - friction between the flow and the cylinder. Most skin-friction drag is
produced on the forward-face of the cylinder where the boundary layer is thin and velocity gradients
at the cylinder surface are large.

At Reynolds numbers greater than about 400,000 the boundary layer on the forward face of the
cylinder undergoes transition and becomes turbulent. The resulting flow pattern (Figure 1(b)),
termed super-critical, is associated with a much lower drag, Cd being about 0.3. The precipitous drop
in Cd that occurs as a result of transition is usually referred to as the drag crisis. The turbulent
boundary layer generated in super-critical flow is much less susceptible to adverse pressure
gradients. It remains attached to the cylinder surface well past its maximum thickness. As a result the
wake is much narrower, the imbalance of pressure forces on the cylinder surface is much smaller and
the pressure drag is greatly reduced. This reduction swamps a small increase in skin-friction drag
produced by the greater length of the boundary layer and its transition. Note that the drag crisis
need not always occur at ReD = 400,000. Roughness of the cylinder surface or unsteadiness in the
free stream (such as is present in the open jet wind tunnel) can cause boundary layer transition
at much lower Reynolds number.
The above is a brief and truncated description of the structure of the flow past a cylinder. This flow is
both complex and beautiful. If you are interested further consult Bertin (2001), Panton (1984), van
Dyke (1982) and, perhaps, your own flow visualizations from Experiment 1 or Experiment 4 if you
have done them yet.

As you will see later on in Experiment 7, it is rarely possible to match the full scale conditions in the
wind tunnel. As you know, the equations of fluid dynamics depend on a series of non-dimensional
quantities, the most important of which are the Reynolds number Re (that indicates the importance
of viscous effects) and the Mach number M (related to compressibility effects). Ideally, a wind tunnel
test at the same Re and M experienced by a full scale vehicle would have the same flow (ignoring the
effects of the walls and any imperfections). In most circumstances this can't be done:

If you are testing in air at standard conditions, you need to test at the full flight speed to reproduce
the Mach number (i.e. this fixes the freestream velocity)

Unless your model is full scale, this means you will be testing at much lower Reynolds number.
Since the Reynolds number will dictate when/where the boundary layer will transition from laminar
to turbulent, testing at a lower Reynolds number means testing with different boundary layer
conditions. To work around such problem, one can force the boundary layer transition at a known
position by using a boundary layer trip or trip strip. The trip, located near the leading edge of the
model (~5-10% chord), is usually made of tape, wire, or sand paper. Forcing the transition to
turbulent flow at a low freestream Reynolds number will essentially recreate a high Reynolds number
flow (in terms of boundary layer condition). You are encouraged to review references like Bertin
(2001) on boundary layer characteristics before taking this experiment.

In experiment 3 you will have the opportunity to investigate for yourself the flow past a cylinder over
a range of Reynolds numbers. You will have a wind tunnel, model and equipment for measuring
pressure and velocity at your disposal. Through analysis these measurements can be used also to
estimate the drag on the cylinder and the shape of its wake.

The von Kármán vortex street (or von Kármán vortex shedding) is a phenomenon observed in fluid
dynamics when a fluid flows around a bluff body at certain speeds. The body, in this context, can be
anything that obstructs the flow of the fluid, such as a cylinder or a sphere. This flow pattern is
characterized by the alternating and periodic shedding of vortices from the body's downstream side.

As the fluid flows past the object, it separates on either side, creating a wake behind the object. This
wake becomes unstable and oscillates, forming vortices that are shed alternately from each side of
the body. The result is a pattern of swirling vortices that form a street-like pattern downstream of the
object, hence the name "vortex street."

The phenomenon was named after Theodore von Kármán, a Hungarian-American engineer and
physicist who made significant contributions to the field of aerodynamics and fluid dynamics. The
von Kármán vortex street is not only a fascinating subject in fluid mechanics but also has practical
implications. It can cause oscillating forces on the object, leading to structural vibrations that need to
be considered in engineering design, such as in the construction of bridge pylons, chimneys, and
offshore structures.

The von Kármán vortex street (or von Kármán vortex shedding) is a phenomenon observed in fluid
dynamics when a fluid flows around a blunt body at certain speeds. Named after Theodore von
Kármán, a Hungarian-American physicist, it describes a repeating pattern of swirling vortices caused
by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around that object.

The process occurs when the fluid flow past a cylinder or sphere becomes turbulent, creating a
complex pattern of spinning vortices downstream of the object. These vortices are shed alternately
from opposite sides of the object, leading to a street of vortices in the wake. This pattern can cause
oscillating forces on the object, which can lead to vibrations or other structural problems, especially
if the frequency of these forces matches the natural frequencies of the object.

The von Kármán vortex street is characterized by a dimensionless parameter known as the Strouhal
number, which relates the frequency of vortex shedding to the velocity of the fluid flow and the size
of the object. The phenomenon is of significant interest not only in fluid dynamics but also in
engineering, environmental science, and meteorology, where understanding and predicting the
behavior of vortical flows can be crucial for designing structures that withstand aerodynamic or
hydrodynamic loads.

The von Kármán vortex street (or von Kármán vortex shedding) is a repeating pattern of swirling
vortices, caused by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around blunt bodies. It's named after
Theodore von Kármán, a Hungarian-American physicist who was one of the first to describe the
phenomenon. This effect can be observed in both liquids and gases, such as the flow of water around
a pier or the air flow around the wings of an airplane.

A key feature of the von Kármán vortex street is its formation at specific conditions, defined by the
Reynolds number (Re), which is a dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics to predict flow
patterns in different fluid flow situations. The phenomenon occurs in a range of Reynolds numbers
that are above a critical value, indicating the onset of turbulent flow.

The formation of these vortices can have practical implications in engineering and science. For
example, in structural engineering, the vibration induced by vortex shedding can lead to fatigue
failures in structures like chimneys, bridges, and masts. Understanding this effect is crucial for
designing structures that can withstand such aerodynamic forces.

Moreover, the von Kármán vortex street is not just a subject of technical concern; it can also create
visually striking patterns in natural environments, such as the cloud formations downstream of
islands or the patterns formed in river flows around obstacles. These vortices demonstrate the
beauty and complexity of fluid dynamics in natural and man-made environments.