Chapter Four: Flexural Members 1

Chapter Four: Flexural Members

4.1 Introduction

Flexural members, otherwise known as beams, are structural elements that span between or
across supports carry principally lateral loads which are resisted by flexural bending and shear.
A beam is a combination of a tension element and a compression element. In view of his
phenomenon, the concepts of tension members and compression members are combined in the
treatment of a beam member. The main uses of beams are to support floors and columns, carry
roof sheeting as purlins, side cladding as sheeting rails, and to support bridge decks. The main
kinds of flexural members are as shown in Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.1 Different sections of beams

According to the width-thickness ratios of the component elements, steel sections used for
flexural members are classified into a number of classes depending on the standard
specification implemented for design. Accordingly, EBCS 3, 1995 classifies flexural members
into four classes while AISC-LRFD Specification categorizes them into three classes.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 2

4.2 Classification of Cross-sections

The four classes of flexural members adapted by EBCS 3, 1995 based on the width-to-thickness
ratios of their components are Class 1 (plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or
Class 4 (thin-walled) according to their capacity in the following manner.

Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections, can develop their plastic moment resistance
(fy times plastic moment resistance) with the rotation capacity required for plastic analysis. Only
cross sections falling in this class may only be used for plastic design.

Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with limited rotation
capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as compact sections.

Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their “yield” moment (fy times elastic modulus)
but local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment resistance. In Class 3
sections, the stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to the yield stress because local
buckling prevents development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this
group are also known as semi-compact sections.

Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in which local buckling
is liable to prevent the development of the “yield” moment: i.e., premature buckling occurs
before yield is reached.

The moment resistances for the four classes defined above are:

for Classes 1 and 2: the plastic moment (Mpl = Wpl . fy)

for Class 3: the elastic moment (Mel = Wel . fy)

for Class 4: the local buckling moment (Mo < Mel).

The four classes given above are recognized for beam sections in bending. For axial compression
members, Classes 1, 2 and 3 become one, and, in the absence of overall buckling are referred to
as "compact"; in this case Class 4 is referred to as "slender".

The response of the different classes of cross-sections, when subject to bending, is usefully
represented by dimensionless moment-rotation curves as shown in Table 4.1.

According to EBCS 3 1995, the classification of sections depends on the classification of flange
and elements. The classification also depends on whether the compression elements are in pure
compression, pure bending, or under the influence of combined axial force and bending. While
compression cases have been presented in Chapter three, the case of combined axial and bending
presented later in Chapter Six. The present Chapter presents classification of flexural
members coated to pure flexural bending according to Table 4.2.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 3

Model of Moment Rotation Capacity Class

Behaviour Resistance
Plastic moment Sufficient
M on full section M
M pl
fy
M pl
Local 1
buckling 1
 rot
 pl 
 1  pl

Plastic moment Limited

on full section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
1
Local 2
buckling


 1  pl

Elastic moment None

on full section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
M el 1
Mal
Local Mpl 3
buckling


 1  pl

Elastic moment on None

effective section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
M el 1

Local 4
buckling


 1  pl

Table 4.1 Cross section requirements and classifications

Fig. 4.2 EBCS 3 1995 definition of geometric properties

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 4

Table 4.2. Classification of Flexural Sections According to EBCS 3 1995 (Modified to meet the
latest Euro code Standard) (Refer to Fig. 4.1 for the various parameters under “ratio checked”)

WIDTH - THICKNESS RATIOS FOR FLEXURAL ELEMENTS ( THOSE EXCEEDING THESE

LIMITS ARE TAKEN AS CLASS 4 SECTIONS)
Section Element Ratio Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Checked
General - None Assumed Class 3
Rectangula - None Assumed Class 2
r
I-shape Web d/tw 72 83 124
(rolled)
d/tw
(Welded)
Flange Flange-end in c/tf (rolled) 10/ 11/ 23  k
compression zone

c/tf 9 / 10/ 21  k

(welded)
Flange-end in c/tf (rolled)
10  /    
11 /    23  / k
tension zone

c/tf 9 /     
10  /    23  / k
(welded)
Box Web d/tw 10 83 12
Flange (b-3tf)/tf 33 38 42
(rolled)

b/tf 33 38 42

(others)
Channel Web d/tw 33 38 42
Flange Flange-end in c/tf (rolled) 10/ 11/ 23  / 
Compression zone

c/tf 9/ 10/ 21 k

(Welded)
Flange-end in c/tf (rolled) 
10     
11     23  k
tension zone

c/tf 9     
10     23  / 
(Welded)
T-shape Web h/tw 33  38  42 
Flange b/2tf 10  11 15 
(rolled)
b/2tf 9 10  14 

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 5

(welded)
Angle - h/t 33  38  15 
(b + h ) / (2t) 11.5 

Round bar - None Assumed Class 1

2
Pipe - d/t 50 702 902
Double - h/t NA NA 15.0

angle (b+h)/(2t) 11.5

Note: αc = 2ac/h

Where: ac is the distance from the plastic neutral axis to top fiber.

4.3 Design Criteria for Flexural Members

The following criteria should be considered for establishing the moment resistance of flexural
members:
(1) yielding of the cross section or its flexural strength
(2) local buckling (Class 4 sections only)
(3) lateral-torsional buckling
(4) shear strength including shear buckling
(5) local strength at points of loading or reaction; i.e., criteria for concentrated loads
(6) deflection criterion; with respect to serviceability limits states,

Flexural members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-sections resistance to
applied loads be established and member capacity verified against possible buckling failures.
These will be presented subsequently for both EBCS 3 1995.

4.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995

Resistance of Cross section

According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored uniaxial bending
Msd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the condition:

Msd  Mc, Rd (4.1)

Where Mc, Rd = design moment resistance of the cross-section taken as the smallest of:

a) the design plastic resistance moment Mpl, Rd of the gross section

W PI x f y
M PI , Rd  For class 1 or 2 cross sections (4.2a)
 M0

b) the design elastic resistance moment Mel, Rd of the gross section

WeI x f y
M el , Rd  For class 3 cross sections (4.2b)
 M0

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 6

c) the design local buckling resistance moment Mo,Rd of the gross section
Weff x f y
M 0, Rd  For class 4 cross sections (4.2c)
 M1

d) the design ultimate resistance moment of the net section at fastener holes Mu,Rd.It shall
be assessed by evaluating possible influence of the reduced section in the tension flange
due to fastener holes. Fastened holes in the tension flange need not be allowed for
when:
A f , net fy M2
0.9 
Af fu  M 0 (4.3)

When this relationship does not hold, a reduced flange area may be assumed which satisfies the
limit.

Torsional Buckling

Consideration of lateral-torsional buckling may be discounted for the following classes of

member:
- Bending only takes place about the minor axis
- Beams laterally restrained throughout their length by adequate bracing
- Non-dimensional lateral slenderness parameter LT  0.4.

The design buckling resistance mo ment of a laterally unrestrained beam may be calculated as:

Mb,Rd = LTw,y Wpl.y fy/Ml (4.4)

w,y = 1 for class 1 or class 2 cross-sections

w,y = Wel.y/ Wpl.y for class 3 cross-sections
w,y = Weff.y/ Wpl.y for Class 4 cross-sections
Where:
Wpl.y = plastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Wel.y = elastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Weff.y = elastic modulus of effective cross-section about the major axis
LT = a reduction factor accounting for lateral-torsional buckling and given by:

LT = 1 for LT < 0.4

LT 1


 LT 
 2 LT 
2
LT 
0.5

 but  LT 1 for  LT  0.4

 
 LT  0.5 1   LT  LT  0.2    2
LT 
 1 f y W . y
 LT   LT
 E

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 7

LT = lateral-torsional slenderness

LT = imperfection factor which shall be taken as LT = 0.21 for rolled sections and LT =
0.49 for welded sections.

Elastic Critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling

The elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling of a beam of uniform symmetrical cross
section with equal flanges, under standard conditions of restraint at each end, loaded through
its shear centre and subjected to uniform moment is given by:
0.5
 2 EI z  I w L2GIt 
M cr    2  (4.5a)
L2  I z  EI z 
E
Where G 
2(1   )
It is the torsion. Constant
Iw is the warping constant
Iz is the second moment of area about the minor axis
L is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint.

The standard conditions of restraint at each end are:

- Restrained against lateral movement
- Restrained against rotation about the longitudinal axis
- Free to rotate in plane

In the case of a beam of uniform cross-section which is symmetrical about the minor axis, for
bending about the major axis the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling is given by
the general formula:

2 0.5
 EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GI t 
M cr  C1 {  
( KL )2   K w  I z

 2 EI z
 C Z
2 g  C Z 2
3 j   
 C2 Z g  C3 Zj } (4.5b)
 

Where C1, C2 and C3 are factors depending on the loading and end restraint conditions k and kw
are effective length factors.

The effective length factors k and kw vary from 0.5 for full fixity to 1. 0 for no fixity with 0.7
for one end fixed and one end free.

The factor k refers to end rotation on plan. It is analogous to the ratio l/L for a compression
member.

The factor kw refers to end warping. Unless special provision for warping fixity is made, kw
should be taken as 1.0.

Values of C1, C2 and C3 are given in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 for various load cases, as indicated by
the shape of the bending moment diagram over the length L between lateral restraints. Values
are given corresponding to various values of k.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 8

For cases with k= 1.0 the value of C1 for any ratio of end moment loading as indicated in Table 4.
is given approximately by:

C1 = 1.88 – 1.40 + 0.522 but C1  2.70

The sign convention for determining Zj, see Fig. 4. is:

a) Zj is positive for the compression flange
b) Zj is positive when the flange with the larger value of Iz is in compression at the point of
largest n1omen

The sign convention for determining Zg, is:

c) For gravity loads Zg is positive for loads applied above the shear centre
d) In the general case Zg is positive for loads acting towards the shear centre from their
point of application.

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections Zj = 0, thus:

2 0.5
 EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GIt 
M cr  C1 {  
( KL )2   K w  I z

 2 EI z
 C Z 2
2 g   
 C2 Z g } (4.5c)
 

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with end-moment loading C2 = 0 and for
transverse loads applied at the shear centre Zg = O. For these cases:
2 0.5
 EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GIt 
M cr  C1     (4.5d)
( KL )2   K w  I z  2 EI z 
 
For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and when K = kw = 1.0(no end fixity):
0.5
 EI z  I w ( KL )2 GI t 
M cr  C1    (4.5e)
( KL) 2  I z  2 EI z 

Values of the reduction factor LT for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness LT may be
obtained from Table 4.3.

Reduction factors for lateral-torsional buckling

LT  0.4 NO LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING VERIFICATION

REQUIRED
0.4 < LT  3.0 1 Rolled with LT = 0.21
 LT  1
2
  2   LT Welded with LT = 0.49

Table 4.3 can be used with:

 = LT
 = LT , using:
a) curve a (α = 0.21) for rolled sections
b) curve c (α = 0.49) for welded sections

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 9

Table 4.3 Reduction factors 

Reduction factor

Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d

0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000

0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235

0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504

0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793

0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100

0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431

0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797

0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208

1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671

1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189

1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762

1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385

1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055

1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766

1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512

1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289

1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093

1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920

2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 10

2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630

2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508

2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399

2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302

2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214

2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134

2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062

2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997

2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937

3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882

Table 4.4. Value of Factors C1, C2,and C3 corresponding to values Factor k: Transverse
Loading Cases

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Table 4.5. Value of Factors C1, C2, and C3 corresponding to values Factor k: End Moment
Loading

Shear Resistance

The shear resistance is either limited by the shear plastic resistance, VRd, or the shear buckling
resistance, Vb, Rd.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 12

Plastic shear resistance

According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored shear force Vsd
calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the condition:

Vsd  Vpl,Rd (4.6)

Where
Vpl, Rd = the plastic shear resistance of a cross-section given by

V pl , Rd 

Av f y / 3  (4.7)
M0
In which Av = the shear area, normally given by h x tw where h is the overall depth of the web
and tw the web thickness.

Shear buckling resistance

The design shear buckling resistance, Vb,Rd, may be obtained from:

dw tw  b (4.8)
Vb, Rd 
 M1
Where:
b = the design value of the mean shear strength given in Table 4.6 as a function of:

0. 8 d w fy
w 
k t w E

in which k is he buckling factor for shear obtained as follows:

 For unstiffened webs (webs with transverse stiffners at the supports but no
intermidaite transverse stiffners)
k = 5.34 (4.8a)

 For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners with panel ratio a/dw < 1.0:
5.34 (4.8b)
k  4 
a / d w 2
 For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners giving panel aspect ratio a/dw  1.0:

4
k  5.34 
a / d w 2 (4.8c)

In both the above latest expressions:

a = panel length between stiffeners
dw = panel depth between flanges.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 13

Table 4.6 design value of the mean shear strength b.

0.8 d w fw B FOR AN UNSTIFFENED B FOR A WEB WITH
w 
k t w E WEB TRANSVERSE STIFFENERS
INCLUDING AT SUPPORTS
w  0.2 fy / 3 fy / 3
0.2 w  0.6 1  0.63  w  0.2  f / 3 1  0.63  
 0.2 f y / 3
y w

w > 0.6 

1  0.42   f w y / 3 27   w

fy
3
24  19  w

Transverse stiffeners should be designed to comply with the requirements stipulated under
“Transverse stiffeners” subsequently.

Resistance to bending and Shear

The theoretical plastic resistance moment of a cross section is reduced by the presence of
shear. For small values of the shear force this reduction is so small that it is counter balanced
by strain hardening and may be neglected. However, when the shear force exceeds half the
plastic shear resistance, allowance shall be made for its effect on the plastic resistance moment.
Provided that the design value of the shear force doesn’t exceed 50% of the design plastic
shear resistance Vpl,rd no reduction need be made in the resistance moments given by equations
4.2.

When Vsd exceeds 50% of Vpl,rd the design resistance moment of the cross section should be
reduced to Mv,rd the reduced plastic resistance moment allowing for the shear force obtained as
follows:
a) For cross section with equal flanges, bending about the major axis:

2
 A  f
M v , rd  Wpl  v  y but Mv,rd  Mc,rd
 4tw   Mo
Where  = (2Vsd/Vpl,rd – 1)2

b) For other cases Mv,Rd should be taken as the design plastic resistance moment of the
cross section, calculated using a reduced strength (1-)fy for the shear area, but not
more than Mc,rd

Resistance of webs to transverse Forces

The resistance of an unstiffened web to forces from concentrated loads or support reactions
will be governed by one of three possible failure modes:
 Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the
flange.
 Crippling of web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the
flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange.
 Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 14

As a guide, Table 4.7 indicates the need for checking a particular mode depending on the type of
section and load application.

Table 4.7. Checks for local strength of webs

TYPE OF SECTION CRUSHING CRIPPLING BUCKLING

Fabricated by welding:
1. Load resistance by web shear  
2. Load resistance by reaction on  
opposite flanges
Cold formed  

Crushing resistance (Art. 4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)

The design crushing resistance Ry,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

( ss  s y )t w f yw
R y , rd  (4.9a)
 M1
In which sy is given by:

bf f yf  f , Ed 2
s y  2t f ( )( )[1  ( ) (4.9b)
tw f yw f yf

- But bf should not be taken as more than 25tf and f,Ed is the longitudinal stress in the
flange.

- At the end of a member sy should be halved

Crippling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.4, EBCS 3)

The design crippling resistance Ra,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

t t s
( Ef yf )[( f )  3( w )( s )]
2 tw tf d
Ra , rd  0.5tw (4.10)
 M1

Where Ss is the length of stiff bearing (see Section 4.6.6.2, EBCS 3)

Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2

Buckling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.5, EBCS 3)

1) The design buckling resistance Rb,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained
by considering the web as a virtual compression member with an effective breadth beff
obtained from:
b eff  h 2  s 2

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 15

2) Near the ends of a member (or at openings in the web) the effective breadth beff should
not be taken as greater than the breadth actually available, measured at mid-depth, see
Fig. 5.15.

3) The buckling resistance should be determine from chapter three using buckling curve c
and BA = 1.

4) The buckling length of the virtual compression member should be determined from the
conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the flanges at the point of load
application.

5) The flange through which the load is applied should normally be restrained in position at
the point of load application. Where this is not practicable, a special buckling

Transverse stiffeners (Art. 4.6.6.6 and 4.6.4.4, EBCS 3)

1. When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross section of a stiffener should
be taken including the width of web plate equal to 30tw, arranged with 15tw, each side
of the stiffener(see Fig. 4.3, chapter-4). At the ends of the member (or openings in the
web) the dimension of 15tw, should be limited to the actual dimension available.

Fig 4.3 Effective cross section of stiffeners for buckling

2. the out of plane buckling resistance should be determined by considering them as

compression members using buckling curve C and a buckling length L of not less than
0.75d, or more if appropriate for conditions of restraint.

The buckling resistance of symmetric stiffeners may be determined from:

A fy (4.11)
N b , Rd    A
 M1
Where:
A = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-section

where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections

A = gross area
 = a reduction factor accounting for buckling

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 16

= 1.0 for   0.2

1


  2  
2 0.5 But   1 for 0.2    3.0

in which:


  0.5 1  0.76   0.2    2

Lef f 1 fy A  2 
    A Af y / N er   A ; 1   93.9
r  E 1 E / f y 5
  235
fy
Leff = effective length of stiffener  0.75dw or more if
appropriate for conditions of
restraint.
Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
r = radius of gyration of the gross cross section
 = an imperfection factor.

3. For both the simple post-critical method and tension field method , the compression
force Ns in an intermediate transverse stiffeners should be obtained from:
dtw bb
N s  Vsd  but Ns  0 (4.11a)
 M1
In which bb is the initial shear buckling strength from eqns (5.4c, 5.4d &5.4e)); the lower
value of for the two panels adjacent to the stiffener should be used.

4. The second moment of area of an intermediate stiffener, Is, should satisfy the following:

If a I s  1. 5 d 3 w t 3 w / a 2
dw  2:

if a  2 : I s  0.75 d w t 3 w
dw

5. End stiffeners and stiffeners at internal supports should normally be doubled sided and
symmetric about the centre line of the web.

6. Where single sided or other asymmetric stiffeners are used, the resulting eccentricity
should be allowed for.

7. In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross section resistance of a load
bearing stiffener should also be checked adjacent to the loaded flange. The width of the
web plate included in the effective cross section should be limited to Sy (see Section
4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 17

Flange Induced Buckling

1. To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in the plane of the web,
the ratio d/tw of the web shall satisfy the following criterion:

d E Aw
k (4.12a)
tw f yf Afc

Where Aw is the area of the web

Afc is the area of the compression flange
fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange

The value of the factor k should be taken as follows:

For class 1 flanges = 0.3
For class 2 flanges = 0.4
For class 3 or class 4 flanges = 0.55

2. When the girder is curved in elevation, with the compression flange on the concave
face, the criterion should be modified to:

d K ( E / f yf ) Aw / A fc
 (4.12b)
tw  dE 
1  
 3rf yf 
Where r is the radius of curvature of the compression flange

3. When the girder has transverse web stiffeners, the limiting value of d/tw may be
increased accordingly.

Deflection Criterion

Deflection is a serviceability consideration. As a result service loads (not factored loads) are
used in calculating beam deflections. Since most beams are fabricated with a camber, which
somewhat offsets the dead load deflection, consideration is often given to deflection due to live
load only. For beams supporting plastered ceilings, the service live load deflection preferably
should not exceed L/360, where L is the beam span. A larger deflection limit can be used if due
considerations are given to ensure the proper functioning of the structure

Refer Art 5.2 of EBCS 3, 1995

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members 18

Fig. 5.15 Effective breadth for web buckling resistance

_____________________________
ADDITIONAL READING

 E.H. Gayloard and J.E. Stalmeyer

Chapter 5
 Charles G. Salmon and Johne E. Johnson
Chapters 7 & 9
 Robert Englekirk
Chapter 2
 EBSC 3 and EC 3

Design of steel and timber structures 2013/14