5.

1 Advanced Analysis

Assumption of Current Design

Methods

Effects ≤ Re sis tan ce

Independent of temperature
Assumed boundary conditions

• Given internal forces: F, M, S

• Given boundary conditions and effective
length
• Check for member resistance
 Internal forces
Internal forces can change because:
• Degradation of strength and stiffness of
material at elevated temperatures
• Thermal expansion
• Second order effects from large
deflections

Boundary Conditions
Changes in the stiffness of a member
relative to others, caused by temperature
effects, can lead to different restraining
conditions from that at ambient temperature.
 Large Deflection Effects
Fire is an accidental
situation and deflections
involved will, and may
be allowed to, be very
high.

The behaviour of a
structure at large
deflections can be
different from that at
ambient temperature.

Types of Structural Interaction

1. Axial restraint to columns
2. Rotational restraint to columns
– Bending moments
– Effective lengths
3. Thermal pushing of columns by beams
- Restrained beams
- Centenary action
 1 Axial Restraint to Columns

P P+ΔP
P

Free thermal Restrained thermal expansion ΔεmecL

expansion ΔεthL Remaining thermal expansion
Ks

L
Kc

2 Rotationally Restrained Columns

 Effective Lengths of Columns in
Fire
0.7L
L

L
Fire resisting
compartment
floors
L 0.5L

Bracing L

Figure 2: Column effective length according to Eurocode

3 Thermal Pushing of Columns by

beams

Column

Beam
+ =

δ
Second order effect due to P-δ
 Advanced Analysis

• Consider overall structure resistance rather

than individual member behaviour

• Direct consideration of interactive effects

between fire affected members with the
boundary including effect due to
restraining of members against thermal
expansion

Advanced Analysis Methods

Consider second-order effect; Allow inelastic re-distribution of forces
Capture member stability in global analysis

Elastic-Plastic Hinge Refined Plastic-Hinge Plastic Zone

Qu Qu Qu
λ1Pu λ1Pu λ1Pu λ1Pu λ1Pu λ1Pu

EI EI EI
Fully Elastic Fully Elastic Fully Elastic

Qu Qu Qu
λ2Pu λ2Pu λ2Pu λ2Pu λ2Pu λ2Pu

EI EtI EI
No Yielding Gradual Yielding of cross section Spread eof Plasticity

Qu Qu Qu
λuPu λuPu
λuPu λuPu λuPu λuPu

Plastic Hinge Fully Yielded Zone

Plastic Hinge
 Spread of Plasticity Analysis

σz
τz τz
τyz
x y
τxz σy
Block element τyx
Qu
σx τxy

λPu
λPu
Shell element
τxz τyz
σy
τxy τy
σx
x A Stress based plasticity approach

Fibre element τyz

σy Finite elements for spread-of-plasticity methods
τyx

Modeling of shell element

• Computational intensive
• Able to model:
- rate-dependent effect
- local buckling
- lateral torsional buckling
- temperature can be varied along
element cross-section and length
 Frame Element

Modeling of frame element

• Zero-length plastic hinge

• Highly computational efficient

- 1 ele/column
- 4 ele/beam with distributed load

• Uniform temperature on cross-

section

• Unable to model:
- rate-dependent effect
- local buckling
- lateral-torsional buckling
α1 α2
- inelastic shear effect ⎡ My ⎤ ⎡ Mz ⎤
- distortion of cross-section ⎢ ⎥ +⎢ ⎥ ≤1
⎣⎢ M ry ⎦⎥ ⎣ M rz ⎦
 A force based plasticity approach
Py, u
Incremental
One octant of forces
plastic strength
surface
Incremental plastic
deformations
Refined Plastic Hinge
Mpz , θz
Py
Bounding surface
Pyo
Mpy , θy Initial Yield
Surface
Elastic Plastic Hinge

My / Mpy
Mpz

Mpyo
Mpz0
Mpy

Nonlinear Analysis of large structures

Local softening
due to high Formation of Member Collapse of
temperature plastic hinge buckling structure
 FEM Heat Transfer Analysis
Beam-column element Y
1 Convert the true temperature
2 distribution to equivalent
incremental temperature to
produce the same thermal
3 4 expansion forces for used in beam-
column response calculation
X
Quadrilateral heat transfer
element ΔT(x, y, z) = ΔTo + Δβ y z + Δβ z y

Heat Transfer Analysis

∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 
ρc p = ⎜⎜ k y ⎟ + ⎜ kz ⎟ − (Qr + Q c ) Y
∂t ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠

Q r = σε s (ε g Tg4 − Ts4 ) Q c = C (Tg − Ts )

Temperature Effects
• Reduction of yield strength
• Reduction of elastic modulus
• Thermal expansion
• Thermal bowing Thermal Axial Strain
ε th ,axial = αΔT0
ΔT(x,y,z) = ΔTo + Δβyz + Δβz y

ε t = ε th + ε σ
Thermal Curvature
φth , y = αΔβ y
φth , z = αΔβ z
Thermal strain Mechanical strain
 Material Properties at Elevated
Temperature
σ
2.0% Strain Level
σ yt

1.0
σ pt
Effective yield strength, yt
/ y

0.8

Reduction factor
Elastic modulus, E t /E
0.6
Et
0.4
ε pt ε y = 0.02 ε t = 0.15 ε u = 0.2 ε Proportional limit, pt / y

P/Py 0.2
1.2
Bounding surface (20ºC)
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0.8 Initial yield surface (20ºC) Temperature ( C)

Initial yield and bounding

surface (600ºC)
0.4

0.0 M/M
M/Mpp
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2

Verification of Advanced Analysis

Method

• Uniformly heated beams and columns

• Three-side heated simply supported beams
• Columns with passive fire protection
• 2D frames
Concrete Slab
 Verification: 4-side Heated Column
Compendium of UK Standard Fire Test Data (Wainman & Kirby, 1987)

Test 41
700 0.03
Flange Temperature (°C) Test (temperature)

Vertical Deflection (m)

Analysis (temperature)
600
Test (deflection)
Analysis (deflection) 0.02
500

400
0.01
300

200
0

100

0 -0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (min)

Verification: 3-side Heated Beam

Compendium of UK Standard Fire Test Data (Wainman & Kirby, 1987)

Test 11
Lower Flange Temperature (°C)

800 0.24
Test (temperature)
700 Analysis (temperature)
Mid-Span Deflection (m)

0.2
Test (deflection)
600 Analysis (deflection)
0.16
500

400 0.12

300
0.08

200

0.04
100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (min)
 Verification: 2D Frame Test by
Li et al (1997)
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 kN

4.2

100
A B
100

1400 mm
column
cross-section

20
540 540 540 540 540 540
Analysis

Horizontal displacement (mm)

Test

7.2
10
Node B
100

4.5
0
55
Node A
beam
cross-section -10
0 10 20 30
Time (min)

Verification: 2D Frame Test by

Zhao (1995)
82 kN 82 kN

9.45 kN
C D
1500 mm

Analysis
Test
20
Displacement (mm)

Horizontal
1500 mm
displacement at D

6.0 10

Vertical
displacement at C
100

4.5
0
0 10 20 30
56
Time (min)

beam & column

cross-section
Modeling of Passive Fire Protection

Insulation Steel

Tp_sur
p_sur Tss
Convection q = K (T)(Tp _ sur − Ts )
K(T): Resultant heat transfer
coefficient (W/m2K)
Tgg Heat Flow

K (T )(Tp _ sur − Ts ) =
λp σεs (ε g Tg4 − Tp4_ sur ) + C(Tg − Tp _ sur )
Radiation
dp
Tp _ sur ≠ Tg

Geometrical effects
Interaction due to axial, flexural, torsional and
warping deformations
P-Δ effect: axial force acting through the relative
horizontal displacements due to chord rotation
P-δ effect: axial force acting through
displacements associated with member curvature
Curvature shortening (bowing effect): effect of
curvature on axial displacements at member ends
Initial out-of-straightness of member
Initial out-of-plumbness of frame
Diaphragm action
Core wall action
Finite joint size and panel zone deformation
 Material effects
– Plastic hinge
• Elastic-plastic
• elastic unloading
• elasto-plastic
• strain hardening
– Spread-of-plasticity
– Inelastic interaction of
• axial force and biaxial bending
• axial force, shear, biaxial bending, torsion and warping
– Connection flexibility (steel and composite joints)
– Composite action due to slab effect, concrete confinement or
encasement.
– Initial residual stresses
– Local and distortions buckling
– Shear yielding & Cyclic plasticity effects

Member vs Global

Thermally induced forces

and thermal expansion play
an important role other than
the strength degradation of
steel at elevated
temperature
 Local buckling & Lateral torsional buckling

•w

Linking of a beam element

with shell elements
{ui}=[Ti] {uc}
i
{uc}=[Tc] {ua}

⇒{ui}=[Ti][Tc]{ua}

*MPC
BEAM, i, c
BEAM, c, a
 Analysis of multi-storey frame

Fire analysis of large structures

Motivation & Challenges
Weight of a 50 storey building is about 10,000
tons of structural steel components
PFP is about 10-20% of the total steel
construction cost.
(costs of PFP ≈ 3-6 mil Sing$)
 Fire Resistance Design of Structure

‰ Identify critical fire scenarios; fire

normally occurs in a localised
compartment
‰ Not all structural components are heated
simultaneously
‰ Not all structural components are utilised
to their maximum capacity because of
buildability requirement
‰ Building structures are highly redundant.
How do we assess the fire performance of
the overall structure?
Do we need to protect all surfaces?

Fire Scenarios
• Source of fire
– events that trigger major accidents involving fire
and explosion;
– determine fuel loads, nominal fire curves based on
physical parameters

• Possible fire scenarios

– Localised fire ; spread of fire

• Consequences of fire events

– Key structural components
– Robustness
– Overall stability
– Escape and rescues
 Activity Construction
Quantitative Room geometry

Assessment Fuel load Fire

Scenarios
Fire characteristics
Structure should
remain stable to Fire thermal
exposure
allow safe Element geometry
evacuation and Thermal
properties HEAT TRANSFER
rescue. Heat transfer Analysis
coefficients

Thermal expansion
and gradients

Element
geometry
Applied loads STRUCTURAL
Analysis
Mechanical
properties

Structural resistance

Ceiling jet
Fire models Ceiling layer
Wall
jet Fire
plume
• Simple calculation methods
– FPE tool, Design guides,
parametric fire curves Burning object Target
Deterministic
• Zone models
Ceiling jet
• Radiation model Ceiling layer
Out flow
• CFD models
Wall Fire
• Risk models plume
Probabilistic jet
• Integration with Evacuation
models
Burning object

t1t2 t3 Intens
ity
t2
Fire Spread
 Multi-Zone Fire Model

t1 > t2 > t3 > t4 > t5

t4
t1t2 t3
t1
t2
t2

Fire Spread

Fire Spread Beyond Compartment of Origin

Structural Model
• Protected
columns
• 3-side exposed
beams R=0.24
• Protected semi-
rigid
connections

Fire Models
• Fire spread
• uniform heating
(for comparison)
 Effect of Fire Spread (Con’d)
If Fire spread
happens
• Beam deflection
in the source bay
increase in its
cooling phase
due to the
additional
compression
from adjacent
beams;

• Larger maximum
and residual
displacement of
the beam in
source bay.

Effect of Fire Spread (Summary)

• The effect of fire spread is more critical for

beam than that of uniform heating.
• When the beam begins to cool, and adjacent
beams start to be heated, compression force is
induced to the cooling beam causing more
deflection.
• Maximum and residual deflection of the beam
in the source bay are higher in the fire spread
case
 Large-compartment Fire
• Basic concept
– Structure is large; combustible material is small; air temperature does not
increase uniformly.
– Need to consider air and heat exchange between fire volume and part of
the structure.
• Fire models:
– “Multi-zone” fire model: uniform heating in a defined environment;
– Radiation model: radiation intensity with a radius from fire source.

Multi-storey Open-deck Car Park

• Structural Model
– Non-protected columns and 3-side heated steel beams;
– Structure well designed at ambient temperatures.

zParametric Study ---- 2 fire positions: mid-span and near column;

---- beam span 10m, 15m to 20m
 “Multi-zone” model to simulate car fire;

• No structural collapse for all

cases, hence fire protection
is not required.

• Fire located at mid-span

leads to larger mid-span
deflection;
• larger beam span leads to
larger mid-span deflection.

• Post fire analysis shows that

the structure is safe (SF >
1.4). Repair work is safe to
be carried out.

Multi-story Open-deck Car Park (Con’d)

Span L=10m L=15m L=20m

Member Beam UB UB UB
Size 457X152X74 610X229X125 914X305X224
Column UC 203X203X52 UC 254X254X73 UC 305X305X97

Static Maximum 1.481 1.513 1.497

Analysis Load

Fire Load Ratio 0.41 0.42 0.41

Analysis of Beam

Maximum 138.0mm 237.7mm 303.4mm

Deflection (L/72) (L/63) (L/66)
Residual 112.5mm 200.1mm 246.2mm
Deflection (L/89) (L/75) (L/81)
Post-fire Maximum 1.415 1.438 1.427
Static Load
Analysis Reduction 4.46% 4.96% 4.68%
Advanced Fire Analysis on Large
Span Structures

Large-span arched Framework

 Radiation Model
E
qi = cos α i
4πri2

1
⎛ εq i ⎞ 4
Tk = ⎜ −8 ⎟
⎝ 5.67 x10 ⎠ Intensity

Ei = total energy emitted from the source

ε = the emissivity coefficient

Fire Scenario

Fire Fire Location Number of

Case Burning Car

1 At mid-span under the arched 1

framework

2 At mid-span under the arched 2

framework

3 At 3m from the vertical column 1

4 At 3m from the vertical column 2

 Large-span arched Framework
50.00

Fire model Burning of the first car

Radiation fire to simulate car 40.00

fire; Burning of the second car

Heat Flux (kW/ m2)

Both single-car involved fire and 30.00

fire spread considered. (Burning of fuel tank and

luggage compartment)
E
qi = cos α i
20.00

4 π r i2
1
⎛ εq i ⎞ 4 10.00
Tk = ⎜ −8 ⎟
⎝ 5 . 67 x 10 ⎠
0.00
0 50
• No structure collapses 25
Time (minute)
75 100 125

– For fire near column or at mid-span;

– even when fire spread is considered.
• Car combustion is not critical, and passive fire protection is not
required.
• It is safe for repair work to be carried out after fire accident.

Effects of fire source location on the

maximum column temperature
Width of Distance from Fire Source to the Maximum Column
Pedestrian Column Temperature
Path (duration of heating)

1.5m 3.0m Single car fire 73oC (20 minutes)

Two Car fire 88oC (35 minutes)

1.0m 2.5m Single car fire 94oC (20 minutes)

Two car fire 112oC (35 minutes)

0.5m 2.0m Single car fire 139oC (20 minutes)

Two car fire 142oC (35 minutes)

0m 1.5m Single car fire 197oC (20 minutes)

Two car fire 215oC (35 minutes)

 Conclusion
An Integrated Approach
Evacuation

Active and Passive

Fire Modelling
Fire Protection

Heat Transfer Analysis Structural Performance

in Real Fire

Course Summary

Objectives
• To identify fire risk and apply fire
engineering methods in the design of
structures.
• To quantify fire behaviour including
post-flashover fire, determine
temperature response using heat
transfer analysis and structural
response behaviour in fire.
• To carry out calculations of fire safety
 Learning Outcome

1. Understand the principle of fire dynamics

and quantify fire temperature in a
compartment
2. Understand steel and concrete material
behaviour and their performance in fire
3. Understand and apply the requirements in
Part 1.2 of EC1, EC2, EC3, EC4 and BS
5950 Part 8 for fire resistant design
4. Perform fire hazard assessments and to
design structural members against fire

Assessment

2 Assignments and quiz 20%

Final Examinations 30%
2½ hr (open lecture notes)
Total: 50%

• Earthquake Engineering
(Prof. Balendra) 50%
Good Luck