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6.1 Introduction
Nearly all members in a structure are subjected to both bending moment and axial force-either
tension or compression. When the magnitude of one or the other is relatively small, its effect is
usually neglected and the member is designed either as a beam, or as an axially loaded column.
For many situations neither effect can properly be neglected and the behavior under combined
loading must be considered in design. A special class of such members that are subjected to
both axial compression force and bending moment are called beam-columns. They represent the
general load case of an element in a structural frame.
There are a number of factors that affect the performance of a member under combined axial
force and bending moment. A number of categories of combined bending and axial load along with
the likely mode of failure may be summarized as follows:
It may be apparent from this summary that no single design procedure is likely to properly
account for such varied behavior. Current design procedures generally follow empirical
interaction procedures to design structural members under combined stresses. Through such
interaction equations the true behavior is accounted for more accurately for most of the
stability situations.
In addition to mode of moment application as noted above, the behavior of a beam-column also
depends on its length on its lateral support conditions. In this later context, and with special
reference to beam-columns, the behavior can be classified into the following five cases:
Case 1: A short column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about either axis or
biaxial bending.
Failure generally occurs when the plastic capacity of the section is reached. Note
limitations set in Case (2) below.
Case 2: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the major
axis y-y.
If the column is supported laterally against buckling about the minor axis z-z out
of the plane of bending, the column fails by buckling about the x-x axis. This is
not a common case (see fig. 6.1a) at low axial loads or if the column is not very
slender a plastic hinge forms at the end or point of maximum moment.
Case 3: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the minor
axis z-z.
The column does not require lateral support and there is no buckling out of the
plane of bending. The column fails by buckling about the z-z axis. At very low
axial loads it will reach the bending capacity for z-z axis .
Case 4: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the major
axis y-y.
This time the column has no lateral support. The column fails due to a
combination of column buckling about the z-z axis and lateral torsional buckling
where the column section twists about x-axis as well as deflecting in the yx and
yz planes (see fig. 6.1b).
The column has no lateral support. The failure is the same as in Case 4 above but
minor axis buckling will have the greatest effect. This is the general loading case
(see fig. 6.1c).
In a beam column the treatment of cross-sectional behavior take account of the way in which
the moment M at the particular cross-section under consideration was generated. Figure 6.2
shows a beam-column undergoing lateral deflection as a result of the combination of compression
and equal and opposite moments applied at the ends.
(a) Equal and opposite moment case (b) Non-uniform moment case
The moment at any point within the length may conveniently be regarded as being composed of
two parts:
primary moment M
secondary moment Nv
Figure 6.2a showed how, for the particular case of equal and opposite end moments, the primary
moments are amplified due to the effect of the axial load N acting through the lateral
displacements v. When the pattern of primary moment is different the two effects will not be
so directly additive since maximum primary and secondary moments will not necessarily occur at
the same location. Figure 6.2b illustrates the situation for end moments M and M, where can
adopt values between +1 (uniform single curvature) and -1 (double curvature). The particular case
shown corresponds to a value -0,5.
For the case illustrated the maximum moment still occurs within the member length but the
situation is clearly less severe than that of Figure 6.2a assuming all conditions to be identical
apart from the value of . It is customary to recognize this in design by reducing the
contribution of the moment term to the interaction relationship.
Since the case of uniform single curvature moment is the most severe, it follows that a safe
simplification is always to use the procedure for = 1.0.
Returning to Figure 6.2b, it is possible for the point of maximum moment to be at the end at
which the larger primary moment is applied. This would usually occur if the axial load was small
and/or slenderness was low so that secondary bending effects were relatively slight. In such
cases design will be controlled by the need to ensure adequate cross-sectional resistance at this
end.
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist factored bending moments
My.sd and Mz.sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the following
condition:
Note that for angles, the y and z axes in the above should be taken as the u and v axes
respectively.
When Nsd is tensile, both eNy and eNz are to be taken as zero and Nsd is to be taken as positive.
The design resistance of the cross-section to the combination of moment and axial force should
be calculated using a reduced yield strength (1-) fy for the shear area where = (2VSd/VRd – 1)2
Buckling Resistance
Members subject to combined axial tension and bending should be checked to the requirements
of flexural members presented in Chapter Four, but advantage may be taken of the stabilizing
effect of the tension when considering lateral-torsional buckling as follows:
When the axial tension and bending moment can vary independently, the design value of the axial
tension should be multiplied by a reduction factor, for vectorial effects, of 0.8.
The check should be carried out using an effective design internal moment MSd obtained from:
MSd = Wc c (6.2)
Where
c = the net stress in the extreme fiber due to the vectorial effects of factored loads.
Wc = the elastic section modulus for the extreme fiber.
Nsd k y M y Sd N Sd eN y
1 (6.3a)
N b. y . Rd wyWpl . y f y Ml
y N sd
In which k y 1 but k y 1.5
X y Af y
W Wel . y
y y (2 my 4) pl . y but y 0.9
W el . y
Conservatively:
Nsd 1.5M y Sd N Sd eN y
1 (6.3b)
N b. y . Rd wyW pl . y f y Ml
ii. To avoid buckling about the minor axis (for members subject to lateral-torsional
buckling):
N Sd k M N Sd eNy
lT y .Sd 1.0 (6.3c)
N b. z . Rd M b.Rd
LT N sd
In which k LT 1 but kLT 1
X z Af y
LT 0.15 z M . LT 0.15 but LT 0.9
Conservatively:
N Sd M y .Sd N Sd e Ny
1.0 (6.3d)
N b. z . Rd M b. Rd
N Sd k M N Sd eNz
z z .Sd 1. 0 (6.4a)
N b. z .Rd w. yWpl . z f y Ml
Conservatively:
z N sd
In which k z 1 but kz 1.5
X z Af y
W Wel . z
z z (2 mz 4) pl. z but z 0.9
W el . z
Conservatively:
N Sd 1.5M y. Sd N Sd e Ny 1.5M z . Sd N Sd e Nz
1.0 (6.5b)
N b.z.Rd min w. yW pl . z f y Ml w. zW pl . z f y Ml
Conservatively:
wy and w.z are the values of w determined for the y and z axes respectively in
which
w = 1 for class 1 or 2 cross sections
= Wel/Wpl for class 3 cross-sections
= Wel/Wpl for class 4 cross-sections
Wpl.y and Wpl.z are the plastic moduli for the y and z axes respectively
Mb.Rd is the lateral-torsional buckling moment (see Chapter Four-Flexural
Members)
Note that for angles, the y and z axes in the above should be taken as the u and v axes
respectively.
c. Biaxial Bending
The cross-sectional resistance should be checked as provided earlier as well as the general
requirements for beam members (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members).
The following interaction criteria are suggested for verification of buckling resistance for
biaxial bending in the absence of axial compression:
k y M y.Sd k z M z . Sd
1. 0 (6.6a)
w. yW pl . y f y Ml w. zWpl . z f y Ml
k LT M y. Sd k z M z . Sd
1.0 (6.6b)
M b. Rd w. zW pl. z f y Ml
Where all quantities are defined under “axial compression and bending” earlier.
Note: the equivalent uniform moment factors m.y, m.z and m.LT shall be obtained from the
foolwing figure according to the shape of the bending moment diagram between the relevant
braced points as follows:
Pu 8 M ux M uy
1.0
(6.7a)
Pn 9 b M nx b M ny
2. For Pu/Pn 0.2:
Pu 8 M ux M uy
1.0 (6.7b)
2Pn 9 b M nx b M ny
Where:
a. If P is tensile,
Pu = factored tensile axial force
Pn = design tensile strength (see Chapter Two-Tension Members)
Mu = factored moment
Mn = design flexural strength (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members)
= t = resistance factor for tension = 0.9
= resistance factor for flexure = 0.9
b. If P is compressive,
Pu = factored compressive axial force
Pn = design compressive strength (see Chapter Three-Compression Members)
Mu = factored moment to be determined as per subsequent discussion
Mn = design flexural strength (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members)
= c = resistance factor for compression = 0.85
b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
The factored moment Mu should be determined from a second-order elastic analysis. In lieu of
such an analysis, the following equation may be used:
Where
Mnt = factored moment in member, assuming the frame does not undergo lateral
translation (provision of artificial restraint at the joints)
Mlt = factored moment in member as a result of lateral translation (equal and opposite
forces at the same joint)
B1 = Cm/(1-Pu/Pc) 1.0
Pe = 2El/(KL)2, with K1.0 in the plane of bending
Cm = a coefficient to be determined from the following discussion
B2 = 1 1 P HL
u oh or
B2 1 1 Pu P
e
p u = sum of all factored loads acting on and above the story under consideration
oh = first-order inter-story translation
H = sum of all lateral loads acting on and above the story under consideration
L = story height
For end-restrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are not subject
to transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending, Cm is given by:
M
C m 0.6 0.4 1 (6.9a)
M2
Where: M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger member end moments. The ratio is positive if
the member bends in reverse curvature and negative if the member bends in single curvature.
For end restrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are subject to
transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm = 0.85 (6.9b)
For unrestrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are subject to
transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm = 1.00 (6.9c)
The selection of trial sections for use as beam-columns is facilitated by rewriting the
interaction equations, Eq.(6.7a) and Eq.(6.7b) into the so-called equivalent axial load form.
Pu 9 9
m x m yUM uy c Pn (6.10b)
2 8 8
Where
8
mx c Pn b M nx
9
8
m yU c Pn b M ny
9
Numerical values for m and U are provided in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction. The
advantage of using Eqs. (6.10) for preliminary design is that the terms on the left-hand side of
the inequality can be regarded as an equivalent axial load, (Pu)eff. The similarity in form between
the two equations and Eq.(3.7a), Chapter Three, allows the designer to take advantage of the
column tables provided in the manual for selecting trial sections.
Biaxial Bending
Members subjected to bending about both principal axes (e.g., purlins on an inclined roof) should
be designed for biaxial bending. Since both the moment about the major axis, Mux and the
moment about the minor axis, Muy, create flexural stress over the cross section of the member,
to avoid yielding at the most severely stressed point the following equation for the yielding limit
state must be satisfied:
In addition, the limit state for lateral torsional buckling about the major axis should also be
checked, i.e.,
Where bMnx the design flexural strength about the major axis (see Chapter Four-Flexural
Members). Note that lateral torsional buckling will not occur about the minor axis.
M ux M uy Sx M ux M ux d
Sx 3.5 (6.13)
b f y b f y S f b f y df
y b y
The use of Eq. (6.13) greatly facilitates the selection of trial sections for use in biaxial bending
problems.
Members subjected to the combined effect of bending, torsion, and axial force should be
designed to satisfy the following limit states:
fy fm (6.14)
Where
= 0.90
fy = specified minimum yield stress
fun = maximum shear stress determined from an eleastic analysis under factored loads
fvu = maximum shear stress determined from an elastic analysis under factored
loads.
Buckling
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ADDITIONAL READING