Introduction to Microwave Links

Microwaves are a type of radio waves with short wavelength. It can be classified
as a subclass of radio waves. A microwave link is a communications system that
uses a beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit
information between two fixed locations on the earth. They are crucial to many
forms of communication and impact a broad range of industries. Broadcasters
use microwave links to send programs from the studio to the transmitter
location, which might be miles away. Microwave links carry cellular telephone
calls between cell sites. Wireless Internet service providers use microwave links
to provide their clients with high-speed Internet access without the need for
cable connections. Telephone companies transmit calls between switching
centers over microwave links, although fairly recently they have been largely
supplanted by fiber-optic cables. Companies and government agencies use
them to provide communications networks between nearby facilities within an
organization, such as a company with several buildings within a city.

One of the reasons microwave links are so adaptable is that they are
broadband. That means they can move large amounts of information at high
speeds. Another important quality of microwave links is that they require no
equipment or facilities between the two terminal points, so installing a
microwave link is often faster and less costly than a cable connection. Finally,
they can be used almost anywhere, as long as the distance to be spanned is
within the operating range of the equipment and there is clear path (that is, no
solid obstacles) between the locations. Microwaves are also able to penetrate
rain, fog, and snow, which means bad weather doesn’t disrupt transmission.

A simple one-way microwave link includes four major elements: a transmitter, a

receiver, transmission lines, and antennas. These basic components exist in
every radio communications system, including cellular telephones, two-way
radios, wireless networks, and commercial broadcasting. But the technology
used in microwave links differs markedly from that used at the lower
frequencies (longer wavelengths) in the radio spectrum. Techniques and
components that work well at low frequencies are not useable at the higher
frequencies (shorter wavelengths) used in microwave links. For example,
ordinary wires and cables function poorly as conductors of microwave signals.
On the other hand, microwave frequencies allow engineers to take advantage of
certain principles that are impractical to apply at lower frequencies. One
example is the use of a parabolic or “dish” antenna to focus a microwave radio
beam. Such antennas can be designed to operate at much lower frequencies,
but they would be too large to be economical for most purposes.

In a microwave link the transmitter produces a microwave signal that carries the
information to be communicated. That information—the input—can be
anything capable of being sent by electronic means, such as a telephone call,
television or radio programs, text, moving or still images, web pages, or a
combination of those media.

The transmitter has two fundamental jobs: generating microwave energy at the
required frequency and power level, and modulating it with the input signal so
that it conveys meaningful information. Modulation is accomplished by varying
some characteristic of the energy in response to the transmitter’s input.
Flashing a light to transmit a message in Morse Code is an example of
modulation. The differing lengths of the flashes (the dots and dashes), and the
intervals of darkness between them, convey the information—in this case a text
message.

The second integral part of a microwave link is a transmission line. This line
carries the signal from the transmitter to the antenna and, at the receiving end
of the link, from the antenna to the receiver. In electrical engineering, a
transmission line is anything that conducts current from one point to another.
Lamp cord, power lines, telephone wires and speaker cable are common
transmission lines. But at microwave frequencies, those media excessively
weaken the signal. In their place, engineers use coaxial cables and, especially,
hollow pipes called waveguides.
The third part of the microwave system is the antennas. On the transmitting
end, the antenna emits the microwave signal from the transmission line into
free space. “Free space” is the electrical engineer’s term for the emptiness or
void between the transmitting and receiving antennas. It is not the same thing
as “the atmosphere,” because air is not necessary for any type of radio
transmission (which is why radio works in the vacuum of outer space). At the
receiver site, an antenna pointed toward the transmitting station collects the
signal energy and feeds it into the transmission line for processing by the
receiver.

Antennas used in microwave links are highly directional, which means they
tightly focus the transmitted energy, and receive energy mainly from one
specific direction. This contrasts with antennas used in many other
communications systems, such as broadcasting. By directing the transmitter’s
energy where it's needed—toward the receiver—and by concentrating the
received signal, this characteristic of microwave antennas allows
communication over long distances using small amounts of power.

Between the link’s antennas lies another vital element of the microwave link—
the path taken by the signal through the earth’s atmosphere. A clear path is
critical to the microwave link’s success. Since microwaves travel in essentially
straight lines, man-made obstacles (including possible future construction) that
might block the signal must either be overcome by tall antenna structures or
avoided altogether. Natural obstacles also exist. Flat terrain can create
undesirable reflections, precipitation can absorb or scatter some of the
microwave energy, and the emergence of foliage in the spring can weaken a
marginally strong signal, which had been adequate when the trees were bare in
the winter. Engineers must take all the existing and potential problems into
account when designing a microwave link.

At the end of the link is the final component, the receiver. Here, information
from the microwave signal is extracted and made available in its original form.
To accomplish this, the receiver must demodulate the signal to separate the
information from the microwave energy that carries it. The receiver must be
capable of detecting very small amounts of microwave energy, because the
signal loses much of its strength on its journey.

This entire process takes place at close to the speed of light, so transmission is
virtually instantaneous even across long distances. With all of their advantages,
microwave links are certain to be important building blocks of the world’s
communications infrastructure for years to come.