Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Traveling Waves
Conceptual Problems
tension FT in the string and its mass per unit length μ according to v = FT μ .
Determine the Concept The speed v of a pulse on the string varies with the
these waves compare? (a) EA = EB . (b) EA = 2EB . (c) EA = 4EB . (d) There is
Wave A has an amplitude that is twice that of wave B’s. How do the energies of
where A is the amplitude of the wave, μ is the linear density (mass per unit length)
1451
1452 Chapter 15
of the string, ω is the angular frequency of the wave, and Δx is the length of the
string.
EA cAA2 ⎛ AA ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟⎟
2
EB cAB2 ⎜⎝ AB
Divide the first of these equations by
⎠
the second and simplify to obtain:
E A ⎛ 2 AB ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = 4 ⇒ (c ) is correct.
2
E B ⎜⎝ AB ⎟⎠
Because AA = 2AB:
( )
Determine the Concept The resonant (standing wave) frequencies on a string are
very long strings) can be accommodated on relatively short strings if the strings
are linearly less dense than the high frequency strings. High frequencies are not a
problem as they use short strings anyway.
Determine the Concept Once the sound has been produced by a vibrating string,
7 • In Problem 6, which sound waves have the higher speeds? (a) The
lower frequency sounds. (b) The higher frequency sounds. (c) All frequencies
have the same wave speed. (d) There is not enough information to compare their
speeds.
Determine the Concept Once the sound has been produced by a vibrating string,
membrane, or air column, the wave speed with which it propagates depends on
8 • Sound travels at 343 m/s in air and 1500 m/s in water. A sound of
256 Hz is made under water, but you hear the sound while walking along the side
of the pool. In the air, the frequency is (a) the same, but the wavelength of the
sound is shorter, (b) higher, but the wavelength of the sound stays the same,
(c) lower, but the wavelength of the sound is longer, (d) lower, and the
wavelength of the sound is shorter, (e) the same, and the wavelength of the sound
stays the same.
a sound wave are related through λ = v/f. Because the frequency of a wave is
Determine the Concept In any medium, the wavelength, frequency, and speed of
greater in water than in air, λ will be shorter in air than in water. (a ) is correct.
determined by its source and is independent of the nature of the medium, if v is
9 • While out on patrol, the battleship Rodger Young hits a mine, begins to
burn, and ultimately explodes. Sailor Abel jumps into the water and begins
second explosion. What do you think it could be?″ Baker says, ″I think it was
underwater, and heard a big explosion from the ship. When I surfaced, I heard a
your imagination—I only heard one explosion. ″ Explain why Baker only heard
one explosion, while Abel heard two.
Determine the Concept There was only one explosion. Sound travels faster in
water than air. Abel heard the sound wave in the water first, then, surfacing,
heard the sound wave traveling through the air, which took longer to reach him.
10 • True or false: A 60-dB sound has twice the intensity of a 30-dB sound.
η av, A 12 ρ Aω A2 s02, A
=
Dividing the first of these equation
by the second yields: η av, B 12 ρ Bω B2 s02, B
η av, A ω A2 ⎛ 2πf A ⎞ ⎛ f A ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
2 2
η av, B ω B2 ⎜⎝ 2πf B ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ f B ⎟⎠
Because the sound waves are
identical except for their frequencies:
η av, A ⎛ 2 f B ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = 4 ⇒ (b ) is correct.
2
η av, B ⎜⎝ f B ⎟⎠
Because fA = 2fB:
times the average energy density of B (d) You cannot compare the average energy
densities from the data given.
η av, A 12 ρ Aω A2 s02, A
=
Dividing the first of these equation
by the second yields: η av, B 12 ρ Bω B2 s02, B
η av, B ⎜⎝ s0, B ⎟⎠
Determine the Concept The problem is asking us for the ratio of the intensities
corresponding to normal conversation and a soft whisper. Table 15-1 includes the
quantities we need in order to find this ratio.
⎛ I ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 10 6
Use Table 15-1 to find the ratio of
⎝ I 0 ⎠ conversati
I/I0, where I0 is the threshold of normal
on
hearing, for normal conversation:
⎛I ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 103
Use Table 15-1 to find the ratio of
⎝ I 0 ⎠soft
I/I0 for a soft whisper:
whisper
1456 Chapter 15
⎛ I ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Dividing the first of these equation
⎝ I 0 ⎠ conversati
= = 10 3
by the second yields: normal
10 6
⎛ I ⎞
on
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3
10
⎝ I 0 ⎠ soft
(a )
whisper
is correct.
Determine the Concept The problem is asking us for the ratio of the sound
intensity levels (decibel levels) corresponding to normal conversation and a soft
whisper. Table 15-1 includes the quantities we need in order to find this ratio.
β normal
= =2
Dividing the first of these equation
β soft
conversation 60 dB
by the second yields:
30 dB
(b )
whisper
is correct.
β = (10 dB) log(I I 0 ) where I is the intensity of a given sound and I0 is the
Determine the Concept The sound intensity level is given by
⎛ I1 ⎞
β1 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The sound intensity level for a sound
⎝ I0 ⎠
whose intensity is I1 is given by:
⎛ I2 ⎞
β 2 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The sound intensity level for a sound
⎝ 0⎠
whose intensity is I2 is given by: I
Traveling Waves 1457
⎛ ⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎞
β1 − β 2 = (10 dB) ⎜⎜ log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎟
Subtract the second equation from
⎝ ⎝ I2 ⎠⎠
the first and simplify to obtain:
β −β
= 10 10 dB
Solving for I1/I2 yields: I1 1 2
I2
= 10 = 10 2 ⇒ (b ) is correct.
20 dB
For a 20-dB increase in the sound I1 10 dB
intensity level: I2
16 • You are using a hand-held sound level meter to measure the intensity
level of the roars produced by a lion prowling in the high grass. To decrease the
measured sound intensity level by 20 dB requires the lion move away from you
until its distance from you has increased by what factor? (a) 10, (b) 100, (c) 1000,
(d) You cannot tell the required distance from the data given.
β = (10 dB) log(I I 0 ) where I is the intensity of a given sound and I0 is the
Determine the Concept The sound intensity level is given by
⎛ I1 ⎞
β1 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The sound intensity level for a sound
⎝ 0⎠
whose intensity is I1 is given by: I
⎛ I2 ⎞
β 2 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The sound intensity level for a sound
⎝ I0 ⎠
whose intensity is I2 is given by:
⎛ ⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎞
β1 − β 2 = (10 dB) ⎜⎜ log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎟
Subtract the second equation from
⎝ ⎝ I2 ⎠⎠
the first and simplify to obtain:
β −β
= 10 10 dB
Solving for I1/I2 yields: I1 1 2
I2
4π r12 r22
Letting r1 be the lion’s initial Pav
β1 − β 2 β1 − β 2
= 2 = 10 10 dB ⇒ 2 = 10 10 dB
distance from you and r2 be the r
4π r22
lion’s final distance from you, Pav r1 r1
substitute for I1 and I2 and simplify
to obtain:
1458 Chapter 15
= 10 10 dB = 10 ⇒ (a ) is correct.
For a 20-dB decrease in the sound r2 20 dB
intensity level: r1
(a) The pulse that is reflected back from the thread-cord attachment point is
inverted compared to the initial incoming pulse.
(b) The pulse that continues past the thread-cord attachment point is not inverted
compared to the initial incoming pulse.
(c) The pulse that continues past the thread-cord attachment point has an
amplitude that is smaller than the pulse that is reflected.
(a) False. Because the reflection medium (cord) in which the pulse travels initially
has a greater linear density than the transmission medium (thread), there is no
phase shift in the reflected pulse.
(b) True. Because the thread-cord attachment point of the media is more like a
loose end than a fixed end, the pulse transmitted into the light thread is in phase
with the incoming pulse in the thicker, denser cord.
(c) True. Because the string is attached to a thicker, denser cord, the reflected
pulse behaves almost as though it was reflected from a fixed end and is, therefore,
inverted. The pulse in the light thread is in phase with the incoming pulse in the
thicker, denser cord. Because energy is conserved and there is some energy
transmitted and some reflected, the transmitted wave cannot have an amplitude as
large as the amplitude of the pulse in the thicker, denser cord.
Determine the Concept The ray diagram shows the relationship between the
incident, reflected, and refracted rays.
Traveling Waves 1459
45°
θ1
Refracted ray
Reflected ray
(a) True. Because the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, the
sum of these angles in this example is 90°. Note: this is a special case and is not
generally true.
(b) False. Because light travels slower in glass than in air, the refracted ray makes
an angle of less than 45° with the normal. Hence the angle it makes with the
reflected ray is greater than 90°.
Determine the Concept If the wavelength is large relative to the door, the
diffraction effects are large and the waves spread out as they pass through the
door. Because we’re interested in sounds that are least likely to be heard
Determine the Concept No. Because the wavelength of the radiation is small
relative to the door, the diffraction effects are small and the waves do not spread
out significantly as they pass through the door.
1460 Chapter 15
Determine the Concept The light from the visible star will be shifted about its
mean frequency periodically due to the relative approach toward and recession
away from Earth as the star revolves about the common center of mass.
Determine the Concept The graph shown below shows the pulse at an earlier
time (t < 0) and later time (t > 0). (a) One can see that at t = 0, the portion of the
string between 1 cm and 2 cm is moving down, (b) the portion between 2 cm and
3 cm is moving up, and (c) the string at x = 2 cm is instantaneously at rest.
t=0
t>0
t<0
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x , cm
Determine the Concept The velocity of the string at t = 0 is shown. Note that the
velocity is negative for 1 cm < x < 2 cm and is positive for 2 cm < x < 3 cm.
Traveling Waves 1461
vy
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x , cm
Determine the Concept If the mass providing the tension in the rope is increased
by a factor of n, then the tension in the rope increases by the same factor and the
speed of the pulse on the rope increases by a factor of n and the round trip time
for the pulse is decreased by a factor of 1 n .
t=
Let l represent the distance the pulse l
(1)
travels. Then the time for the round v
trip is given by:
vm =
Express the speed of the wave when FT, m
μ
the object of mass m provides the
tension in the rope:
v9 m =
Express the speed of the wave when FT,9 m
μ
the object of mass 9m provides the
tension in the rope:
μ
t9 m = =l
Substituting for v9 m in equation (1) l
(2)
yields: FT,9 m FT,9 m
μ
μ
tm = =l
Similarly, the travel time when the l
object whose mass is m is providing (3)
FT, m FT, m
μ
the tension is given by:
1462 Chapter 15
=
Divide equation (2) by equation (3) t9m FT, m
and simplify to obtain:
tm FT,9 m
Determine the Concept Path C. Because the wave speed is highest in the water,
and more of path C is underwater than are paths A or B, the sound wave will
spend the least time on path C.
Determine the Concept No. The term Mach 2 means that the speed is twice the
speed of sound at a given altitude. Because the speed of sound is lower at high
altitudes than at ground level (due to lower density and colder temperature), Mach
2 means less than twice the speed of sound at sea level.
27 • • Many years ago, Olympic 100 m dashes were started by the sound
from a starter’s pistol, with the starter positioned several meters down the track,
just on the inside of the track. (Today, the pistol that is used is often only a
trigger, which is used to electronically activate speakers behind each sprinter’s
starting blocks. This method avoids the problem of one runner hearing sound
before the other runners.) Estimate the time advantage the inside lane (relative to
the runner at the outside lane of 8 runners) would have if all runners started when
they heard the sound from the starter’s pistol.
Picture the Problem Due to the differences in the distances from the starter to
the inside- and outside-lane sprinters, the sound of the starting pistol took more
time to reach the outside-lane sprinter than it did to reach the inside-lane sprinter.
l outside l inside
= −
distances the sound must travel and
lane lane
the speed of sound:
v v
Traveling Waves 1463
28 • • Estimate the speed of the bullet as it passes through the helium balloon
in Figure 15-32. Hint: A protractor would be beneficial.
cone and then estimate the speed of the bullet using sin θ = v u . The speed of
Picture the Problem You can use a protractor to measure the angle of the shock
sin θ = ⇒u =
sin θ
Relate the speed of the bullet u to the v v
u= = 1.0 km/s
Substitute numerical values and 977 m/s
evaluate u: sin 70°
Picture the Problem Let d be the distance to the townhouses. We can relate the
speed of sound to the distance to the townhouses to the frequency of the clapping
for which no echo is heard. 5 ft 11 in is equal to 1.8 m.
v=
Relate the speed of sound to the 2d
distance it travels to the townhouses Δt
and back to the elapsed time:
2(54 m )
v= = 270 m/s = 0.27 km/s
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate v: 0.40 s
Speed of Waves
30 • (a) The bulk modulus of water is 2.00 × 109 N/m2. Use this value to
v=
(a) Express the speed of sound in
ρ
B
water in terms of its bulk modulus:
2.00 × 10 9 N/m 2
v= = 1.414 km/s
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate v: 1.00 × 10 3 kg/m 3
= 1.41 km/s
Picture the Problem The speed of sound in a gas is given by v = γRT M where
γRT
v=
Express the dependence of the speed
of sound in hydrogen gas on the M
absolute temperature:
v = FT μ where FT is the tension in the string, m is its mass, L is its length, and
Picture the Problem The speed of a transverse wave pulse on a string is given by
v= = 251 m/s
Substitute numerical values and 900 N
evaluate v: 0.100 kg
7.00 m
dv v = 12 dFT FT . (b) A wave moves with a speed of 300 m/s on a string that is
with respect to the tension dv/dFT, and show that the differentials dv and dFT obey
ΔFT exactly and compare it to the differential approximation result in Part (b).
much the tension must be changed to increase the speed to 312 m/s. (c) Calculate
Assume that the string does not stretch with the increase in tension.
1466 Chapter 15
v = FT μ where FT is the tension in the wire and μ is its linear density. We can
Picture the Problem (a) The speed of a transverse wave on a string is given by
show that the differentials satisfy dv v = 12 dFT FT . (b) We’ll approximate the
differentiate this expression with respect to FT and then separate the variables to
increase the speed of the wave to 312 m/s. (c) We can use v = FT μ to obtain
differential quantities to determine by how much the tension must be changed to
d ⎡ FT ⎤ 1
= ⎢ ⎥= = ⋅
(a) Evaluate dv/dFT:
dF dFT ⎣ μ ⎦ 2 FT μ 2 FT
dv 1 1 v
=
Separate the variables to obtain: dv 1 dFT
v 2 FT
dFT = 2 FT
(b) Solve the equation derived in Part dv
(a) for dFT: v
(c) The exact value for (ΔF)exact is (ΔF )exact = FT,2 − FT,1 (1)
given by:
v1 = and v2 =
Express the wave speeds for the two FT,1 FT,2
tensions: μ μ
⎛v ⎞
(ΔFT )exact = FF,1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ − FT,1
2
Substituting for FT,2 in equation (1)
⎝ v1 ⎠
yields:
⎡⎛ v ⎞ 2 ⎤
= FF,1 ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 312 m/s ⎞ 2 ⎤
(ΔFT )exact = (500 N )⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
Substitute numerical values and
= 40.8 N
34 • • (a) Compute the derivative of the speed of sound in air with respect to
dv v = 12 dT T . (b) Use this result to estimate the percentage change in the speed
the absolute temperature, and show that the differentials dv and dT obey
of sound when the temperature changes from 0 to 27°C. (c) If the speed of sound
is 331 m/s at 0°C, estimate its value at 27°C using the differential approximation.
(d) How does this approximation compare with the result of an exact calculation?
Picture the Problem The speed of sound in a gas is given by v = γRT M where
d ⎡ γRT ⎤ 1 M ⎛ γR ⎞
= ⎢ ⎥= ⎜ ⎟
(a) Evaluate dv/dT:
⎦ 2 γRT ⎝ M ⎠
dv
dT dT ⎣ M
=
1v
2T
1468 Chapter 15
=
Separate the variables to obtain: dv 1 dT
v 2 T
Δv
v300 K ≈ v273 K + v273 K
(c) Using a differential
⎛ Δv ⎞
approximation, approximate the v
= v273 K ⎜1 + ⎟
speed of sound at 300 K:
⎝ v ⎠
can write v(T ) ≈ v(T0 ) + (dv dT )T0 ΔT , where (dv / dT )T 0 is the derivative
The speed of sound is a function of T, v(T). To a first-order approximation, you
⎝ 2T0 ⎟⎠
Traveling Waves 1469
Picture the Problem We can use the approximate expression for v(T) given in
v(T ) ≈ v(T0 ) + ⎜
⎛ dv ⎞
⎟ ΔT
The speed of sound as a function of
⎝ dT ⎠T0
(1)
T is given by:
dv 1 v(T )
=
From Problem 44, dv/dT is given by:
dt 2 T
dv ⎤ dv ⎤ 1 v(T0 )
=
dT ⎥⎦ T =T0 ⎥
dT ⎦ T =T0 2 T0
Evaluating yields: (2)
⎛ 1 v(T0 ) ⎞
v(T ) ≈ v(T0 ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ΔT
Substitute equation (2) in equation (1)
⎝ 2 T0 ⎠
and simplify to obtain:
⎛ ΔT ⎞
= v(T0 )⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎝ 2T0 ⎠
∂ y 1 ∂2 y
36 • Show explicitly that the following functions satisfy the wave equation
= 2 2 : (a) y(x,t) = k(x + vt)3, (b) y(x, t) = Aeik(x – vt) , where A and k are
2
∂x 2
v ∂t
constants and i = − 1 , and (c) y(x,t) = ln k(x – vt).
Picture the Problem To show that each of the functions satisfies the wave
equation, we’ll need to find their first and second derivatives with respect to x and
t and then substitute these derivatives in the wave equation.
= 3k (x + vt )
∂y
derivatives of y ( x,t ) = k (x + vt ) : ∂x
(a) Find the first two spatial 2
3
= 6k (x + vt )
∂2 y
and
∂x 2
(1)
1470 Chapter 15
= 3kv(x + vt )
∂y
derivatives of y ( x,t ) = k (x + vt ) : ∂t
Find the first two temporal 2
3
= 6kv 2 (x + vt )
∂2 y
and
∂t 2
(2)
∂2 y
∂x 2 = 6k ( x + vt ) = 1
Express the ratio of equation (1) to
∂ 2 y 6kv 2 ( x + vt )
equation (2):
v2
∂t 2
confirming that y (x, t ) = k (x + vt )
3
∂y ∂2 y
derivatives of y (x,t ) = Aeik ( x−vt ) :
= ikAeik ( x−vt ) , 2 = i 2 k 2 Aeik ( x−vt )
(b) Find the first two spatial
∂x ∂x
∂2 y
or
= −k 2 Aeik ( x−vt )
∂x 2
(3)
∂y
= −ikvAeik ( x−vt ) ,
derivatives of y (x,t ) = Aeik ( x−vt ) : ∂t
Find the first two temporal
∂ 2 y 2 2 2 ik ( x−vt )
= i k v Ae
∂t 2
∂2 y
or
= −k 2v 2 Aeik ( x−vt )
∂t 2
(4)
∂2 y
∂x 2 = − k Ae
ik ( x − vt )
Express the ratio of equation (3) to
= 2
2
1
∂ y − k v Ae
equation (4):
2 2 2 ik ( x − vt )
v
∂t
confirming that y (x, t ) = Aeik ( x−vt )
2
∂y
=
k
∂x x − vt
(c) Find the first two spatial
y ( x, t ) = ln k ( x − vt ) :
derivatives of
∂2 y
and
= −
(x − vt )2
k2
∂x 2
(5)
Traveling Waves 1471
∂y
=−
derivatives of y ( x, t ) = ln k ( x − vt ) :
vk
∂t x − vt
Find the first two temporal
∂2 y
and
= −
(x − vt )2
v2k 2
∂t 2
(6)
∂2 y − k
∂x 2 = ( x − vt ) = 1
2
Express the ratio of equation (5)
2
to equation (6):
∂2 y
−
(x − vt )2
v2k 2 v2
∂t 2
confirming that y ( x, t ) = ln k ( x − vt )
satisfies the general wave equation.
37 • Show that the function y = A sin kx cos ωt satisfies the wave equation.
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂ t 2
Picture the Problem The wave equation is . To show that
y = A sin kx cos ω t satisfies this equation, we’ll need to find the first and second
derivatives of y with respect to x and t and then substitute these derivatives in the
wave equation.
∂y
= Ak cos kx cos ωt
of y = A sin kx cos ω t : ∂x
Find the first two spatial derivatives
∂2 y
and
= − Ak 2 sin kx cos ωt
∂x 2
(1)
∂y
= −ωA sin kx sin ωt
derivatives of y = A sin kx cos ω t : ∂t
Find the first two temporal
∂2 y
and
= −ω 2 A sin kx cos ωt
∂t 2
(2)
1472 Chapter 15
∂2 y
∂x 2 = − Ak sin kx cos ωt = k
Express the ratio of equation (1) to
2 2
∂ 2 y − Aω 2 sin kx cos ωt ω 2
equation (2):
∂t 2
= 2
1
38 • One end of a string 6.0 m long is moved up and down with simple
harmonic motion at a frequency of 60 Hz. If the wave crests travel the length of
the string in 0.50 s, find the wavelength of the waves on the string.
fλ = v ⇒ λ =
Express the wavelength of the v
waves: f
v= = = 12 m/s
The speed of the wave is equal to Δx 6.0 m
the distance divided by the time: Δt 0.50 s
λ= = 20 cm
Substitute numerical values to 12 m/s
obtain: 60 s −1
harmonic wave is Pav = 12 μω 2 A2v, where v is the speed of the wave, and μ, ω, and
Picture the Problem The average power propagated along the string by a
A are the linear density of the string, the angular frequency of the wave, and the
amplitude of the wave, respectively.
v=
The speed of the wave on the string
μ
FT
is given by:
Pav = 12 μω 2 A2 = (2πf )2 A2 FT μ
μ
Substitute for v and simplify to obtain: FT 1
= 2(πfA)
2
FT μ
2
[( ) ]
Pav = 2 π 10 s −1 (0.050 m )
2
(80 N )(0.050 kg/m ) = 9.9 W
harmonic wave is Pav = 12 μω 2 A2v, where v is the velocity of the wave, and μ, ω,
Picture the Problem The average power propagated along the rope by a
and A are the linear density of the string, the angular frequency of the wave, and
the amplitude of the wave, respectively.
f = =
Solve for the frequency and simplify
2π μA v 2πA μv
Pav 1 2 Pav
to obtain: 22
v=
The wave speed is given by:
μ
FT
f = =
Substitute for v and simplify to
2πA 2πA
1 2 Pav 1 2 Pav
μFT
μ
obtain:
μ
FT
1474 Chapter 15
2(100 W )
f = = 171 Hz
2π (0.0100 m )
1
⎟ (60.0 N )
⎛ 0.100 kg ⎞
⎜
⎝ 2.00 m ⎠
and ω.
wavelength, frequency, and period of the wave can, in turn, be determined from k
(a) Because the sign between the kx and ωt terms is positive, the wave is traveling
in the −x direction.
ω 314 s −1
v= = = 5.00 m/s
The speed of the wave is:
k 62.8 m −1
2π 2π
k= ⇒λ =
λ
(b) The coefficient of x is k and:
k
2π
λ= = 10.0 cm
evaluate λ:
Substitute numerical values and
62.8 m −1
T= = = 0.0200 s
The period of the wave motion is the 1 1
reciprocal of its frequency: f 50.0 s −1
Picture the Problem y ( x,t ) = A sin (kx − ωt ) describes a wave traveling in the +x
direction. We can find ω and k from the data included in the problem statement
string can be found from vmax = Aω and the maximum acceleration from
and substitute in the general equation. The maximum speed of a point on the
amax = Aω 2 .
ω 503 s −1
k= = = 42 m −1
Determine k:
v 12 m/s
power multiplied by the time for the wave to travel the distance L
1476 Chapter 15
t=
The time for the wave to travel the L
length L is L/v: v
= 12 μL(2πf ) A 2 = 2π 2 μLf 2 A 2
solve for the average energy on the v 2
2
string:
⎛ 0.120 kg ⎞
Eav = 2π 2 ⎜⎜ (
⎟⎟ 200 s −1 ) (20 m )(0.012 m)
2
= 6.8 J
⎝ ⎠
2
40 m
v=
To calculate Pav we need an
μ
FT
expression for the wave speed v:
Pav = 12 μ (2πf ) A 2
Substitute for v to obtain:
μ
2 FT
= 2π 2 μf 2 A 2
μ
FT
⎛ 0.060 kg ⎞
Pav = 2π 2 ⎜ (
⎟ 200 s
−1
) (0.012 m ) 50 N
= 44 W
⎝ 20 m ⎠
2 2
0.060 kg
20 m
44 • • On a real string, some of the energy of the wave dissipates as the wave
is P = 12 μω 2 A2v where v is the velocity of the wave, and μ, ω, and A are the linear
Picture the Problem The power propagated along the string by a harmonic wave
density of the string, the angular frequency of the wave, and the amplitude of the
wave, respectively.
= 1
2 μω 2 A02ve −2bx
harmonic wave is Pav = 12 μω 2 A2 v where v is the speed of the wave, and μ, ω, and
Picture the Problem The average power propagated along a string by a
A are the linear density of the string, the angular frequency of the wave, and the
amplitude of the wave, respectively.
(
Pav = 2π 2 (0.010 kg/m ) 400 s −1 )
( m ) (10 m/s )
2
Substitute numerical values and
× 0.50 ×10 −3
evaluate Pav: 2
= 79 mW
46 • • • Two very long strings are tied together at the point x = 0. In the region
x < 0, the wave speed is v1, while in the region x > 0, the speed is v2. A sinusoidal
wave is incident on the knot from the left (x < 0); part of the wave is reflected and
y(x,t) = A sin (k1x – ωt) + B sin(k1x + ωt), while for x > 0, y(x,t) = C sin (k2x – ωt),
part is transmitted. For x < 0, the displacement of the wave is describabed by
where ω/k1 = v1 and ω/k2 = v2. (a) If we assume that both the wave function y and
its first spatial derivative ∂y/∂x must be continuous at x = 0, show that
C/A = 2v2/( v1 + v2), and that B/A = (v1 – v2)/( v1 + v2). (b) Show that
B2 + (v1/v2)C2 = A2.
Picture the Problem We can use the assumption that both the wave function and
its first spatial derivative are continuous at x = 0 to establish equations relating A,
B, C, k1, and k2. Then, we can solve these simultaneous equations to obtain
expressions for B and C in terms of A, v1, and v2.
= C sin[k 2 (0) − ωt ]
y2(x, t) represent the wave function
in the region x > 0. Express the
continuity of the two wave functions
A− B =C
and
(1)
= Ak1 cos(k1 x − ωt )
Differentiate the wave functions with ∂y1
∂x
+ Bk1 cos(k1 x + ωt )
respect to x to obtain:
= Ck 2 cos(k 2 x − ωt )
∂y2
and
∂x
Traveling Waves 1479
∂y 1 ∂y
= 2
Express the continuity of the slopes
of the two wave functions at x = 0: ∂x x =0 ∂x x =0
= Ck 2 cos[k 2 (0) − ωt ]
= Ck 2 cos(− ωt )
k1 A + k1 B = k 2C
and
(2)
C= A=
Solving for C yields: 2k1 2
k1 + k 2 1 + k 2 k1
A
⎛ 2v2 ⎞
A − B = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ A
Substitute in equation (1) to obtain:
⎝ v2 + v1 ⎠
v −v
= 1 2
Solving for B/A yields: B
A v1 + v2
1480 Chapter 15
B2 + C = A2
(b) We wish to show that v1 2
v2
⎛1−α ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
B2 + (v1/v2)C2 = A2
⎜ ⎟ A + α⎜ ⎟ A =A
2 2
⎝ + α ⎠ ⎝ + α ⎠
2
⎝1+ α ⎠ ⎝1+ α ⎠
(1 − α )2 + 4α =1
(1 + α )2
Substitute these expressions into
1 − 2α + α 2 + 4α
B2 + (v1/v2)C2 = A2
=1
and check to see if the resulting (1 + α )2
1 + 2α + α 2
=1
(1 + α )2
equation is an identity:
(1 + α )2 =1
(1 + α )2
1=1
Therefore, B 2 + C = A2
The equation is an identity: v1 2
v2
v2/v1 → 0. This limit gives B/A = +1, telling us that the transmitted wave has
Remarks: Our result in (a) can be checked by considering the limit of B/A as
zero amplitude and the incident and reflected waves superpose to give a
standing wave with a node at x = 0.
π
p( x, t ) = 0.75 cos(x − 343t ) , where p is in pascals, x is in meters, and t is in
47 • A sound wave in air produces a pressure variation given by
2
seconds. Find (a) the pressure amplitude, (b) the wavelength, (c) the frequency,
and (d) the wave speed.
and v is the wave speed. We can find λ from k and f from ω and k.
2π π λ = 4.00 m
(b) Because k = =
λ
:
2
ω 2πf
(c) Solve v = = f =
2π
kv
for f to obtain:
k k
π
Substitute numerical values and
(343 m/s )
f = 2 = 85.8 Hz
2π
evaluate f:
48 • (a) Middle C on the musical scale has a frequency of 262 Hz. What is
the wavelength of this note in air? (b) The frequency of the C an octave above
middle C is twice that of middle C. What is the wavelength of this note in air?
λ= = = 1.30 m
(a) The wavelength of middle C is v 340 m/s
given by: f 262 s −1
49 • [SSM] The density of air is 1.29 kg/m3. (a) What is the displacement
of 1.00 × 10–4 atm? (b) The displacement amplitude of a sound wave of frequency
amplitude for a sound wave with a frequency of 100 Hz and a pressure amplitude
medium ρ, the angular frequency of the sound wave μ, the speed of the wave v,
Picture the Problem The pressure amplitude depends on the density of the
3 −1
( )( ) ( )
p0 = 2π 1.29 kg/m 3 300 s −1 (343 m/s ) 1.00 ×10 −7 m = 83.4 mPa
medium ρ, the angular frequency of the sound wave μ, the wave speed v, and the
Picture the Problem The pressure amplitude depends on the density of the
s0 =
( )
2π 1.29 kg/m 3 (500 Hz )(343 m/s )
Substitute numerical values and 29.0 Pa
evaluate s0:
= 20.9 μm
s0 =
( )
2π 1.29 kg/m (1.00 kHz )(343 m/s )
(b) Proceed as in (a) with 29.0 Pa
3
f = 1.00 kHz:
= 10.4 μm
Picture the Problem The pressure or density wave is 90° out of phase with the
displacement wave. When the displacement is zero, the pressure and density
changes are either a maximum or a minimum. When the displacement is a
Traveling Waves 1483
p0 = ρωvs0 to find the maximum value of the displacement at any time and place.
maximum or minimum, the pressure and density changes are zero. We can use
Picture the Problem A human can hear sounds between roughly 20 Hz and
20 kHz; a factor of 1000. An octave represents a change in frequency by a factor
of 2. We can evaluate 2N = 1000 to find the number of octaves heard by a person
who can hear this range of frequencies.
N= = 9.97 ≈ 10
Solving for N yields: 3
log 2
Picture the Problem (a) We can use the definition of average speed to find the
time required for the sound to travel to the calf. (b) We can use the relationship
between wavelength, frequency, and speed to find the wavelength of the sound in
water. (c) The frequency of the sound does not change as it travels from water to
air, but its wavelength changes because of the difference in the speed of sound in
water and in air.
Δt = = = 0.80 s
(a) Relate the time it takes the sound d 1.20 km
to reach the calf to the distance from v 1500 m/s
the whale to the calf and the speed of
sound in water:
λwater = = = 30 m
(b) The wavelength of this sound in vwater 1500 m/s
water is the ratio of its speed in water f 50.0 Hz
to its frequency:
λair = = = 6.86 m
The wavelength of this sound in air vair 343 m/s
is the ratio of its speed in air to its f 50.0 Hz
frequency:
directions. At a distance of 10.0 m, the sound intensity level is 1.00 × 10–4 W/m2.
54 • A spherical sinusoidal source radiates sound uniformly in all
(a) At what distance from the source is the intensity 1.00 × 10–6 W/m2? (b) What
power is radiated by this source?
Picture the Problem The intensity of the sound from the spherical sinusoidal
source varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source. The power
radiated by the source is the product of the intensity of the radiation and the
surface area over which it is distributed.
I1 = ⇒ Pav,1 = 4πR12 I1
4πR12
(a) Relate the intensity I1 at a Pav,1
distance R1 from the source to the
energy per unit time (power) arriving
at the point of interest:
Traveling Waves 1485
I2 = ⇒ Pav, 2 = 4πR22 I 2
4πR22
At a distance R2 from the source: Pav, 2
R2 = (10.0 m )
Substituting numerical values and 1.00 ×10 −4 W/m 2
evaluating R2 gives: 1.00 × 10 −6 W/m 2
= 100 m
Pav = 4π r 2 I
(b) Solve I =
4π r 2
Pav
for Pav:
intensity level equal to 1.00 × 10–2 W/m2 at 20.0 m and has a frequency of
55 • [SSM] A loudspeaker at a rock concert generates a sound that has an
1.00 kHz. Assume that the speaker spreads its energy uniformly in three
dimensions. (a) What is the total acoustic power output of the speaker? (b) At
what distance will the sound intensity be at the pain threshold of 1.00 W/m2?
(c) What is the sound intensity at 30.0 m?
Picture the Problem Because the power radiated by the loudspeaker is the
product of the intensity of the sound and the area over which it is distributed, we
can use this relationship to find the average power, the intensity of the radiation,
or the distance to the speaker for a given intensity or average power.
1.00 W/m 2 =
4πr 2
Relate the threshold-of-pain Pav
intensity to the distance from the
speaker:
= 4.45 × 10 −3 W/m 2
at 30.0 m:
intensity is 1.00 × 10–11 W/m2. (b) Your result in Part (a) is much too large in
(a) Estimate how far away the dropped pin can be heard if the minimum audible
least 1.00 × 10–8 W/m2 for the sound to be heard, estimate how far away the
practice because of background noise. If you assume that the intensity must be at
dropped pin can be heard. (In both parts, assume that the intensity is P/4πr2.)
Picture the Problem We can use conservation of energy to find the acoustical
energy resulting from the dropping of the pin. The power developed can then be
found from the given time during which the energy was transformed from
E = ε mgh
(
= (0.00050) 0.100 × 10 −3 kg )
Use conservation of energy to
= 4.905 × 10 −7 J
E 4.905 ×10 −7 J
P= =
The power of the sound pulse is
given by: Δt 0.100 s
= 4.905 ×10 −6 W
Traveling Waves 1487
4.905 × 10 −6 W
r=
( )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate r: 4π 1.00 × 10 −11 W/m 2
= 0.20 km
4.905 × 10 −6 W
4π (1.00 × 10 −8 W/m 2 )
I = 1.00 × 10–8 W/m2: r= = 6.2 m
(b) Repeat the last step in (a) with
*Intensity Level
has an intensity of (a) 1.00 × 10–10 W/m2 and (b) 1.00 × 10–2 W/m2?
57 • [SSM] What is the intensity level in decibels of a sound wave that
= 10 log10 2 = 20.0 dB
⎛ 1.00 × 10 −2 W/m 2 ⎞
β = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
I = 1.00 × 10–2 W/m2:
(b) Proceed as in (a) with
⎝ ⎠
−12 2
10 W/m
= 10 log1010 = 100 dB
Picture the Problem (a) and (b) The intensity level β of a sound wave, measured
in decibels, is given by β = (10 dB) log(I I 0 ) where I0 = 10−12 W/m2 is defined to
be the threshold of hearing.
⎛ I concert ⎞
β concert = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the sound intensity level of
⎝ I0 ⎠
(1)
the rock concert:
⎛ I dog ⎞
50 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the sound intensity level of
⎝ I0 ⎠
the dog’s bark:
⎛ 10 −3 W/m 2 ⎞
β concert = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
evaluate βconcert:
Substitute in equation (1) and
⎝ 10 W/m ⎠
−12
= (10 dB)log10 9 = 90 dB
Picture the Problem We can express the intensity levels at both 90 dB and 70 dB
in terms of the intensities of the sound at those levels. By subtracting the two
expressions, we can solve for the ratio of the intensities at the two levels and then
find the fractional change in the intensity that corresponds to a decrease in
intensity level from 90 dB to 70 dB.
Traveling Waves 1489
⎛I ⎞
90 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 90 ⎟⎟
Express the intensity level at 90 dB:
⎝ I0 ⎠
⎛I ⎞
70 dB = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ 70 ⎟⎟
Express the intensity level at 70 dB:
⎝ I0 ⎠
Express Δβ = β90 − β70: Δβ = 20 dB
⎛I ⎞ ⎛I ⎞
= (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 90 ⎟⎟ − (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 70 ⎟⎟
⎝ I0 ⎠ ⎝ I0 ⎠
⎛I ⎞
= (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 90 ⎟⎟
⎝ I 70 ⎠
I 90 − I 70 100 I 70 − I 70
= = 99%
Express the fractional change in the
intensity from 90 dB to 70 dB: I 90 100 I 70
with distance from the source according to I = Pav 4πr 2 . We can use this
Picture the Problem The intensity at a distance r from a spherical source varies
I 80 =
4π r802
(a) Express the intensity of the sound Pav
where the intensity level is 80 dB:
I 60 =
4π r602
Express the intensity of the sound Pav
where the intensity level is 60 dB:
1490 Chapter 15
4π (10 m )
Divide the first of these equations by Pav
= =
2
the second to obtain: I 80 r602
4π r602
I 60 Pav 100 m 2
r60 = (10 m )
Solving for r60 yields: I 80
I 60
⎛I ⎞
80 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 80 ⎟⎟
Find the intensity of the 80-dB
⎝ I0 ⎠
sound level radiation:
I 80 = 108 I 0 = 10 −4 W/m 2
and
⎛I ⎞
60 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 60 ⎟⎟
Find the intensity of the 60-dB
⎝ I0 ⎠
sound level radiation:
I 60 = 10 6 I 0 = 10 −6 W/m 2
and
r60 = (10 m )
10 −4 W/m 2
= 0.10 km
Substitute numerical values for I80 and
I60 and evaluate r60: 10 −6 W/m 2
62 • • Harry and Sally are sitting on opposite sides of a circus tent when an
elephant trumpets a loud blast. If Harry experiences a sound intensity level of 65
dB and Sally experiences only 55 dB, what is the ratio of the distance between
Sally and the elephant to the distance between Harry and the elephant?
Picture the Problem The intensity of the sound heard by Harry and Sally
depends inversely on the square of the distance between the elephant and each of
( β = (10 dB) log(I I 0 ) ) and the definition of intensity ( I = Pav A ) to find the ratio
them. We can use the definition of sound intensity (decibel) level
of these distances.
Traveling Waves 1491
⎛ IH ⎞
β H = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the sound intensity level at
Harry’s location: ⎝ I0 ⎠
⎛ Pav ⎞
= (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4π rH 0 ⎠
2
I
⎛ Pav ⎞
β S = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Similarly, the sound intensity level at
⎝ 4π rS I 0 ⎠
Sally’s location is: 2
⎛ Pav ⎞ ⎛ Pav ⎞
Δβ = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ − ( ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 65 dB − 55 dB = 10 dB
⎝ π H 0 ⎠ ⎝ π S 0 ⎠
2
10 dB log 2
4 r I 4 r I
⎛ r2 ⎞
log⎜⎜ S2 ⎟⎟ = 1 ⇒ S2 = 101
Simplifying this expression yields: r2
⎝ rH ⎠ rH
= 10 = 3.2
Solving for the ratio rS rH yields: rS
rH
Picture the Problem We can find the intensities of the three sources from their
intensity levels and, because their intensities are additive, find the intensity level
when all three sources are acting.
⎛ I 3 sources ⎞
β 3 sources = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(a) Express the sound intensity level
when the three sources act at the ⎝ I ⎠
⎛I +I +I ⎞
= (10 dB)log⎜⎜ 70 73 80 ⎟⎟
0
same time:
⎝ I0 ⎠
1492 Chapter 15
⎛I ⎞
70 dB = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ 70 ⎟⎟ ⇒ I 70 = 10 7 I 0
Find the intensities of each of the
⎝ I0 ⎠
three sources:
⎛I ⎞
73 dB = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ 73 ⎟⎟ ⇒ I 73 = 10 7.3 I 0
⎝ I0 ⎠
⎛I ⎞
and
80 dB = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ 80 ⎟⎟ ⇒ I 80 = 10 8 I 0
⎝ I0 ⎠
⎛ 10 7 I 0 + 10 7.3 I 0 + 10 8 I 0 ⎞
β 3 sources = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ (
⎟⎟ = (10 dB)log 10 7 + 10 7.3 + 10 8 )
⎝ I ⎠
= 81dB
0
⎛ 10 8 I 0 ⎞
β 80 = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 80 dB
(b) Find the intensity level with the
⎝ I0 ⎠
two least intense sources eliminated:
Eliminating the 70-dB and 73-dB sources does not reduce the intensity level
significantly.
source, the difference Δβ between the intensity levels reaching the people, in
64 • • Show that if two people are different distances away from a sound
decibels, will always be the same, no matter the power radiated by the source.
function of the distances r1 and r2 of the two people from the source.
⎛ I2 ⎞
β 2 = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The sound level intensity (decibel
⎝ 0⎠
level) heard by the second person is I
⎛ P ⎞
= (10 dB)log⎜⎜ av ⎟⎟
given by:
⎝ A2 I 0 ⎠
⎛ Pav ⎞
= (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4π r2 I 0 ⎠
2
Traveling Waves 1493
⎛ Pav ⎞
β1 = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
In like manner:
⎝ 4π r1 I 0 ⎠
2
⎛ Pav ⎞ ⎛ Pav ⎞
Δβ = (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − (10 dB)log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4π r2 0 ⎠
2
I ⎝ 4π r1 0 ⎠
2
I
⎛ Pav ⎞
⎜ ⎟
4π r22 I 0
Simplifying yields:
⎛ r2 ⎞
= (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 1 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ r2 ⎠
This result shows that the difference in sound level intensities depends only on
the distances to the source and not on the source’s power output.
Picture the Problem The sound intensity level can be found from the intensity of
the sound due to the 38 people. When 38 people are talking, the intensities add.
⎛ 38 I1 ⎞
β 38 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the sound level when all
⎝ 0 ⎠
38 people are talking: I
⎛I ⎞
= (10 dB) log 38 + (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ I0 ⎠
= (10 dB) log 38 + 72 dB
= 88 dB
⎛ 38 I1 ⎞
β 38 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the sound intensity level
⎝ I0 ⎠
when all 38 people are talking:
1494 Chapter 15
⎛ I1 ⎞
β1 = 72 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the sound intensity level
⎝ I0 ⎠
when only one person is talking:
β 38 = (10 dB)log ⎢
(
⎡ 38 1.58 × 10 −5 W/m 2 ⎤)
⎥
The sound intensity level is:
⎣ 10 −12 W/m 2 ⎦
= 88 dB
66 • • • When a violinist pulls the bow across a string, the force with which the
bow is pulled is fairly small, about 0.60 N. Suppose the bow travels across the A
string, which vibrates at 440 Hz, at 0.50 m/s. A listener 35 m from the performer
hears a sound of 60-dB intensity. Assuming that the sound radiates uniformly in
all directions, with what efficiency is the mechanical energy of bowing converted
to sound energy?
Picture the Problem Let η represent the efficiency with which mechanical
energy is converted to sound energy. Because we’re given information regarding
the rate at which mechanical energy is delivered to the string and the rate at which
sound energy arrives at the location of the listener, we’ll take the efficiency to be
the ratio of the sound power delivered to the listener divided by the power
delivered to the string. We can calculate the power input directly from the given
data. We’ll calculate the intensity of the sound at 35 m from its intensity level at
that distance and use this result to find the power output.
η=
Express the efficiency of the Pout
conversion of mechanical energy to Pin
sound energy:
Find the power delivered by the bow Pin = Fv = (0.60 N )(0.50 m/s ) = 0.30 W
to the string:
I 35 m = 10 6 I 0 = 1.00 × 10 −6 W/m 2
and
( )
Traveling Waves 1495
η= = 5.1%
evaluate η:
Substitute numerical values and 0.0154 W
0.30 W
Picture the Problem Because the sound intensities are additive, we’ll find the
noise intensity level due to one student by subtracting the background noise
intensity from the intensity due to the students and dividing by 100. Then, we’ll
use this result to calculate the intensity level due to 50 students.
⎛ 50 I1 ⎞
β 50 = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Express the intensity level due to 50
⎝ I0 ⎠
students:
⎛I ⎞
60 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ 100 ⎟⎟
Find the sound intensity when 100
⎝ I0 ⎠
students are writing the exam:
I100 = 10 6 I 0 = 10 −6 W/m 2
and
⎛ I background ⎞
40 dB = (10 dB) log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Find the sound intensity due to the
⎝ ⎠
background noise: I 0
I background = 10 4 I 0 = 10 −8 W/m 2
and
I 100 − I background
= 10 −8 W/m 2
Find the sound intensity due to 1
student:
( )
100
β 50 = (10 dB)log
Substitute numerical values and 50 1.00 × 10 −8 W/m 2
evaluate the noise intensity level 10 −12 W/m 2
= 57 dB
due to 50 students:
1496 Chapter 15
Picture the Problem Let the subscript ″s″ refer to the string and the subscript ″t″
to the heavy twine. We can use the definitions of the reflection and transmission
coefficients and the expression for the speed of waves on a string (Equation 15-3)
to find the speeds of the pulse on the string and the heavy twine.
1−
vs
v −v
Use their definitions to express the
r= t s =
reflection and transmission vt
vt + vs 1 + vs
(1)
coefficients:
vt
and
τ= =
2v t 2
v t + vs
1+ s
(2)
v
vt
vt = and vs =
Use Equation 15-3 to express vt and
μt μs
FT FT
vs :
= =
expression for vt and simplifying
μs
vs
yields:
μt
vt FT
μt
1−
Substitute for vs v t in equation (1) to
μs
r=
obtain:
μt
(3)
1+
μs
= =
μ s ms ms l t
ls
Traveling Waves 1497
1−
Substituting in equation (3) yields: mt l s
r=
ms l t
1+
mt l s
ms l t
(75.0 ×10 )
kg (3.00 m )
(25.0 ×10 )
−3
1−
kg (4.00 m )
Substitute numerical values and
−3
= − 0.20
τ= =
2 2
μt
Substitute for vs v t in equation (2) to
1+ 1+
mt l s
μs
obtain:
ms l t
= 0.80
69 • [SSM] Consider a taut string with a mass per unit length μ1, carrying
a second string with a mass per unit length μ2. (a) Show that if μ2 = μ1, then the
transverse wave pulses that are incident upon a point where the string connects to
reflection coefficient r equals zero and the transmission coefficient τ equals +1.
(b) Show that if μ2 >> μ1, then r ≈ –1 and τ ≈ 0; and (c) if μ2 << μ1 then r ≈ +1
and τ ≈ +2.
Picture the Problem We can use the definitions of the reflection and
transmission coefficients and the expression for the speed of waves on a string
(Equation 15-3) to r and t in terms of the linear densities of the strings.
1498 Chapter 15
1−
v1
v −v
(a) Use their definitions to express
r= 2 1 =
the reflection and transmission v2
v2 + v1
1+ 1
(1)
coefficients: v
v2
and
τ= =
2v 2 2
v2 + v1
1+ 1
(2)
v
v2
v2 = and v1 =
Use Equation 15-3 to express v2 and
μ2 μ1
FT FT
v1 :
= =
expression for v2 and simplifying
μ1
v1
yields: v2
μ2
FT
μ2
1−
Substitute for v1 v2 in equation (1) to
μ1
r=
obtain:
μ2
(3)
1+
μ1
τ=
2
μ2
Substitute for v1 v2 in equation (2) to
(4)
1+
μ1
obtain:
If μ2 = μ1: 1− 1
r= = 0
1+ 1
and
τ= = = 1
2 2
μ2 1+ 1
1+
μ1
Traveling Waves 1499
v2 − v1 − v1
r= ≈ = −1
μ2 >> μ1 then v1 >> v2: v2 + v1
(b) From equations (1) and (2), if
v1
and
τ= = ≈ 0
2v2 2
v2 + v1
1+ 1
v
v2
Picture the Problem Making the indicated substitutions will lead us to the
identity 1 = 1.
v2 − v1
r= and τ =
2v2
v2 + v1 v2 + v1
The reflection and transmission
coefficients are given by:
⎛ v − v ⎞ v ⎛ 2v2 ⎞
1 = ⎜⎜ 2 1 ⎟⎟ + 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 2
Substituting into the equation given
⎝ v2 + v1 ⎠ v2 ⎝ v2 + v1 ⎠
in the problem statement yields:
⎛ ⎞
(v2 − v1 )2 + 4v22 ⎜⎜ v1 ⎟⎟
1= ⎝ v2 ⎠ = v2 − 2v2 v1 + v1 + 4v 2 v1 = v 2 + 2v2 v1 + v1 = (v2 + v1 )
(v2 + v1 )2 (v2 + v1 )2 (v2 + v1 )2 (v2 + v1 )2
2 2 2 2 2
= 1
71 • • • Consider a taut string that has a mass per unit length μ1 carrying
where the string connects to a second string with mass per unit length μ2. Derive
transverse wave pulses of the form y = f(x – v1t) that are incident upon a point P
Picture the Problem Choose the direction of propagation of the incident pulse as
the +x direction and let x = 0 at point P. Energy is conserved as the incident pulse
is partially reflected and partially transmitted at point P.
∂y ∂y
P = − FT
∂x ∂x
From Equation 15-20, the power
transmitted in the direction of
increasing x is given by:
⎛ ∂y ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ∂y ⎞
⎜ − FT in in ⎟ + ⎜ − FT r r ⎟ = ⎜ − FT t t ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
∂yin ∂yin ∂y r ∂y r ∂y t ∂y t
or, upon simplification,
+ =
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
(2)
y r = rf (− x − v1t )
by yin = f ( x − v1t ) , the reflected and
Because the incident pulse is given
y t = τ f ⎜⎜ 1 [x − v2 t ]⎟⎟
⎛v ⎞
and
transmitted pulses are given by:
⎝ v2 ⎠
∂y ∂y ∂y df ∂η ∂y df ∂η
= and =
∂x ∂t ∂x dη ∂x ∂t dη ∂t
Evaluating and using the
⎜⎜ [x − v2 t ]⎟⎟ = τ
∂y t df ∂ ⎛ v1 ⎞
=τ
For the transmitted pulse:
dη ∂x ⎝ v2 dη v2
df v1
∂x ⎠
⎜⎜ [x − v2 t ]⎟⎟ = τ
df ∂ ⎛ v1 ⎞
(− v1 )
and
∂y t
=τ
dη ∂t ⎝ v2 dη
df
∂t ⎠
= −τ v1
dη
df
Traveling Waves 1501
∂y r
=r
df ∂
(− x − v1t ) = −r df
∂x dη ∂x dη
For the reflected pulse:
∂yr df ∂
(− x − v1t ) = r df (− v1 )
and
=r
∂t dη ∂t dη
= −rv1
dη
df
∂yin df ∂
= (x − v1t ) = df
∂x dη ∂x dη
For the incident pulse:
∂yin df ∂
(x − v1t ) = df (− v1 )
and
=
∂t dη ∂t dη
= −v1
dη
df
df ⎛ df ⎞ ⎛ df ⎞ ⎛ df ⎞ ⎛ df v1 ⎞ ⎛ df ⎞
⎜⎜ − v1 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ − r ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ − rv1 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜τ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ − τ v1 ⎟
dη ⎝ dη ⎠ ⎝ dη ⎠ ⎝ dη ⎠ ⎝ dη v2 ⎠ ⎝ dη ⎟⎠
1= r2 + τ
Simplifying and rearranging terms v1 2
yields: v2
v ± us
Picture the Problem We can use Equation 15-38 ( λ = ) to find the
fs
v ± ur
wavelength of the sound between the source and the listener and Equation15-41a
( fr =
v ± us
f s ) to find the frequency heard by the listener.
v ± ur v±0
fr = fs =
v ± us v − us
(b) Apply Equation 15-41a to obtain
fs
( )
fr:
= 200 s −1
343 m/s
343 m/s − 80 m/s
= 261 Hz
Picture the Problem (a) In the reference frame of the source, the speed of sound
from the source to the listener is reduced by the speed of the air. (b) We can find
from v = fλ. (c) Because the sound waves in the region between the source and the
the wavelength of the sound in the region between the source and the listener
listener will be compressed by the motion of the listener, the frequency of the
v ± ur
sound heard by the listener will be higher than the frequency emitted by the
source and can be calculated using f r =
v ± us
f s (Equation 15-41a).
(a) The speed of sound in the v' = v − u wind = 343 m/s − 80 m/s
reference frame of the source is: = 263 m/s
λ= = = 1.32 m
(b) Noting that the frequency is v' 263 m/s
unchanged, express the wavelength f 200 s −1
of the sound:
v' ± u r ⎛ v' + u r ⎞
fr = fs = ⎜ ⎟ fs
(c) Apply Equation 15-41a to obtain:
v' ± u s ⎝ v' ± 0 ⎠
⎛ 263 m/s + 80 m/s ⎞
= ⎜⎜ (
⎟⎟ 200 s −1 )
⎝ 263 m/s ⎠
= 261 Hz
v ± ur
wavelength of the sound in the region between the source and the listener
and f r =
v ± us
f s (Equation 15-41a) to find the frequency heard by the listener.
Because the sound waves in the region between the source and the listener will be
spread out by the motion of the listener, the frequency of the sound heard by the
listener will be lower than the frequency emitted by the source.
v ± us v + us
λ= =
(a) Because the source is moving
away from the listener, use the fs fs
343 m/s + 80 m/s
=
positive sign in the numerator of
Equation 15-38 to find the 200 s −1
= 2.12 m
wavelength of the sound between the
source and the listener:
v ± ur v±0
fr = fs =
v ± us v + us
(b) Because the listener is at rest and
fs
( )
the source is receding, ur = 0 and the
= 200 s −1
denominator of Equation 15-41a is 343 m/s
the sum of the two speeds: 343 m/s + 80 m/s
= 162 Hz
75 • The listener is moving 80 m/s from the stationary source that is in rest
relative to the air. Find the frequency heard by the listener.
Picture the Problem Because the listener is moving away from the source, we
v ± ur
know that the frequency he/she will hear will be less than the frequency emitted
by the source. We can use f r =
v ± us
f s (Equation 15-41a), with us = 0 and the
v ± ur ⎛ v − ur ⎞
fr = fs = ⎜ ⎟ fs
Relate the frequency heard by the
v ± us ⎝ v±0 ⎠
( )
listener to that of the source:
⎛ 343 m/s − 80 m/s ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 200 s −1
⎝ 343 m/s ⎠
= 153 Hz
76 • • You have made the trek to observe a Space Shuttle landing. Near the
end of its descent, the ship is traveling at Mach 2.50 at an altitude of 5000 m.
(a) What is the angle that the shock wave makes with the line of flight of the
shuttle? (b) How far are you from the shuttle by the time you hear its shock wave,
1504 Chapter 15
assuming the shuttle maintains both a constant heading and a constant 5000-m
altitude after flying directly over your head?
Picture the Problem The diagram shows the position of the shuttle at time t after
it was directly over your head (located at point P) Let u represent the speed of the
shuttle and v the speed of sound. We can use trigonometry to determine the angle
of the shock wave as well as the location of the shuttle x when you hear the shock
wave.
sin θ = = =
θ in terms of v, u, and t:
(a) Referring to the diagram, express vt 1 1
ut u v 2.5
x= = 11.5 km
5000 m
tan23.58°
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate x:
Picture the Problem The angle θ of the Cerenkov shock wave is related to the
sin θ = v c .
speed of light in water v and the speed of light in a vacuum c according to
Traveling Waves 1505
sin θ = ⇒ v = c sin θ
Relate the speed of light in water v to v
78 • • You are in charge of calibrating the radar guns for a local police
department. One such device emits microwaves at a frequency of 2.00 GHz.
During the trials, you have it arranged so that these waves are reflected from a car
moving directly away from the stationary emitter. In this situation, you detect a
frequency difference (between the received microwaves and the ones sent out) of
293 Hz. Find the speed of the car.
Picture the Problem Because the car is moving away from the stationary emitter
at a speed ur, the frequency fr it receives will be less than the frequency emitted
stationary detector, will be of a still lower frequency fr′. We can use the Doppler
by the emitter. The microwaves reflected from the car, moving away from a
shift equations to derive an expression for the speed of the car in terms of
difference of these frequencies.
c ± ur ⎛ c − ur ⎞
fr = fs = ⎜ ⎟ fs
Express the frequency fr received
c ± us ⎝ c±0 ⎠
(1)
by the moving car in terms of fs, ur,
and c:
c ± ur ⎛ c ⎞
f r' = f r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f r
The waves reflected by the car are
c ± us ⎝ c + us ⎠
(2)
like waves re-emitted by a source
moving away from the radar gun:
⎛ c ⎞⎛ c − ur ⎞ ⎛ c − ur ⎞
f r' = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ f s = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s
Substitute equation (1) in equation (2)
to eliminate fr: ⎝ c + us ⎠⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c + us ⎠
⎛ ur ⎞
⎜1− ⎟
c ⎟ f = ⎛⎜1 − ur ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜1 + ur ⎞⎟ f
−1
=⎜
⎜ 1 + ur ⎟ ⎝ c ⎠⎝ c⎠
⎜ ⎟
s s
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ u ⎞
−1
⎛ u ⎞⎛ u ⎞
Because ur << c , ⎜1 + r ⎟ ≈ 1 − r . f r' ≈ ⎜1 − r ⎟ ⎜1 − r ⎟ f s
⎝ c ⎠⎝ c⎠
u
⎝ c⎠ c
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ u ⎞
−1
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠
simplifying yields:
1506 Chapter 15
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ 2u ⎞
Because ur << c , ⎜1 − r ⎟ ≈ 1 − r . f r' ≈ ⎜1 − r ⎟ f s
2
⎝ c ⎠
2u
⎝ c⎠ c
⎛ u ⎞
Substituting for ⎜1 − r ⎟ gives:
2
⎝ c⎠
⎛ 2u ⎞
Δf = f s − f r' = f s − ⎜1 − r ⎟ fs
The frequency difference detected at
the source is given by: ⎝ c ⎠
= r fs
2u
c
ur =
Solving for ur yields: c
Δf
2 fs
ur =
2.998 ×108 m/s
(293 Hz )
2(2.00 GHz )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate ur:
= 22.0 × ×
m 1 km 3600 s
s 10 3 m h
= 79.1 km/h
Picture the Problem Because the wind is moving toward the weather station
(radar device), the frequency fr the raindrops receive will be greater than the
frequency emitted by the radar device. The radar waves reflected from the
a still higher frequency fr′. We can use the Doppler shift equations to derive an
raindrops, moving toward the stationary detector at the weather station, will be of
expression for the radial speed u of the wind in terms of difference of these
frequencies.
c ± ur ⎛ c + ur ⎞
fr = fs = ⎜ ⎟ fs
Use Equation 15-41a to express the
c ± us ⎝ c ⎠
(1)
frequency fr received by the
raindrops in terms of fs, ur, and c:
Traveling Waves 1507
c ± ur ⎛ c ⎞
f r' = f r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f r
The waves reflected by the drops are
c ± us ⎝ c − us ⎠
(2)
like waves re-emitted by a source
moving toward the source at the
weather station:
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c + ur ⎞ ⎛ c + ur ⎞
f r' = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ f s = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s
Substitute equation (1) in equation (2)
to eliminate fr: ⎝ c − us ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c − us ⎠
⎛ ur ⎞
⎜1+ ⎟
⎛ ur ⎞ ⎛ ur ⎞
−1
=⎜ ⎟ f s = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ f s
⎜ 1 − ur ⎟ ⎝ c ⎠⎝ c⎠
c
⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ u ⎞
−1
⎛ u ⎞⎛ u ⎞
Because ur << c , ⎜1 − r ⎟ ≈ 1 + r . f r' ≈ ⎜1 + r ⎟ ⎜1 + r ⎟ f s
⎝ c ⎠⎝ c⎠
u
⎝ c⎠ c
⎛ u ⎞
−1
⎛ u ⎞
Substituting for ⎜1 − r ⎟ and = ⎜1 + r ⎟ f s
2
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠
simplifying yields:
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ 2u ⎞
Because ur << c , ⎜1 + r ⎟ ≈ 1 + r . f r' ≈ ⎜1 + r ⎟ f s
2
⎝ c ⎠
2u
⎝ c⎠ c
⎛ u ⎞
Substituting for ⎜1 + r ⎟ gives:
2
⎝ c⎠
⎛ 2u ⎞
Δf = f r' − f s = ⎜1 + r ⎟ f s − f s
The frequency difference detected at
the source is: ⎝ c ⎠
= r fs
2u
c
ur =
Solving for ur yields: c
Δf
2 fs
ur =
2.998 × 108 m/s
(325 Hz )
2(625 MHz )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate ur:
= 77.95 m/s ×
1mi/h
0.4470 m/s
= 174 mi/h
1508 Chapter 15
Picture the Problem Let the depth of the submarine be represented by D and its
vertical speed by u. The submarine acts as both a receiver and source. We can
apply the definition of average speed to determine the depth of the submarine and
use the Doppler shift equations to derive an expression for the vertical speed of
the submarine in terms of the frequency difference. The frequency received is
lower than the frequency of the source, so the sub is descending.
⎛ v ± ur ⎞ ⎛v−u ⎞
(b) Use f r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s to express f sub = ⎜ ⎟ f0
⎝ v ± us ⎠ ⎝ v ⎠
(1)
the frequency fsub received by the where u is the vertical speed of the
submarine: submarine.
⎛ v ± ur ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
Use f r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s to express f r' = ⎜ ⎟ f sub
⎝ ± s ⎠
⎝v+u ⎠
(2)
v u
the frequency fr′ received by the
destroyer:
⎛ v−u ⎞ f − f r'
fr '= ⎜ ⎟ f0 ⇒ u = 0
Substitute equation (1) in equation
⎝v+u ⎠ f 0 + f r'
v
(2) to eliminate fsub:
Picture the Problem The radar wave strikes the speeding car at frequency fr .
This frequency is less than fs because the car is moving away from the source. The
frequency shift is given by Equation 15-42 (the low-speed, relative to light,
frequency fr. The police car detects waves of frequency fr′ < fr because the source
approximation). The car then acts as a moving source emitting waves of
(the speeding car) is moving away from the police car. The total frequency shift
is the sum of the two frequency shifts.
Δf = Δf1 + Δf 2
Δf as the sum of the frequency
(a) Express the frequency difference (1)
Δf = − f s − f r = − ( f s + f r ) (2)
Using Equation 15-42, substitute for u u u
Δf1 f r − f s
= =−
Apply Equation 15-42 to Δf1 to u
obtain: fs fs c
where we’ve used the minus sign
because we know the frequency
difference is a downshift.
⎛ u⎞
f r = ⎜1 − ⎟ f s
Solving for fr yields:
⎝ c⎠
u⎛ ⎛ u⎞ ⎞
Δf = − ⎜⎜ f s + ⎜1 − ⎟ f s ⎟⎟
Substitute for fr in equation (2) and
simplify to obtain: c⎝ ⎝ c⎠ ⎠
u⎛ u⎞
= − ⎜ 2 − ⎟ fs
c⎝ c⎠
1510 Chapter 15
Δf ≈ −2 f s
Because u/c is negligible compared u
to 2: c
⎛ 1h ⎞
⎜⎜140 × ⎟
( ) h 3600 s ⎟⎠
km
(b) Use the result derived in (a) with u equal to the difference in the speeds of the
car and the police cruiser to obtain:
⎛ km ⎞ ⎛ 1h ⎞
⎜140 − 60 ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
( )
km
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = − 4.4 kHz
Δf ≈ −2 3.00 × 1010 Hz
h h 3600 s
3.00 × 108 m/s
employed. Suppose you are in charge of measuring the blood flow in a vein
(located in the lower leg of an older patient) that returns blood upward to the
not working properly and that the blood is ″pooling″ in the veins and perhaps
heart. Her varicose veins indicate that perhaps the one-way valves in the vein are
even that the blood flow is backward toward her feet. Employing sound with a
frequency of 50.0 kHz, you point the sound source from above her thigh region
down towards her feet and measure the sound reflected from that vein area to be
lower than 50.0 kHz. (a) Was your diagnosis of the valve condition correct? If so,
explain. (b) Estimate the instrument’s frequency difference capability to enable
you to measure speeds down to 1.00 mm/s. Take the speed of sound in flesh to be
the same as that in water, 1500 m/s.
Picture the Problem (a) Whether your diagnosis was correct depends on whether
the signal reflected from the blood is upshifted or downshifted. (b) Applying the
Doppler shift equations with the source stationary and the receiver moving
initially and then a second time with the source moving and the receiver
stationary will allow us to estimate the instrument’s frequency difference
capability.
(a) Because the received sound frequency is less than the frequency that was sent
out, the blood it reflected from must have been moving away from the source, or
toward the feet of the patient. The blood is flowing the wrong way and your
diagnosis is correct.
Traveling Waves 1511
⎛ v ± ur ⎞ ⎛ v − ur ⎞
f r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s = ⎜ ⎟ fs
(b) The blood receives a frequency
⎝ v ± us ⎠ ⎝ v±0 ⎠
that is downshifted according to:
⎛ u ⎞
(1)
= ⎜1 − r ⎟ f s
⎝ v⎠
⎛ v ± ur ⎞ ' ⎛ v ± 0 ⎞ '
f r' = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f s
The frequency given by equation (1)
is the frequency emitted by the ⎝ v ± us ⎠ ⎝ v + us ⎠
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ u ⎞
−1
moving blood back toward the (2)
= ⎜1 + s ⎟ f s' ≈ ⎜1 − s ⎟ f s'
⎝ v⎠ ⎝ v⎠
receiver. This results in a second
downshift:
⎛ u ⎞⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ u⎞
f r' ≈ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ f s ≈ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ f s
The source frequency in equation (2)
is the received frequency given by ⎝ v ⎠⎝ v ⎠ ⎝ v⎠
equation (1). Note that the receiver
and emitter speeds are the same …
the speed of the blood. Let this speed
be u to obtain:
⎛ u⎞
Δf = f s − f r' ≈ f s − ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ f s
Express the magnitude of the
difference in frequencies: ⎝ v⎠
= 2 fs
u
v
⎟ (50.0 kHz )
⎛ 1.00 m/s ⎞
Δf ≈ 2⎜
evaluate Δf:
Substitute numerical values and
⎝ 1500 m/s ⎠
= 0.033 Hz
away from the source. (a) Write an expression for the received frequency f′r. (b)
to still air toward a receiver who is moving away with speed ur relative to still air
Use the result that (1 – x)–1 ≈ 1 + x to show that if both us and ur are small
compared to v, then the received frequency is approximately
⎛ u ⎞
f r ' = ⎜1 + rel ⎟ f s
⎝ v ⎠
v ± ur
Picture the Problem The received and transmitted frequencies are related
through f r =
v ± us
f s (Equation 15-41a), where the variables have the meanings
given in the problem statement. Because the source and receiver are moving in the
same direction, we use the minus signs in both the numerator and denominator.
1−
v ± ur
(a) Relate the received frequency fr ur
fr = fs =
v ± us
to the frequency fs of the source: v f
1−
us s
v
⎛ u ⎞⎛ u s ⎞
−1
= ⎜1 − r ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ f s
⎝ v ⎠⎝ v⎠
⎜1 − ⎟ ≈ 1 + s
u
and discard the higher-order terms: ⎝ v⎠ v
⎛ u ⎞⎛ u ⎞
f r = ⎜1 − r ⎟⎜1 + s ⎟ fs
Substitute to obtain:
⎝ v ⎠⎝ v ⎠
⎡ u u ⎛ u ⎞⎛ u ⎞⎤
= ⎢1 + s − r − ⎜ r ⎟⎜ s ⎟⎥ f s
⎣ v v ⎝ v ⎠⎝ v ⎠⎦
⎛ u − ur ⎞
≈ ⎜1 + s ⎟ fs
⎝ v ⎠
because both us and ur are small
compared to v.
Because urel = us − ur ⎛ u ⎞
f r' ≈ ⎜1 + rel ⎟ f s
⎝ v ⎠
84 • • • To study the Doppler shift on your own, you take an electronic tone
wishing well known as ″The Abyss. ″ When you hold the device at arm’s length
generating device that is set to a frequency of middle C (262Hz) to a campus
(1.00 m), you measure its intensity level to be 80.0 dB. You then drop the tuner
down the hole, listening to its sound as it falls. After the tuner has fallen for
5.50 s, what frequency do you hear?
Traveling Waves 1513
Picture the Problem As the tuner falls, its speed increases and so the frequency
you hear is Doppler shifted. Our concern, however, is with the frequency you hear
5.50 s after you’ve dropped the tuner. The sound that you hear at this time was
the question ″At what time was the sound emitted that you heard 5.50 s after
emitted sometime before the tuner had fallen for 5.50 s. Hence we must answer
v ± ur
fr = fs =
v
v ± us v + vfall
Apply Equation 15-41a to express
fs (1)
the frequency you’ll hear after 5.50
s:
(262 Hz ) = 229 Hz
fr =
( )
343 m/s + 9.81 m/s 2 (5.124 s )
343 m/s
85 • • You are in a hot-air balloon carried along by a 36-km/h wind and have
a sound source with you that emits a sound of 800 Hz as it approaches a tall
building. (a) What is the frequency of the sound heard by an observer at the
window of this building? (b) What is the frequency of the reflected sound heard
by you?
Picture the Problem The simplest way to approach this problem is to transform
to a reference frame in which the balloon is at rest. In that reference frame, the
speed of sound is v = 343 m/s, and ur = 36 km/h = 10 m/s. Then, we can use the
equations for a moving receiver and a moving source to find the frequencies heard
at the window and on the balloon.
1± 1+ r
v ± ur
(a) Use Equation 15-41a to express ur u
fr = fs = v f =
v ± us
the received frequency in terms of v f
1± 1±
the frequency of the source: us s 0 s
v v
⎛ u ⎞
= ⎜1 + r ⎟ f s
⎝ v⎠
⎛ 10 m/s ⎞
f r = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟(800 Hz ) = 823 Hz
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate fr: ⎝ 343 m/s ⎠
= 0.82 kHz
Traveling Waves 1515
(b) Treating the tall building as a moving source, express the frequency of the
reflected sound heard by a person riding in the balloon:
⎛ ⎞
1± 1± ⎜ ⎟
v ± ur
ur 0
f r' = fr = v f = v f =⎜ 1 ⎟ fr
v ± us u r ⎜ us ⎟
1± s 1− s ⎜1− ⎟
u r
v v ⎝ v ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
evaluate fr′: ⎟(823 Hz )
Substitute numerical values and
f r' = ⎜
⎜ 10 m/s ⎟
1
⎜ 1 − 343 m/s ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 0.85 kHz
Picture the Problem We can relate the frequencies fr and fr′ heard by the
stationary observer behind the car to the speed of the car ur and the frequency of
the car’s horn fs. Dividing these equations will eliminate the frequency of the car’s
horn and allow us to solve for the speed of the car. We can then substitute to find
the frequency of the car’s horn. We can find the frequency heard by the driver as
a moving receiver by relating this frequency to the frequency reflected from the
wall.
1± 1±
v ± ur
(a) Use Equation 15-41a to relate the ur 0
fr = fs = v f =
v ± us
frequency heard by the observer v f
1± 1+
directly from the car’s horn to the us s us s
speed of the car: v v (1)
=
1
1+
f
us s
v
1516 Chapter 15
1±
v ± ur
Relate the frequency reflected from 0
f r' = fs =
v ± us
the wall to the speed of the car: v f
1−
us s
v (2)
=
1
1− s
f
u s
v
1+
v ⇒ u = f r' − f r v
Divide equation (2) by equation (1) us
=
f r'
f r' + f r'
to obtain:
1− s
fr u
v
us =
863 Hz − 745 Hz
(343 m/s)
863 Hz + 745 Hz
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate us:
= 25.17 × 3 ×
m 1km 3600 s
s 10 m h
= 90.6 km/h
⎛ u ⎞
f s = ⎜1 + r ⎟ fr
(b) Solve equation (1) for fs to
obtain: ⎝ v ⎠
⎛ 25.17 m/s ⎞
f s = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟(745 Hz )
343 m/s ⎟⎠
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate fs: ⎝
= 800 Hz
⎛ u ⎞
f driver = ⎜1 + r ⎟ f r'
(c) The driver is a moving receiver
and so we can relate the frequency ⎝ v⎠
heard by the driver to the frequency
reflected by the wall (the frequency
heard by the stationary observer):
⎛ 25.17 m/s ⎞
f driver = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟(863 Hz )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate fdriver: ⎝ 343 m/s ⎠
= 926 Hz
Traveling Waves 1517
87 • • The driver of a car traveling at 100 km/h toward a vertical wall briefly
sounds the horn. Exactly 1.00 s later she hears the echo and notes that its
frequency is 840 Hz. How far from the wall was the car when the driver sounded
the horn and what is the frequency of the horn?
Picture the Problem Let t = 0 when the driver sounds her horn and let the
v ± ur
distance to the wall at that instant be d. The received and transmitted frequencies
are related through f r =
v ± us
f s (Equation 15-41a). Solving this equation for fs
will allow us to determine the frequency of the car horn. We can use the total
distance the sound travels (car-to-wall plus wall-back to-car … now closer to the
wall) to determine the distance to the wall when the horn was briefly sounded.
1± 1+ r
v ± ur
Use Equation 15-41a to relate the ur u
fr = fs = v f =
v ± us
frequency heard by the driver to v f
1± 1−
her speed and to the frequency of us s us s
her horn: v v
1−
Solving for fs yields: us
fs = v f
1+
ur r
v
×
km 1h
100
1− 1−
(840 Hz ) = 343 m/s (840 Hz ) = 714 Hz
h 3600 s 27.78 m/s
fs =
343 m/s
× 1+
km 1h 27.78 m/s
100
1+
h 3600 s 343 m/s
343 m/s
speed of sound v:
Picture the Problem You’ll hear the sonic boom when the surface of its cone
reaches your plane. In the following diagram, the experimental plane is at C and
your plane is at P. The distance h = 3.0 km. The distance between the planes
when you hear the sonic boom is d. We can use trigonometry to determine the
angle of the shock wave as well as the separation of the planes when you hear the
sonic boom.
d 2 = h 2 + d 2 cos 2 θ ⇒ d = h
Using the Pythagorean theorem,
1 − cos 2 θ
1
⎛ 1 ⎞
so
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 38.7°
⎝ 1.6 ⎠
d = (3.0 km ) = 4.8 km
Substitute numerical values and 1
evaluate d: 1 − cos 2 38.7°
89 • • • The Hubble space telescope has been used to determine the existence
″wobble″ with the same period as the planet’s orbit. Because of wobble, light
of planets orbiting distant stars. The planet orbiting the star will cause the star to
from the star will be Doppler-shifted up and down periodically. Estimate the
maximum and minimum wavelengths of light of nominal wavelength 500 nm
emitted by the Sun that is Doppler-shifted by the motion of the Sun due to the
planet Jupiter.
Traveling Waves 1519
Picture the Problem The Sun and Jupiter orbit about their effective mass located
at their common center of mass. We can apply Newton’s second law to the Sun to
obtain an expression for its orbital speed about the Sun-Jupiter center of mass and
then use this speed in the Doppler shift equation to estimate the maximum and
minimum wavelengths resulting from the Jupiter-induced motion of the Sun.
1+ 1+
Letting v be the orbital speed of the v v
f' = = f c =
λ' v λ
sun about the center of mass of the c c c
1− 1−
Sun-Jupiter system, express the v
Doppler shift of the light due to this c c
motion when the Sun is approaching
Earth:
λ' = λ
yields:
1+
v ⎝ c ⎠⎝ c ⎠
c
⎛ v⎞ ⎛ v⎞
−1 2
= λ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟
12
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠
⎛ v⎞
⎜1 − ⎟ ≈ 1−
12
Because v << c, we can expand
⎛ v⎞ ⎛ v⎞
v
⎝ c⎠
−1 2
⎜1 − ⎟ and ⎜1 + ⎟
12
2c
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠ and
⎛ v⎞
−1 2
⎜1 + ⎟ ≈ 1−
binomially to obtain: v
⎝ c⎠ 2c
⎛ v⎞ 1−
Substitute for ⎜1 − ⎟ and
12
c = ⎛⎜1 − v ⎞⎟ ≈ 1 − v
v
⎝ c⎠
2
v ⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ v⎞ 1+
−1 2
⎜1 + ⎟
c
⎝ c⎠
to obtain: c
1+
When the Sun is receding from
c = ⎛⎜1 + v ⎞⎟ ≈ 1 + v
v
2
Earth:
v ⎝ 2c ⎠
1− c
c
⎛ v⎞
λ ' ≈ λ ⎜1 ± ⎟
Hence the motion of the Sun will
⎝ c⎠
(1)
give an observed Doppler shift of:
1520 Chapter 15
= ⇒v =
Apply Newton’s second law to the GM S M eff v2 GM eff
M
Sun: 2
rcm
S
rcm rcm
rcm =
(0)M S + rs-J M J =
rs-J M J
Ms + MJ Ms + MJ
Measured from the center of the Sun,
the distance to the center of mass of
the Sun-Jupiter system is:
= + ⇒ M eff =
1 1 1 M sM J
Ms + MJ
The effective mass is related to the
masses of the Sun and Jupiter M eff M s M J
according to:
Using rs-J = 7.78 × 1011 m as the mean orbital radius of Jupiter, substitute
numerical values and evaluate v:
v=
(6.673 ×10 −11
N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )(1.99 × 1030 kg )
= 1.306 × 104 m/s
7.78 × 10 m11
⎛ 1.306 × 10 4 m/s ⎞
λ ' ≈ (500 nm ) ⎜⎜1 ± ⎟
2.998 × 108 m/s ⎟⎠
Substitute numerical values in
⎝
(
= (500 nm ) 1 ± 4.36 × 10 −5 )
equation (1) to obtain:
General Problems
( )
function y ( x,0) = 0.120 m 3 / (2.00 m ) + x 2 , where x is in meters. (a) Sketch
90 • At time t = 0, the shape of a wave pulse on a string is given by the
2
y(x, 0) versus x. (b) Give the wave function y(x,t) at a general time t if the pulse is
is y (x,t ) = f ( x + vt ) .
(a) The pulse at t = 0 shown below was plotted using a spreadsheet program:
0.035
0.030
0.025
y (x ,0) (m)
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
x (m)
f max =
Relate the frequency heard at point P 1
1−
f
to the speed of the approaching us s
whistle at point 1: v
Because us = rω :
f max =
rω s
1
1−
f
f max = (500 Hz ) =
(1.00 m )⎛⎜ 3.00 rev × 2π rad ⎞⎟
1
529 Hz
⎝ rev ⎠
1−
s
343 m/s
f min =
Relate the frequency heard at point P 1
1+
f
to the speed of the receding whistle us s
at point 2: v
Traveling Waves 1523
f min = (500 Hz ) =
(1.00 m )⎛⎜ 3.00 rev × 2π rad ⎞⎟
1
474 Hz
⎝ rev ⎠
1+
s
343 m/s
92 • Ocean waves move toward the beach with a speed of 8.90 m/s and a
crest-to-crest separation of 15.0 m. You are in a small boat anchored off shore.
(a) At what frequency do the wave crests reach you boat? (b) You now lift anchor
and head out to sea at a speed of 15.0 m/s. At what frequency do the wave crests
reach your boat now?
wavelength. We can find the frequency of the waves from v = fλ. (b) When you
Picture the Problem (a) The crest-to-crest separation of the waves is their
v ± ur
lift anchor and head out to sea you’ll become a moving receiver and we can
apply f r =
v ± us
f s to calculate the frequency you’ll observe.
f0 = = = 0.593 Hz
λ
(a) The frequency of the ocean v 8.90 m/s
waves is the ratio of their speed to 15.0 m
their wavelength:
v ± ur v + ur ⎛ u ⎞
fr = fs = f s = ⎜1 + r ⎟ f s
(b) Express the frequency of the
waves in terms of their speed and the v ± us v ⎝ v⎠
speed of a moving receiver:
⎛ 15.0 m/s ⎞
f r = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ (0.593 Hz )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate fr: ⎝ 8.90 m/s ⎠
= 1.59 Hz
Picture the Problem Let t be the time of travel of the left-hand pulse and the
subscripts L and R refer to the pulse coming from the left and right, respectively.
its travel time is t − Δt, where Δt = 25.0 ms. Both pulses travel at the same speed
Because the pulse traveling from the right starts later than the pulse from the left,
v= =
The speed of the pulse is given by:
μ
FT FT
m L
⎛ ⎞
vt = 12 ⎜⎜ d + Δt ⎟⎟
Substituting for v yields: FT
⎝ m L ⎠
Substitute numerical values and evaluate vt:
⎡
vt = 12 ⎢12.0 m +
(180 N )(12.0 m ) (25.0 ×10 −3 s )⎤ = 7.99 m
⎥
⎣ 0.085 kg ⎦
from the left end of the wire.
94 • • You are parked on the shoulder of a highway. Find the speed of a car
words, the total drop in frequency between the ″approach″ value and the
in which the tone of the car’s horn drops by 10 percent as it passes you. (In other
Picture the Problem Let the frequency of the car’s horn be fs, the frequency you
v ± ur
hear as the car approaches be fr, and the frequency you hear as the car recedes be
fr′. We can use f r =
v ± us
f s to express the frequencies heard as the car
approaches and recedes and then use these frequencies to express the fractional
change in frequency as the car passes you.
= 0.10
Express the fractional change in Δf
frequency as the car passes you: fr
v ± ur v±0
fr = fs = fs =
1
v ± us v − us
Relate the frequency heard as the car
1−
f
approaches to the speed of the car: us s
v
Traveling Waves 1525
f r' =
Express the frequency heard as the 1
1+
f
car recedes in terms of the speed of us s
the car: v
1−
Divide the second of these frequency us
=
equations by the first to obtain: f r' v
1+
fr us
v
and
1−
us
− = = 1− v = 0.10
f r f r' Δf
1+ s
fr fr fr u
v
us =
Solving for us yields: 0.10
v
1.9
directly from p0 = ρωvs0 , and the intensity from I = 12 ρω 2 s02 v. (c) The power
Picture the Problem (a) and (b) The pressure amplitude can be calculated
)[ ( )]
density:
(
p0 = 1.29 kg/m 3 2π 800 s −1
× (343 m/s) (0.0250 ×10 m )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate p0: −3
= 55.6 N/m 2
1526 Chapter 15
( )[ (
I = 12 1.29 kg/m 3 2π 800 s −1 )]
( ) (343 m/s)
2
Substitute numerical values and
× 0.0250 × 10 −3 m
evaluate I: 2
I = 12 ρω 2 s02 v ⇒ ω =
Relate the intensity of the wave to
ρv
1 2I
the density of the air, displacement s0
amplitude, velocity, and angular
frequency:
Because ω = 2πf :
f =
2π s0 ρv
1 2I
(
2 1.00 ×10 − 2 W/m 2 )
f =
(
2π 1.00 ×10 −6 m ) ( )
1.29 kg/m 3 (343 m/s )
= 1.07 kHz
1
97 • • Water flows at 7.0 m/s in a pipe of radius 5.0 cm. A plate with area
equal to the cross-sectional area of the pipe is suddenly inserted to stop the flow.
Find the force exerted on the plate. Take the speed of sound in water to be
the water at the speed of sound vs. The mass of water brought to a stop in time Δt
1.4 km/s. Hint: When the plate is inserted, a pressure wave propagates through
momentum of the water. We can use Newton’s second law in the form F = Δp/Δt
Picture the Problem The force exerted on the plate is due to the change in
to relate F to the mass of water in a length of pipe equal to vsΔt and to the speed
Δp Δmv w
F= =
Δt Δt
Relate the force exerted on the plate
to the change in momentum of the
water:
vsΔt:
water in a length of pipe equal to
[ ](7.0 m/s) =
Substitute numerical values and evaluate F:
( )
F = 1.00 × 10 3 kg/m 3 (1.4 km/s ) π (0.050 m )
2
77 kN
position of the microphone. The angle θ of the shock wave is related to the speed
Picture the Problem Let d be the horizontal distance from the soap bubble to the
of sound in air u and the speed of the bullet v according to sin θ = u v . We can
determine θ from the given information and then use this angle to find d.
d=
tan θ
Express d in terms of the angle of the 0.350 m
(1)
shock wave and the distance from
the soap bubble to the laboratory
bench:
⎛u ⎞
sin θ = ⇒ θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
Relate the speed of the bullet to the u
angle of the shock-wave cone: v ⎝v⎠
1528 Chapter 15
d= = 26.3 cm
0.350 m
⎡ −1 ⎛ u ⎞⎤
Substitute numerical values and
tan ⎢sin ⎜ ⎟⎥
evaluate d:
⎣ ⎝ 1.25u ⎠⎦
Picture the Problem The source of the problem is that it takes a finite time for
the sound to travel from the front of the line of marchers to the back. We can use
the given data to determine the time required for the beat to reach the marchers in
the back of the column and then use this time and the speed of sound to find the
length of the column.
Δt = min = 0.600 s
Calculate the time for the sound to 1
travel the length of the column: 100
100 • • A bat flying toward a stationary obstacle at 12.0 m/s emits brief, high-
frequency sound pulses at a repetition frequency of 80.0 Hz. What is the interval
between the arrival times of the reflected pulses heard by the bat?
Picture the Problem The interval between the arrival times of the reflected
v ± ur
pulses heard by the bat is the reciprocal of the frequency of the reflected pulses.
We can use f r =
v ± us
f s to relate the frequency of the reflected pulses to the
Δt =
Relate the interval between the 1
arrival times of the echo pulses heard fr
by the bat to frequency of the
reflected pulses:
1+ r
v ± ur v + ur
Relate the frequency of the pulses u
fr = fs = fs =
v ± us v − us
received by the bat to its speed and v f
1−
the frequency it emits: us s
v
1− s
Substitute for fr to obtain: u
Δt =
⎛ ur ⎞
v
⎜1 + ⎟ f s
⎝ v⎠
1−
12.0 m/s
evaluate Δt:
Substitute numerical values and
Δt = = 11.7 ms
( )
343 m/s
⎛ 12.0 m/s ⎞
⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ 80.0 s −1
⎝ 343 m/s ⎠
Picture the Problem Let d be the distance to the moon, h be the height of Earth's
Express the roundtrip time for a t = t Earth's atmosphere + t out of Earth's atmosphere
d −h
=2 +2
pulse of light to reach the moon and h
return: v c
= h+d −h
atmosphere: c
v
1530 Chapter 15
⎛c ⎞
d' − d = h⎜ − 1⎟
d ′ − d:
Solve for the length of correction
⎝v ⎠
d' − d = (8.00 km )⎜
⎛ ⎞
− 1⎟
evaluate d ′ − d:
Substitute numerical values and c
⎝ 0.99997c ⎠
≈ 0.2 m
102 • • A tuning fork attached to a taut string generates transverse waves. The
vibration of the fork is perpendicular to the string. Its frequency is 400 Hz and the
amplitude of its oscillation is 0.50 mm. The string has a linear mass density of
0.010 kg/m and is under a tension of 1.0 kN. Assume that there are no waves
reflected at the far end of the string. (a) What are the period and frequency of
waves on the string? (b) What is the speed of the waves? (c) What are the
wavelength and wave number? (d) What is a suitable wave function for the waves
on the string? (e) What is the maximum speed and acceleration of a point on the
string? (f) At what minimum average rate must energy be supplied to the fork to
keep it oscillating at a steady amplitude?
Picture the Problem (a) The frequency of the waves on the string is the same as
the frequency of the tuning fork and their period is the reciprocal of the
frequency. (b) We can find the speed of the waves from the tension in the string
and its linear density. (c) The wavelength can be determined from the frequency
general form of the wave function for waves on a string is y (x,t ) = A sin (kx ± ωt ) ,
and the speed of the waves and the wave number from its definition. (d) The
so, once we know k and ω, because A is given, we can write a suitable wave
function for the waves on this string. (e) The maximum speed and acceleration of
the waves. (f) Finally, we can use Pav = 12 μω 2 A2 v to find the minimum average
a point on the string can be found from the angular frequency and amplitude of
rate at which energy must be supplied to the tuning fork to keep it oscillating with
a steady amplitude.
T= = = 2.50 ms
The period of the waves on the wire 1 1
is the reciprocal of their frequency: f 400 s −1
Traveling Waves 1531
v= = = 316.2 m/s
(b) Relate the speed of the waves to
μ
FT 1.0 kN
the tension in the string and its linear 0.010 kg/m
= 0.32 km/s
density:
λ= = = 79.05 cm
(c) Use the relationship between the v 316.2 m/s
400 s −1
a wave to find λ:
wavelength, speed and frequency of f
= 79 cm
2π 2π
k= = = 7.95 m −1
λ 79.05 × 10 − 2 m
Using its definition, express and
evaluate the wave number:
= 7.9 m −1
Substitute for A, k, and ω in the general form of the wave function to obtain:
vmax = Aω
( )( )
(e) Relate the maximum speed of a
point on the string to the amplitude = 0.50 × 10−3 m 2.51× 103 s −1
= 1.3 m/s
of the waves and the angular
frequency of the tuning fork:
amax = Aω 2
( )( )
Express the maximum acceleration
= 0.50 × 10−3 m 2.51× 103 s −1
of a point on the string in terms of 2
= 3.2 km/s2
the amplitude of the waves and the
angular frequency of the tuning fork:
Pav = 1
2 (0.010 kg/m )(2.51×103 s −1 )2 (0.50 ×10−3 m )2 (316 m/s) = 2.5 W
103 • • • A long rope with a mass per unit length of 0.100 kg/m is under a
constant tension of 10.0 N. A motor drives one end of the rope with transverse
simple harmonic motion at 5.00 cycles per second and an amplitude of
40.0 mm. (a) What is the wave speed? (b) What is the wavelength? (c) What is
the maximum transverse linear momentum of a 1.00-mm segment of the rope?
(d) What is the maximum net force on a 1.00-mm segment of the rope?
Picture the Problem Let Δm represent the mass of the segment of length
Δx = 1.00 mm. We can find the wave speed from the given data for the tension in
the rope and its linear density. The wavelength can be found from v = fλ. We’ll
use the definition of linear momentum to find the maximum transverse linear
momentum of the 1-mm segment and apply Newton’s second law to the segment
to find the maximum net force on it.
v= = = 10.0 m/s
(a) Find the wave speed from the
μ
FT 10.0 N
tension and linear density: 0.100 kg/m
λ= = = 2.00 m
(b) Express the wavelength in terms v 10.0 m/s
of the speed and frequency of the f 5.00 s −1
wave:
( )
pmax = 2π 5.00 s −1 (0.100 kg/m )
× (1.00 × 10 )
m (0.0400 m )
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate pmax: −3
= 1.257 × 10 kg ⋅ m/s
−4
(d) The maximum net force acting on Fmax = Δmamax = μΔxAω 2 = ωpmax
the segment is the product of the mass = 2πfpmax
of the segment and its maximum
acceleration:
( )( )
Traveling Waves 1533
104 • • • In this problem, you will derive an expression for the potential energy
of a segment of a string carrying a traveling wave (Figure 15-34). The potential
stretched segment, and Δx is its original length. (a) Use the binomial expansion to
⎝ Δx ⎠
1 2 1
(b) Compute ∂y/∂x from the wave function y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx − ωt ) (Equation 15-
2 2
⎛ Δy ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ Δx
2
⎝ Δx ⎠
1
2
⎡ ⎛ Δy ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎛ Δy ⎞
ΔU = FT ⎢ 12 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = FT ⎜ ⎟ Δx
Substitute to obtain: 2
⎢⎣ ⎝ Δx ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ Δx ⎠
1
2
= kA cos(kx − ωt )
∂y
y ( x,t ) = A sin (kx − ωt ) to obtain: ∂x
(b) Differentiate
= FT A 2 k 2 Δx cos 2 (kx − ωt )
substitute in our result from Part (a): 1
2
1534 Chapter 15
105 • • • One end of a heavy, 3.00-m-long rope is attached to a high ceiling and
the rest of the rope is allowed to hang freely. Show that transverse waves on the
∂ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2 y ⎞ ∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
⎜ x ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ instead of =
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ g ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
rope must follow the equation .
θ2
Picture the Problem Let the +x x
direction be straight upward and choose
the origin 3.00 m below the ceiling. Let FT
y be the transverse direction in which
the rope is displaced. Applying
Newton’s second law to an element of x2
length of the rope will lead to the given Δm Δx
equation, which relates the spatial
Fg = (Δm) g
derivatives of y(x,t) to its time x1
values of the angles θ1 and θ2 (see the
derivatives. We’ll consider only small
θ1 FT
diagram to the right) between the
tangent to the rope and the x axis. 0
FT ( x2 ) − FT ( x1 ) − gμΔx = 0
approximation ( cosθ = 1 for θ << 1 )
Apply the small-angle
FT ( x + Δx ) − FT ( x ) = gμΔx
or
and let x1 = x and x2 = x1 + Δx to
obtain:
Traveling Waves 1535
⎛ ∂F ⎞
FT ( x2 ) = FT ( x1 ) + ⎜ T ⎟Δx = FT ( x1 ) + ∂FT Δx
⎜ ∂x x = x ⎟ ∂
⎝ 1 ⎠
(2)
x
∂F ∂F
1
∂x1 ∂x x = x1
where we’ve written T in place of T in order to be more concise.
FT ( x1 ) + Δx − FT ( x1 ) − gμΔx = 0
Substituting equation (2) in equation ∂FT
(1) yields: ∂x1
∂FT
− gμ = 0
Simplify this equation to obtain:
∂x1
(3)
∑F ≈ FT ( x2 ) tan θ 2 − FT ( x1 ) tan θ1 = FT ( x2 )
− FT ( x1 )
∂y ∂y
∂x2 ∂x1
y (4)
∂y
where we’ve also used tan θ = slope =
∂x
.
∂y ∂y ⎛ ∂ ∂y ⎞ ∂y ∂ 2 y
= + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟Δx = + Δx
Applying the differential
∂x2 ∂x1 ⎝ ∂x ∂x1 ⎠ ∂x1 ∂x12
approximation gives:
∑ y ⎜ T 1 ∂x ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ∂x + ∂x 2 Δx ⎟⎟ − FT (x1 ) ∂x
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ∂ 2 y ⎞
= ⎜ ( ) +
∂FT
Δ
∂y
⎝ ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠
F F x x
1 1 1
1536 Chapter 15
≈ FT ( x1 )
∂2 y ∂F ∂y
Δx + T Δx
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
where we have neglected the term with (Δx ) .
2
FT ( x1 )
∂ 2 y ∂FT ∂y ∂2 y
+ = μ
Δx to obtain:
Divide both sides of this equation by
∂x12 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂t 2
(5)
∂ 2 y ∂y 1 ∂ 2 y
μg to obtain: + =
Divide both sides of the equation by
∂x 2 ∂x g ∂t 2
x (6)
∂ 2 y ∂y ∂ ⎛ ∂y ⎞
+ = ⎜ x ⎟ , a result you
Note that the expression on the left-
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠
x
hand side of the equation can be
written as: can verify by using the chain rule to
differentiate the right-hand side of this
equation.
∂ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ 1 ∂ 2 y
⎜x ⎟ =
Substituting in equation (6) yields:
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ g ∂t 2