in a dead short, it will all be reflected back
toward the source generator.
Fig 21.3—At A the coaxial transmission
line is terminated with resistance equal
to its Z0. All power is absorbed in the
load. At B, coaxial line is shown
terminated in an impedance consisting
of a resistance and a capacitive
reactance. This is a mismatched line,
and a reflected wave will be returned
back down the line toward the
generator. The reflected wave reacts
with the forward wave to produce a
standing wave on the line. The amount
of reflection depends on the difference
between the load impedance and the
characteristic impedance of the
transmission line.
of the line acts as though it were still more
transmission line of the same characteris-
tic impedance. In a matched transmission
line, energy travels outward along the line
from the source until it reaches the load,
where it is completely absorbed.
Mismatched Lines
Assume now that the line in Fig 21.3B
is terminated in an impedance Za which is
not equal to Z0 of the transmission line.
The line is now a mismatched line. RF
energy reaching the end of a mismatched
line will not be fully absorbed by the load
impedance. Instead, part of the energy will
be reflected back toward the source. The
amount of reflected versus absorbed
energy depends on the degree of mismatch
between the characteristic impedance of
the line and the load impedance connected
to its end.
The reason why energy is reflected at a
discontinuity of impedance on a transmis-
sion line can best be understood by exam-
ining some limiting cases. First, consider
the rather extreme case where the line is
shorted at its end. Energy flowing to the
load will encounter the short at the end,
and the voltage at that point will go to zero,
while the current will rise to a maximum.
Since the current can’t develop any power
21.4 Chapter 21
chap21.pmd 4 8/3/2007, 9:51 AM
Reflections on the Smith
If the short at the end of the line is
replaced with an open circuit, the opposite
will happen. Here the voltage will rise to
maximum, and the current will by defini-
tion go to zero. The phase will reverse,
and all energy will be reflected back
towards the source. By the way, if this
sounds to you like what happens at the end
of a half-wave dipole antenna, you are
quite correct. However, in the case of
an antenna, energy traveling along the
antenna is lost by radiation on purpose,
whereas a good transmission line will lose
little energy to radiation because of field
cancellation between the two conductors.
For load impedances falling between
the extremes of short- and open-circuit,
the phase and amplitude of the reflected
wave will vary. The amount of energy
reflected and the amount of energy
absorbed in the load will depend on the
difference between the characteristic
impedance of the line and the impedance
of the load at its end.
Now, what actually happens to the
energy reflected back down the line? This
energy will encounter another impedance
discontinuity, this time at the generator.
Reflected energy flows back and forth
between the mismatches at the source
and load. After a few such journeys, the
reflected wave diminishes to nothing,
partly as a result of finite losses in the line,
but mainly because of absorption at the
load. In fact, if the load is an antenna, such
absorption at the load is desirable, since
the energy is actually radiated by the an-
tenna.
If a continuous RF voltage is applied to
the terminals of a transmission line, the
voltage at any point along the line will
consist of a vector sum of voltages, the
composite of waves traveling toward the
load and waves traveling back toward the
source generator. The sum of the waves
traveling toward the load is called the for-
ward or incident wave, while the sum of
the waves traveling toward the generator
is called the reflected wave.
Reflection Coefficient and SWR
In a mismatched transmission line, the
ratio of the voltage in the reflected wave at
any one point on the line to the voltage in
the forward wave at that same point is
defined as the voltage reflection coeffi-
cient. This has the same value as the
current reflection coefficient. The reflec-
tion coefficient is a complex quantity (that
is, having both amplitude and phase) and
is generally designated by the Greek letter
ρ (rho), or sometimes in the professional
literature as Γ (Gamma). The relationship
Chart
Although most radio amateurs have
seen the Smith Chart, it is often
regarded with trepidation. It is sup-
posed to be complicated and subtle.
However, the chart is extremely useful
in circuit analysis, especially when
transmission lines are involved. The
Smith Chart is not limited to transmis-
sion-line and antenna problems.
The basis for the chart is Eq 4 in the
main text relating reflection coefficient
to a terminating impedance. Eq 4 is
repeated here:
Z − Z0
ρ= (1)
Z + Z0
where Z0 is the characteristic imped-
ance of the chart, and Z = R + j X is a
complex terminating impedance. Z
might be the feed-point impedance of
an antenna connected to a Z0 trans-
mission line.
It is useful to define a normalized
impedance z = Z/Z0. The normalized
resistance and reactance become r =
R/Z0 and x = X/Z0. Inserting these into
Eq 1 yields:
z −1
ρ= (2)
z +1
where r and z are both complex, each
having a magnitude and a phase
when expressed in polar coordinates,
or a real and an imaginary part in XY
coordinates.
Eq 1 and 2 have some interesting
Fig A—Plot of polar reflection
coefficient. Circles represent contours
of constant ρ . The starting “feed point”
value, 0.5 at +45°, represents an
antenna impedance of 69.1 + j 65.1 Ω
with Z0 = 50 Ω . The arc represents a
15-ft section of 50-ΩΩ , VF 0.66 trans-
mission line at 7 MHz, yielding a shack
ρ of 0.5 at –71.3°. The shack z is
calculated as 40.3 – j 50.9 Ω .
 Fig B—This plot shows a Smith Chart. The circles now
represent contours of constant normalized resistance or
reactance. Note the arc with the markers: This illustrates the
same antenna and line used in the previous figure. The plot
is the same on the two charts; only the scale details have
changed. Fig C—The Smith Chart shown in Fig B was computer
generated. A much more detailed plot is presented here; this
is the chart form used by Smith, suitable for graphic
and useful properties, characteristics applications. This chart is used with the permission of
that make them physically significant: Analog Instruments.
• Even though the components of z
(and Z) may take on values that are
very large, the reflection coefficient
ρ, is restricted to always having a Neglecting loss effects, a transmis- dividing Ra and Xa by Z0 to yield ra +
magnitude between zero and one if sion line of electrical length θ will j xa, and is plotted on the chart. A
z has a real part, r, that is positive. transform a normalized impedance compass is then used to draw an arc
• If all possible values for ρ are represented by ρ to another with the of a circle centered at the origin of the
examined and plotted in polar same magnitude and a new angle chart. The arc starts at the normalized
coordinates, they will lie within a that differs from the original by –2θ. antenna impedance and proceeds in a
circle with a radius of one. This is This rotation is clockwise. clockwise direction for 2θ°, where θ is
termed the unit circle. A plot is Clearly, the reflection coefficient is the electrical degrees, derived from
shown in Fig A. more than an intermediate step in a the physical length and velocity factor
• An impedance that is perfectly mathematical development. It is a of the transmission line. The end of
matched to Z0, the characteristic useful, alternative description of the arc represents the normalized
value for the chart, will produce a ρ complex impedance. However, our impedance at the end of the line in the
at the center of the unit circle. interest is still focused on impedance; shack; it is denormalized by multiply-
• Real Z values, ones that have no we want to know, for example, what ing the real and imaginary parts by Z0.
reactance, “map” onto a horizontal the final z is after transformation with Antenna feed-point Z can also be
line that divides the top from the a transmission line. This is the inferred from an impedance measure-
bottom of the unit circle. By conven- problem that Phillip Smith solved in ment at the shack end of the line. A
tion, a polar variable with an angle creating the Smith Chart. Smith similar procedure is followed. The
of zero is on the x axis, to the right observed that the unit circle, a graph only difference is that rotation is now
of the origin. of reflection coefficient, could be in a counterclockwise direction. The
• Impedances with a reactive part labeled with lines representing Smith Chart is much more powerful
produce ρ values away from the normalized impedance. A Smith Chart than depicted in this brief summary. A
dividing line. Inductive impedances is shown in Fig B. All of the lines on detailed treatment is given by Phillip
with the imaginary part greater than the chart are complete or partial H. Smith in his classic book: Elec-
zero appear in the upper half of the circles representing a line of constant tronic Applications of the Smith Chart
chart, while capacitive impedances normalized resistance and reactance. (McGraw-Hill, 1969). I also recom-
appear in the lower half. How might we use the Smith Chart? mend his article “Transmission Line
• Perhaps the most interesting and A classic application relates antenna Calculator” in Jan 1939 Electronics.
exciting property of the reflection feed-point impedance to the imped- Joseph White presented a wonderful
coefficient is the way it describes ance seen at the end of the “shack” summary of the chart in a short but
the impedance-transforming end of the line. Assume that the outstanding paper: “The Smith Chart:
properties of a transmission line, antenna impedance is known, Za = Ra An Endangered Species?” Nov 1979
presented in closed mathematical + j Xa. This complex value is con- Microwave Journal. —Wes Hayward,
form in the main text as Eq 11. verted to normalized impedance by W7ZOI

Transmission Lines 21.5

chap21.pmd 5 8/3/2007, 9:51 AM