THE INFINITE LINE

Introduction

Line transmission is the theory of propagation of waves along transmission lines.

These lines are considered to consist of a pair of wires that are uniform throughout
their whole length. Provided that this uniformity holds good, it is immaterial whether
the two wires are air spaced on telegraph poles or they are two conductors in an
underground cable or form a pair of conductors in a field cable.

The two most commonly used transmission lines are:

a. Open wire - Balanced

b. Coaxial cable - Unbalanced

The Infinite Line

The propagation of electric waves along any uniform and symmetrical transmission
line may be deduced in terms of the results for a hypothetical line of infinite length
having electrical constants per unit length identical to those of the line under
consideration.

Is

Es
Zo
to 

Infinite line

When an alternating voltage is applied to the sending end of an infinite line, finite
current will flow due to capacity and leakage conductance between the two wires
constituting the line. The value of this current will depend on these two factors and
others to be investigated later.
The ratio of the applied voltage to the current flowing will give its input impedance.
This input impedance is known as “characteristic impedance” of the line which is
denoted by Zo. In addition to Zo, the line has the following important properties:-

a. Since the line has infinite length no waves will

ever reach the distant end, and hence there is no possibility of reflection at the
distant end and no reflected waves will return to the sending end.

b. For the same reason when a voltage is applied

to the sending end, the current flowing will depend on the characteristic
impedance and will be unaffected by the terminating impedance Z R at the
distant end.

1
LINE CONSTANTS

The primary line constants.

If the transmission line is very short, the conductors may be considered to be short
circuits between the generator and the load and no transmission line theory is
necessary. When the line is no longer short, this is no longer the case.
In the first place, the conductors are not perfect; they have resistance and in a long
line may be greater than the resistance of the load. The total resistance of both
conductors of a unit length of line is one of the primary line constants and is quoted in
ohms per loop mile or Km.
The dielectric separating the two conductors of the line is not perfect and if the output
terminals of unit length of line is open circuited some conductance will be measured
between them. This conductance G per unit length of line is another primary line
constant, which is usually small and is quoted in  Siemens/mile or Km.
When the applied voltage on the conductor is changing, the magnetic field around the
conductor also changes. This change in flux opposes the change in the current
thereby introducing inductance on the line, this inductance is measured in Henries per
loop mile and is another line constant.
Again due to the potential gradient existing between the two conductors, an electric
field exists hence a line has capacitance which is the capacitance measured per loop
mile or Km of the line whose units is the Farads.

EQUIVALENT NETWORK FOR A SHORT LENGTH OF A TX LINE

The line constants are not obviously lumped at one end of the line but are evenly
distributed along it. The line is also symmetrical as it is in the same no matter which
end we look into. Therefore the equivalent circuit of short length of line is as follows:

½RL ½ LL ½ RL ½ LL

CL G.L
Fig 1(a)

L

UNBALANCED LINE WITH EARTH RETURN E.G. COAXIAL CABLE

L

¼ LL ½ RL ½ RL ¼ LL

CL G.L Fig 2 (b)

¼ LL ½ RL ½ RL ¼ LL

BALANCED LINE E.G. OPEN WIRE

2
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE Zo

This is the impedance seen when looking at an infinite length of line. There is always
one value of impedance which when placed across one pair terminal of a line causes
the input impedance at the other pair of terminals to have the same value. This is the
characteristic impedance and is denoted Zo. If the internal impedance of a generator
to is equal to the characteristic impedance of the line and is equal to the load
impedance, then ideal conditions exist for maximum power transfer. At high
frequencies the impedance of the inductor i.e l is very large compared with R and
the admittance c becomes very large compared to G. Hence the effects of R and G
at high frequencies can be ignored thus making the line virtually loss free and have
an equivalent circuit as shown.
Fig 2 (a)

½ LL ½ LL

Zo CL Zo

Which can be drawn as L

Fig 2 (b)
Z½ Z½

Zo

For such a case, Zo at high frequency is Zo = √(L/C). This will be derived later.

SHORT LINE TERMINATED IN Zo

Fig 3
1
Zo to 

2
If a small section near the sending end of the line is removed, such that the new line
starts at terminals 3 and 4 as shown in the diagram (Fig 4) the impedance seen looking
into the terminals 3 and 4 will be Zo since the removal of the short section does not
affect the nature of the line.

Fig 4
A B
1 3
to 
2 4

3
This means that the short section AB from electrical point of view was originally
terminated in an impedance Zo at B. If the short section is now terminated in an
actual impedance Zo, the current and voltage at all points along its length will be
exactly same as if it were terminated in an infinite length of line. Hence a short line
terminated in Zo behaves electrically at all points along the line a if it were an infinite
line see figure 5

Short line terminated in Zo

Zo Zo
2

DETERMINATION OF Zo FOR A SHORT LINE

A short line is considered as a complex electrical network and at any frequency and
may be represented by a T section.

Z½ Z½

Zo
Zo Zo zIN Z2
Line (Z in =Zo)

When this short line is terminated to its Zo, it will behave like an infinite line and
have an input impedance equal to Zo. Since the section is terminated to its Zo, It must
have an input impedance equal to Zo let the T section have series aims Z ½, Z ½ and
short aims Z2 (See Fig 5)

Then Z in = Z 1 + (Z 1 + Zo) Z2
2 2
Z2 + Z 1 + Z0
2
But Z in = Zo

Zo = Z2 1 + Z 1 Z2 + Z 1 Zo + Z 1 Z2 + Zo Z2
4 2 2 2
2
Z + Z 1 + Zo
2

Zo Z2 + Z 1 Zo+Zo2 = Z21 + Z1 Z2 + Z1 Zo + Z1 Z2 + Z2 Zo
2 4 2 2 2

Hence Zo2 = Z21 + Z 1 Z2

4

Thus Zo=√(Z12+Z1Z2) Eqn………1

2
4
Hence Zo of the line can be determined if Z1 and Z2 are known.

OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE - Zoc

Consider a short line terminated on a open circuit. The equivalent T section of such a
line is shown in fig 6 (b) below
Z½ Z½

Zoc o/c
Z2

fig 6
(a) (b)

Let the input impedance with an infinite – impedance termination be Zoc

 From fig 6 (b),

Zoc = Z1 + Z2
e qn……..2
2

SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE Zsc

Consider A short line terminated in a short circuit. The equivalent T Section is as

shown in Fig 7.

Z½ Z½

Z2
Zsc

Fig 7
Let the input impedance with a zero – impedance termination be Zsc.

 From fig 7, Zsc = Z ½ + Z½ Z2

Z½+Z2

Zsc = Z¼² + Z½ Z2 + Z½ Z2

Z½ + Z2

Eqn……3
Z21 + Z1 Z2
Zsc= 4
Z1 + Z2
2
5
Multiplying the short circuit impedance with the open circuit impedance gives.

Zoc x Zsc = (Z1 + Z2 ) (Z21 + Z1 Z2)

2 4
Z1 + Z2
2

Zoc x Zsc = Z21 + Z1 Z2 ………..4

4

But Zo = ( Z21 + Z1 Z2 )
4
 Zo =
2
Z21 + Z1 Z2
4

Replacing imp Zo in 4,

Zoc x Zsc = Zo2

or Zo2 = Zoc Zsc

-----------5
Zo = Zoc x Zsc

Hence the characteristic impedance of a line in the geometric mean of open and short
circuit impedance. This is the method used to determine the line impedance using a
bridge.

Example 1: The following measurements were made on a line at 1600 Hz.

Zoc = 900 -30 , Zsc = 400 -10 , what is the characteristic impedance of the
line.

Solution

Zo= Zoc x Zsc = 900 X400 - 30o x 40 o - 10 o

= 360000 - 40 o

Zo = 600 - 20o
LINE AT HIGH FREQUENCIES

From Zo = Z12 + Z1 Z2,

4
at high frequencies Z1 = jwll and Z2 = 1 l
jwc

Zo = ( jwll)2 + jwll
2 jwcl

6
As l2 is small compared with l, terms containing l2
Can be ignored. Hence

Zo = jwll = L
jwcl C

 Zo = L at high frequencies.
C
This is not exact but is good enough for practical purposes at high frequencies. But
since this formulae takes no account of frequency, it follows that the characteristic
impedance of a loss free line and high frequency is purely resistive and is sometimes
denoted Ro. As the line is purely resistive its characteristic impedance can be
calculated from the physical dimensions of the line.

OPEN WIRE LINE

a a

b
“a”= Radius of conductor
“b”= Spacing between the conductors.

Inductance per foot of the conductor = 0.281 log 10 b/a µH. capacitance per foot of
the conductor = 3.677Κ ρF
Log b/a
K = dielectric constant

From Ro = L = Zo
C
-
Hence Ro= (0.281 log b/a) x 10-6
( 3.677k) x 10ˉ12
( log b/a )

= 0.281 log b/a x Log10 b/a x 106

3.667 K

= 103 0.076K-1 log10 b/a x log10 b/a

= 103 log b/a x 0.276 K-1

= 276 log10 b/a

7
 K

 Ro = 276 log10 b/a Ω for open wire

K

K is normally unity for spaced feeders and can be ignored

COAXIAL FEEDERS

‘b’ = radius of outer conductor.

b ‘a’ = Radius of inner conductor.
a

Inductance per foot = 0.14 log b/a H

Capacitance per foot = 7.354K PF
Log b/a

Ro = (0.14 log b/a) x 10-6

(7.354K) x 10-12 = 0.14 log b/a x log b/a x 06
(log b/a ) 7.354 K

= 103 log b/a 0.14

7.354K

= 138 log b/a x 1

K

= 138 log b/a Ω

K
Example 1.At high frequencies a transmission line consists of a pair of open wire
having a capacitance of 0.01F/Km and an inductance of 3.2 mH/km. What is the
characteristic impedance of the line.

Solution: Zo = L = 32 x 10-3 = 320

C 0.01 x 10-6

= 565.7

Example 2. The centre conductor of a concentric cable feeding an aerial has a

diameter of 0.075cm and the outer conductor has a diameter of 0.38 cm. Of the
relative permitivity of the dielectric is 1.93, calculate the impedance of the cable.

Ro = 138 log b/a

K

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE ALONG THE INFINITE LINE

Consider a current Is applied to the sending end A of an infinite line (or a line
terminated in Zo) fig 8. At point B a distance 1 Km along the line let the current be I 1,

Is I1 I2 I3 I4

8
A B C D E

Zo To 
1 KM 1 KM 1KM Fig 8

For a short terminated in Zo,

Z½ Z½
Is I1

Vs Z2
Z2

Fig 4
Due to the loss introduced in the line, the current I 1 will be less than I s and in addition,
 Phase shift will be introduced. Hence the ratio of I s is a vector quantity in the form
of e where  is a complex quality.
 is known as the “propagation constant” per km of the line. The ratio Is = e such that
 = log e Is
Considering fig 4, the current I1 in terms of Z1 and Z2 is
2

II =
Z2 x Is  Is = Z1 + Zo + Z2
( Z 1 + Zo + Z2 ) II 2
2 Z2

hence e = Is = 1 + ZI + Z o
II 2Z2 Z2
Giving  = log e Is = loge 1 + Z ½ + Z o
II 2Z2 Z2

At a distance two Km down the line again.

I1 = 1 + Z1 + Zo
I2 2Z2 Z 2

Similarly for the section C D 12 = 1 + ZI + Zo

I3 2Z2 Z2
Hence for the ninth section.

In -1 = e where In -1 and In are current at distance (n-1)

I2
and n kilometres down the line respectively now
Is = e 
II

Then I s = II = I2 = I3 = e
I1 I2 I3 I4

Hence Is = Is = I1 = e2
I2 I1 I2

and Is = Is = I1 = I2 = e3
9
 I3 I1 I2 I3
And in the general case

Is = Is x I1 x ….. In -1 = e n
In I1 In In

From the foregoing it follows that

-n
In = Is X e =

This is the general equation of a current n Kms down an infinite line in terms of the
sending current and the propagation constant per Km.
Similarly the ratio of voltage to the current at any point on the line is equal to the
characteristic impendence Zo

Thus Es = EI - E2 = E3…… Es = Zo
Is I1 I2 I3 In

Hence E s = Is but Is = e n
E n In In

Then Es = Ese -n

En

Such that En = Ese -n

ATTENUATION AND PHASE CONSTANTS

The propagation constant is a complex quantity; let it be represented by

Is = e= e  +j = e 
II

Hence Is = e , and the angle of Is is 

II II

It follows that  = log e Is ; note that e gives the ratio
II
of absolute value of the current sent to that of the current received, while β gives the
phase angle between the two currents.  is known as the attenuation constant per Km
of line and is measured in neppers per Km.
 is known as the phase constant or wavelength constant per Km of line and is
measured in radians/km. If the length of the line is in kilometres,

Is = e ny = e n +jn
= en n

II
Conclusion

In the general case of an infinite line of a short line terminated in its characteristic
impedance and having a propagation constant , the current I at any point distance 
from the sending end will be given by
10
I = Is e - 

= Is e -  -  Where Is is the sending end current.

The voltage E at any point distant  from the sending end will be given by.
E = Es e 
Where Es is the sending end voltage.
=Es e -  - 

Example. A twisted D8 cable has at 1600 Hz an attenuation of 3.0 dB per Km and a

phase constant of 0.319 radius per Km in dry weather. If 2 volts at 1600 hz are applied
to the sending end, what will be the voltage at a point 10 Km down the line when the
line is correctly terminated (i.e. terminated to its Zo)

Solution

At a point x miles down the line from the sending end,

E = Es e - x

=Es e x -βx
Attenuation /Km = 3.0 dB/Km.

To convert to neppers, multiply by 0.115

  = 3 x 0.115 Neppers
= 0.345 nepper/Km

hence E = Es e- 0.345 x 10 - 0.319 x 10

-3.45
E =2e -3.19

= 0.0635 volts - 3.19

Hence the voltage 10 miles down the line lags the sending end voltage by 3.19 radians
that is182 47 and is attenuated to 0.0635 volts.

THE DECIBEL
Consider a four terminal network with an input power P1 and an output power P2

PI P2
N/W
Let the ratio of O/P power to I/P power be m

Then O/P power = P2 = m

I/P power P1
The value m may be a gain or loss that is
11
 (i) Higher than unity for gain
(ii) Less than unity for loss
If a number of networks are connected in tandem as shown.

pn
P1 M1 P2 M
P32 P4 M3
Pn-2 Pn-2
Mn-2 pn-1 Mn-1

Then the overall power ratio Pn is the product of the individual power ratios ie.
P1
Pn = P2 x P3 x P4 x …x Pn
PI P1 P2 P3 Pn-1

= M1 x M2 x M3 x-------x Mn-1 When m =

individual power ratios.
This is a very laborious method especially where the number of networks is large. A
simpler way is to use the decibel system. The decibel denoted dB is fundamentally a
logarithmic unit of power ratio. It is used to express gain or loss D of any network.
Hence gain/loss in dB = 10 log Pout
Pin
If Pout is less than unity then a negative value is obtained indicating a loss.
Pin
Example: Find the,gain or loss for the following
a.PI = 2mW, P2 = 200 mW = b. PI = 3mW, P2 = 600 mW.
c.PI = 500mW, P2 = 5 mW

The dB can also be used to find voltage and current gains.

Voltage gains dB = 20 log V out
V in
Current gais dB = 2o log Iout
Iin
Example: An amplifier has a response at 100 KHz, which is 8.5 dB down its response
at 1 KHz. If the voltage gain at 100 KHz is 15,what is the voltage gain at 1 khz?
Solution
Let the voltage gain at 1khz be x
Then voltage gain in dBs = 20 log10 gain at 1 KHz
gain at 100 KHz
 8.5 = 20 log10 x
15
0.425 = log10 x
15
X = 0.425
15
x = 39.9
hence gain at 1 KHz = 4

ABSOLUTE POWER LEVEL dBm

This is a reference power level whose standard level is 1 mW. Using this standard
level any power P can be expressed as 10 log P referred to 1 mW. It is then
possible to express any absolute power as so many dBs above or below this reference
standard. Hence a power of 1 watt can be expressed as 10 log 1 = 30 dBm.
(1 x10-3 )
Examples. Express the following in dBm.

12
 a. 1 x 10-12 watts,
b. 800 µW
c. 1000mW
d. 100 Kw
Example 2. What power in watts is represented by 25 dBm ?

Solution: dBm = 10 log P  D = log P

1mW 10 1mW

then anti log D = P = 0.316 watts.

10 1mW

THE NEPER

The loss of power on any transmission line is known as attenuation which may be
measured using the decibels or neper notation. The neper is fundamentally a unit of
current ratio but it can be used to express power ratios when the resistive components
of the impedance are equal.

Hence attenuation in nepers = loge IS where IS and IR p

IR
are source and load current respectively.

To convert from nepers to dB’s or vice versa, the following formulae is used:

Att in dB = 8.686 x attenuation in nepers Provided

Att in Neper = 0.1151 x attenuation in dB R1 =R2

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE ON A TX LINE

If a generator is connected across the terminals of a short, loss free transmission line
at high frequency, a current will flow down the line and a voltage will be developed
across it. The current and voltage must obey ohms law i.e. V = Zo.
I
As the line is not a short circuit between the generator and the load but a chain of
networks, the current and voltage will undergo a phase change i.e. the current or
voltage wave will experience a 360 phase change over, each wavelength of line. As
the line is resistive the current and voltage will be in phase.

a. Correctly terminated line

Ro
Gen
⋋/4

Vectorial
Phase and Represent
Magnitude of 13
ation of
V and I V and I
 Impedance R

=V R
I

I and V are called incident current and voltage as they are travelling from the
generator to the load. The current and voltage produced by the generator are in phase
(resistive load). A quarter wavelength down the line I and V are still in phase but
lagging V and I at the generator by 90 (i.e. having been produced a quarter of a cycle
earlier). The voltage and current half a wavelength from the generator will lag by
180 and so on. All down the line the magnitude of I and V are such that V/I = R
and when the signal reaches the load it is despatched in it as the load value is R 
(maximum power transfer).

LINE WITH AN OPEN CIRCUIT

The generator produces a current and voltage (I and V) in phase as it did in the
correctly terminated line. These gives the same pattern all down the line as in a line
terminated in ZO; until it reaches the load i.e. V/I = R.

At the load howevr the value of the load is not R O but RL is infinite. Therefore the
quotient V/I has to be made to equal infinity. This can only be done by increasing V
to  or by decreasing I to zero. The vector diagram shows current being decreased to
zero. In practice the current decreases to zero at the load and the voltage increases.
For the current to be zero a current equal to its magnitude must be subtracted. The
reflected current must flow somewhere and the only path open to it is along the line

RL = 
IS
Gen
II Vi
Ir Vr
+
Vs
V I
Magnitude
of current
14 -and voltage
standing
waves
 IR
+Magnitude
And phase
VR
-Of current
And voltage
(resultant)

Impedance

Z = VR
IR

back to the generator. In doing this, it adds or subtracts the incident current along the
line producing waveforms as shown in the diagram.
Points to note:
a. The current and voltage are no longer constant along the line but are in
the form of nodes and antinodes.
b. From the generator to the load current seems to lead the voltage by 90
thus giving the effect of a capacitor.

c. The impedance over the last (/4) quarter wave varies from zero to
infinite

LINE WITH SHORT CCT LOAD

RL =0

Ir IS
+Vertical
Ii Magnitude
representati
of
onI and V
Vr 15 (standing
waves)
Vi
Vs

IR +Magnitude
And phase
-Of current
VR And voltage

Impedance

Z = VR
IR

V and I and incident current and voltage

VS is the reflected voltage from the genrator
IR and VR are instaneous values of the resultant current and voltage.

The argument in this case is the same as in open cct line but this time when the wave
reaches the load it has to adjust itself such that V/I = 0 and this can be done by
making V = 0 and I = .

Points to note:

a. Nodes and antinodes are again formed on the line.

b. The voltage appears to lead current by 90 (Inductive).
c. The impedance on the last quarter varies from infinite to zero.

LINE WITH LOAD OF ANY OTHER VALUE

(1) If the value of the load is greater than R O, the results obtained will be
similar to the open circuit load but not as well defined

(2) If the value of the load is less than R O the results obtained will be
similar to the short circuit load but not as well defined.

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

If the impedance connected to the line is incorrect then the voltage and current
will be reflected back along the line to the generator. In other words mis-match occurs
and the magnitude of this mis-match is measured in terms of reflection co-efficient
(ρ). Reflection coefficient is the measure of this mismatch and is given by:-
16
 ρ =VR or IR or RL – RO or RO - RL
VI II R L + RO R O + RL
Where IR and VR are reflected current and voltage respectively V and I are incident
voltage and currents. RL is the actual load and R O is the characteristic impendance.
When ρ =0 , there is no mis-match and RL =RO.

Points to Note:

(1) When a wave is propagated along the line, the wave has no way of
knowing how the line is terminated.
(2) The wave assumes that the line is corectly terminated i.e ZR =ZO.
(3) When the waves arrives at the termination it finds that Z R = ZO then all the
power is dissipated in ZR
(4) If the wave finds that ZR ≠ ZO then a reflected wave is generated and is
transmitted back along the line.
(5) The phase and magnitude of the reflected wave depends on the nature of
ZR
(6) When ZR is a short circuit or open circuit the reflected wave is of the same
magnitude as the forward wave.
(7) Voltage and current waves are both reflected back.

VOLTAGE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

Consider a short length of line incorrectly terminated into an impedance Z R

such that ZO ≠ ZR If the characteristic impedance of the generator is Z O
an incident voltageVi and incident current Ii will be produced by the generator and this
incident wave will flow down the line. Since the impedance at the termination is not
equal to ZO a reflected wave with a reflected voltage and current will flow back
towards the generator. Let the reflected voltage and current be Vr and Ir respectively.
The resultant wave will then have a magnitude that depends on the value of the load.

Vi = Incident Voltage
Ii = Incident current
Vi Vr Vt
Ir = Reflected Voltage
Ii Ir It
Vr =reflected voltage
Vt and It = resultant V and I
respectively
Zo ZR

Then It = Ii + Ir………..(i)
And Vt = Vi + Vr……..(ii)

But input current Ii = Vi, Ir = - Vr and It = Vt

17
 Zo Zo ZR
i.e. the reflected current will develop a voltage across Zo.

 from (i) Vt = Vi - Vr
ZR ZO ZO
Hence Zo Vt = ZR (Vi – Vr)
From (ii), Vt = Vi +Vr
Then Zo (Vt +Vr) = ZR (Vi – Vr)
ZO Vi + Zo Vr = ZR Vi – ZR Vr
 ZoVr + ZrVr = ZRVI – ZoVi
Vr (Zo + ZR) = Vi (ZR – Zo)

Hence Vr = ZR – Zo but Vr = ρ
Vi Zo + ZR Vi
ρv = ZR - Zo
 Voltage reflection coefficient ZO + Z R

Voltage reflection coefficient has the same magnitude as the current reflection factor.
ZR is generally complex i.e. it has both resistance and reactance hence the modulus of
voltage reflection coefficient is Vr = ZR - Zo
Vi Zo + ZR

CURRENT REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

This is derived in a similar manner.

From It = Ir + Ii ……(i) and Vt = Vr + Vi…….(ii)
Then VR = - Ir Zo, Vi = Ii Zo, Vt = It ZR.

 From (ii)

It ZR = -Ir ZO + Ii ZO
But It = Ir + Ii
 ZR (Ir + Ii ) = Ii ZO - Ir ZO
ZR Ir + Ii ZR = Ii ZO – Ir ZO
Ir ZR + Ir ZO = IiZO – IiZR
Ir (ZR + ZO ) = Ii (ZO – ZR)
 Current reflection coefficient Ir = ZO – ZR = ρ
Ii ZR + Z O
Hence current reflection coefficient has the same magnitude as the voltage refflection
coefficient but opposite in phase.

NB: The incident wave and the reflected wave are both example of standing waves.
An incident wave and a reflected wave form an interference pattern known as
standing wave.

STANDING WAVE RATIO

This is the ratio of maximum voltage or current on the line to the minimum voltage or
current in a standing wave symbol (s)

Hence S = V max but ( V max ) = VI + Vr

V min d V min = Vi - Vr-

 V max = Vi + Vr from ρ = Vr  ρVi=Vr

18
 V min Vi - Vr Vi

S= Vi + ρVi = Vi I + ρ
Vi - ρVi Vi I - ρ

S= I + ρ
I - ρ NB S is always  1 or equal to 1

When Z is resistive, that is the terminating impendance and line impedance are
resistive then:-

S = 1 + ZR - ZO ZR +ZO + ZR – ZO
ZR + ZO ZR - ZO
=
1 - ZR - ZO ZR + ZO - Z R + ZO
ZR + ZO ZR + ZO

= 2ZR x ZR - ZO
ZR + ZO 2ZO
Hence S = ZR
ZO
Where ZR is less than ZO then S = ZO
ZR
From S= I + ρ then the reflection coeficient can be
I - ρ
given in terms of standing wave ratio

i.e. S (I – ρ) = (I + ρ)
S – ρs = I + ρ
S - I = ρ + ρs
S - I = ρ (I + s)

 Ρ = S - I
S + I

From the foregoing it can be seen that a correctly terminated line has an SWR of 1.
When S  1 then a mismatch exists and power is wasted. Hence

SWR = V max = I max = ZR = ZO = I + ρ

V min I min ZO ZR I- ρ

SPECIAL CASES

(a) Short circuit load SWR =  : 1

(b) Open circuit cct load SWR =  : 1
(c) Correct match SWR = 1:1

EFFECTS OF STANDING WAVES

(a) The higher the SWR, the greater the loss by

radiation from the transmission line. Therefore SWR should be as near as
possible to 1:1

19
 (b) The voltage or current on the line may become twice the supply especially for
the extreme cases i.e. open and short circuit conditions.

POWER LOSS

When SWR is not 1:1, then power is lost from the transmission line through radiation.
Let the incident power be i and the reflected power be r then.

Incident power i = Vi x Ii
Reflected power r = VR x IR
 Pr = Vr Ir but Vr = Ir =r
ri V i Ii Vi Ii

 rr = r2 This means that the % of reflected power is

ri

Example for power loss for different values of SWR.

SWR Power loss

1:1 0
1.5:1 4
2:1 11
3:1 25
5:1 44
10:1 67

MINIMIZATION OF STANDING WAVES (MATCHING)

If standing waves exist on the line, the only method of removing them is by rebuilding
the line and making sure that correct matching exists. If this mismatch is small it can
be reduced further by using stub matches or /4 transformer. A stub consists of /4
length of open or Short circuit transmission line connected in parallel with the load.
The value of the inductance or capacitance of the stub is made such that it cancels the
reactive component of the load.

STUBS

a. Stubs are used to match a complex load to the transmission line. The
purpose of the stub is to tune out the reactance with a stub which is either
capacitive or inductive depending on the nature of the load. Short circuit or
open circiut transmission lines are often used than lumped components at very
high frequencies. Hence a matching stub is a short length of transmission line
connected across a feeder and usually of the same Zo as the feeder.

L F

ZO ZR

20
 /4
open or short circuit end of stub

Stubs are often used other than lumped components because they are:
(i) Cheaper than components
(ii) Simple to use
(iii) Very affective
The design features of the stub are:-
(i) Position on the feeder at which the stub is connected
(ii) The length of the stub

LF is the distance to the nearest point on the feeder to Z R at which the admittance in
=G  j. Where G =GO = 1/Zo. /4 is the length of the stub having an input
susceptance of  j (with  the same as above but of opposite sign). Stubs may be
open circuit or short but usually the one of shorter length is used. The procedure used
to find the length (distance) of the stub from the load is as follows:-

Calculate the admittance of the load.

(ii) Calculate the susceptance and hence reactance required.

Example: A 600 balanced line has to supply energy to a load of 75

resistance with 75 positive reactance. Calculate the value of the stub.

Solution: Since the stub is used to cancel out the resitance and then to
neutralize the reactive component proceed as follows. Let Z 1 =600 + j0, Z2=
75 + j75 .then the equivalent circuit of the load is:

75 + j75 75 

600 load

j75

 = ЧL = 1 = 75 –j75 = 6.667x10-3x j6.667x15-3

ZL 5 +j75

But ЧL = GL + jL

 jL = -j6.67 x 10-3 siemens.

Hence reactance required in parallel with the load is

21
 XL = 1 = 1 = 150

jL 6.67x10-3

The stub must have a capacitive reactance of 150. This reactance can be
neutrilized by placing capacitor of

C= 1 = 1 = 35.4 pF. A capacitor

2πfc 6.28x30x106x150

of this value can do the matching but it is more practical to use a open circiut stub.
The distance from the load to the stub must be such that Vr

Ir

V
/I =150 (75+j75) 

/4 35.4 PF

TRANSFORMER MATCHING

Transformer matching is used in transmission lines to match a resistive load to the

input impedance. Transformers are suitable for this but they introduce power loss.


/4 WAVE TRANSFORMER

ZO Zin Zό ZR


/4

A /4 wave transformer is inserted between the load and the line in order to match the
ohmic value of the load to that of a transmission line . Consider the variation of
impedance on a quarter wave section.

Impedance of ¼ section.

22
 
/4

As the value of the impedance of the /4 section varies from a low value to a high value
along its length it can be used for matching. From the general line equations.

Zin = Z ό ZR + jZO tan L

Z O + jZR tan L

Then when the line is /4 long,L = 90 then tan L =  For correct matching.

Zin ZR = (Zό)2 Again Zo=Zin

 Zό = ZO ZR

hence Zό /4 = ZO ZR or Rό /4 = RORL

As this value is different from ZO and RO, then /4 section of the line must have
different dimesions i.e. spacing and thickness. Hence /4 wave trasformer is a section
of the line having different dimensions to that of the line to be matched.

ZO Zό ZR

/4

The procedure to find Zό is as follows:

a. Find the load admittance i.e. the form of L = GL + jL.

b. Transform the conductance GL to resistance and hence calculate ZO.

Example: A 600 balanced line has to supply energy at 30mHZ to a load of 75 

resistance with 75  +ve reactance. Calculate the value of /4 wave transformer
required.

Solution:

Let Z1 = 600 + j0, Z2 = 75 +j75

23
 L = 1 = 6.667 x 10-3 – j 6.667 x 10-3

ZL

 RO = 1 = 150

GL

 RO /4 = RO R L = 600 X 150

Rό /4 300 

600 Rό = 300

/4

Example:

a. A 200 + j75  load is to be matched to a 300  line to give SWR = 1:1,

calculate the reactance of the stub and the characteristics impedance of the /4
transformer.

Solution: уL 1 = 4.38 x 10-3 – j1.64 x 10-3

200 + j 75

hence stub susceptance  = + 1.64 x 10 –3

and the reactance of stub 1 = 609.8

1.64 x 10- 3

stub reactance = 610 

with the stub connected YL = GL = 4.38 x 10-3

 RL = 1 = = 228

GL 4.38x10-3

RO /4 = RLRO = 228 x300

= 262

 Characteristic impedance Zό or Rό /4 = 262

OTW: A load ZL = 100 – j50 Ω is connected to a line where Z O = 75 Ω. Calculate Zό

and the impendance of the matching components. (answer; x stub = 250Ω, Z O’ =
97Ω.)

Example (2) What would be the SWR if a 75Ω transmission line were used to feed a
300Ω resistive load.
24
Solution: SWR = Vmax = ZO = ZR

Vmin ZR ZO

 SWR = 300 = 1:4

75

Example (3) Find the reflection coefficient resulting from mismatching a 50Ω load
and a 300 Ω tx line.

Solution:

 = Z0 - ZR = 300 – 50 = 250 = 0.714.

ZO + ZR 300 = 50 350

Example (4) If the SWR on the line is 4:1 determine the reflection coeficient and % of
incident power reflected back from the load and % of incident power absorbed by the
load.

Solution:  = S - 1

S + 1

 % of reflected power 2

a. hence  = 4 - 1 = 3 = 0.6

4 + 1 5

 = 0.6

b. % of reflected power = 2 x 100% = 0.62x100.

= 36 %

c. % of incident power absorbed by load

= 100% - % of reflected power.

= 100 –36 = 64

 % of incident power = 64%

WAVELENGTH AND VELOCITY

The wavelength  is the distance between any point and the next point along the line in
which the current or voltage is in the same phase.

IS I IR

ZL

25
 A B

 2

wavelength

From the figure points A and B are such two points and although current reaches a
maximum at A and B at the same instant current at A is really leading current at B by
2  radians. The phase shift along the line is  radians per Km. Hence distance

 = 2 Km.

The velocity of propagation V = frequency x wavelength

Thus V = 2 f

Or V= ω

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LINE

CONSTANT

Consider a short length of line ℓ km along. His will have a:

a. Resistance RL

b. Conductance GL

c. Inductance LL

d. capacitance CL

The above are primary line constants. The secondary line constants are

a. Characteristic impedance Zo

Propagation constant  L

Attenuation constant L

b. Phase constantL

26
The characteristic impendance Zo will be the same as that of a complete line. The
short length of line can be represented by a T network as shown

L Z½ Z½ ½ (R+jw)L ½ (R+jwL) ℓ

Zo Z2 Zo 1
(G + jwL) ℓ
If the length of the T section is very small, Z I will approximately equal to the series
impendance of the section i.e RL + jwLℓ and the shunt section equal to 1

GL+ wLℓ

DETERMINATION OF ZO

It has been shown that for a T section,

ZO = Z12 + Z1Z2………….(i)

Since in this case Z1 = Rℓ + jwLℓ and Z2 = 1

Gℓ + jwLℓ

Then Zo = (R+jwL)2ℓ2 + (R+jwL) ℓ

4 (G + jwc) ℓ

as ℓ 0 terms containing ℓ2 may be neglected.

 Zo = R+jwL

G+jwC

This can be expressed in the modulus and angle form That is from

Zo = R+jwL = R+jwL ½

G+jwc G+jwC

R2+w2L2 tan-1 wL/ R

G2+jw2c2 tan-1 wc/G

= R2 + w2L2 ½ (tan-1 wL/ R - tan –1 wc/G)

27
 G2 + w2c2

……(ii)
= R2 + w2L2 ½ (tan-1 wL/ R - tan –1 wc/G)

4 G2 + w2c2

From equation (ii) when ω is very small ; Zo =R/G and when ω is very large Zo =
L
/C . Since R/G in all cases is greater than L/C the variation of Zo with freq for a practical
line is as shown

Zo= R/G

L/C Freq

L
Variation of Zo with frequency i.e. at high freq Zo = /G and at low freq
R
ZO = /G.

DETERMINATION OF 

Z½ Z½

Z2

From the diagram it follows that el =1+Z1 + Z2 But as ℓ 0,

Z2 Zo

Z1 = (R+jwL ) ℓ and Z2 = 1

(G+jwC ) ℓ

Hence el = 1 + (R+jwL) ℓ(G+jwC ) ℓ + Zo (G+jwC) ℓ

= 1+ (R+jwL)(G+jwc) ℓ 2
+ R+jwL (G+jwc) ℓ
28
 2 G+jwc

…..(iii)
l
e = 1 + (R+jwL) (G+jwc) + (R+jwL)(G+jwc) ℓ 2

but by exporential series

el = 1 + l + 2l2 + 3l3 +…..to 

2! 3!

As ℓ tends to zero terms containing ℓ3 may be neglected

Hence el = 1 + l + 2l2 +………(iv).

2!

Comparing equations (iii)& (iv) it is seen that

l = (R + jwL)(G+jwc) ℓ

  = (R+jwL) (G+jwc)

since  =  + j

then  + j = (R + jwL) (G + jwc)….

From the equation the real part which is the attenuation constant and the imaginary
part can be also calculated. If  is obtained in modulus angle notation i.e.

= P θ

Then attenuation and phase constants are then

 = Pcos θ and  =PSin θ

Example 1 A line has the following primary constants

R=100/Km, G = 1.5 x 10-6s/km, L = 0.001H/Km and

C = 0.062 F/km.

Find ZO in modulus and angle form at 1000 Hz,

Solution:

R+jwL = 100 + j x 2 x 1000 x 0.001

= 100 + j 6.283

= 100.2 336’

29
G + jwc = 1.5 10-6 + j x 2 x 1000 x 0.062 x 10-6

= 1.5 x 10-6 + j 389.5 x 10-6

= 389.4 x 10-6 8948

Zo = R+ jwL = 100.2 3035’

G+jwc 389.4 x 100x10-6 8948’

Zo = 507 - 436’

Example 2. A sample of field cable has the following primary line constants R =
78/km. G = 62s/km, L = 1.75 mH/km, C = 0.0945F/km. Calculate at 1600 Hz
(Take ω = 10,000 rads/sec) the following

(i) Zo

(ii) Attenuation constant  in neppers and dBs/km

(iii) Phase constant  in radius and degrees/km

(iv) Wave length λ in km

(v) Velocity  in km/sec

(vi) Time for the wave to travel 100km along the

line in milliseconds.

Solution:

R+jwL = 78 + 10000 x 1.75 x 10-3

= 78 + j 17.5

= 79.94 12°39

G+jwc = 10-6 + j 10000 x 0.0945 x 10-6

= 62 x 10-6 + j 945 x 10-6

= 947 x 10-6 86° 15’

Zo = R + jwL ½ ( tan –1wL/ R - tan-1wc/R)

G + jwc

30
 = 79.94 12°39’

947 x 10-6 86°15’

Zo = 290 -36°48’

propagation constant  = (R+jwL) (G+jwc)

= 79.94 12°39’ x 947 x 10-6 86°15’

  = 0.275 49°27’

hence  = 0.179 +j 0.209 from  =  +j

then  = 0.179 neppers/km, in dBs

= 0.179 x 8.686 = 1.55479 dB

 dBs ≃ 1.556dB

(iii) Phase constant  = 0.209 rads/km

In degrees  = 0.209 x 57.29577 = 11.9748.

= 1158 / km

(iv) wavelength λ = 2 = 2 = 30 km

 0.209

(v) Velocity = w = 10000 = 47,840 km/sec

 0.209

(vi) time taken to travel 100 km t = 100 secs

47840

= 2.09mSeconds

EVALUATION OF  & 

From  = (R+jwl)(G+jwc) , coverting it to modulus angle form

= 4 (R2 + W2L2)(G2+w2c2) ½ ( tan-1 WL/R + tan-1Wc/G)

Hence  = 4 (R2 + w2L2) (G2 + w2c2)

From  =  + j,

Thus 2 + 2 = 4 (R2+w2L2) (G2+w2c2)

Squaring b.s.
31
2 + 2 = (R2+w2L2) (G2+w2L2) …..(i)

Again  + j = (R+jwL)(G+jwc), square b.s.

 ( + j)2 = (R+jwL)(G+jwL)

2 + 2j - 2 = RG + jwcR + jwLG –w2Lc

Equating real terms

2 - 2 = RG – w2LC ………….(ii)

adding eqns (i) and (ii)

22 = R2+w2L2) (G2 + w2L2) + (RG-W2L2)

= ½ (R2+w2L2)(G2+w2C2) + ( RG-W2LC)

again substracting (ii) from (i)

22 = (R2+w2L2) (G2 +W2C2) - (RG – W2LC)

 = ½ R2+W2L2) (G2+W2C2) - (RG-W2LC)

PRACTICAL FORMULAE FOR Zo AND  FOR UNLOADED

In practice certain approximations are made to obtain simplified expressions for Zo, 
and . The permissible approximations for unloaded underground cables at audio
frequencies are

a. WCG and WL  R

Characteristic impedance Zo

From Zo = R+jwL

G+jwc

When WC G and WLR,

Then Zo = R = R ½ (0 – 90)

Jwc wc

i.e. Zo ≏ R - 45

32
 WC

PROPAGATION CONSTANT

 = (R + jwL) (G+jwc)

when R WL and WCG

then  jwcR = wcR 45

= wcR (Cos 45 + jSin 45)

1
= 0.707 wcR + j 0.707 wcR but 0.707 = /2

= wcR + j wcR

2 2

but  =  + j

  = wcR neppers/km

and  = wcR radiaus/km

Example: An underground cable has the following constants R = 44 /km, G =

1s/km, L =0.001 H/km, C = 0.065F/km.

Find the approximate values of Zo, and  at 400 Hz and 1600 Hz.

Solution:

Zo = R - 45

WC

At 400 Hz Zo ≈ 44 - 45

2500 x 0.065 x 10-6

Zo ≈ 520 - 45

At 1600 Zo ≈ 44 - 45

10,000x0.065x10-6

≈ 260 -45

at 400  ≈ wcR = 

2
33
 ≈ 2500 x 0.065 x 10-6 x 44 = 0.0598

  = 0.0598 nepper/km

And  = 0.0598 radiaus/km.

At 1600 Hz  = = wcR = 10,000x0.065x10-6x44

2 2

 = 0.120 nepper/km

And  = 0.120 radiaus/km

LOADING OF LINES

(i) Conditions for minimum attenuation

The attenuation constant was shown to be given by

 = ½ (R2+w2L2)(G2+w2c2) + ( RG –w2LC )

This shows that  depends on the four primary constatnt and the frequency under
consideration.

(ii) Value of L for minimum attenuation

To determine the value of L for minimum attenuation i.e when L may be varied,
differentiate W.R.T. L and equate to zero.

½ 2W2L(G2 +W2C2 ) W2C

½
d = (R2+w2L2)(G2+w2c2)
dL ½

½ (R2+w2L2)(G2+w2c2) + ( RG –w2LC )

Equating to zero the equation becomes

 w2L (G2+w2c2 ) - w2c = 0.

R2+w2L2+(G2+w2c2)

hence the condition for minimum attenuation is that

34
 = w2L (G2+w2c2) - w2c = 0

(R2+w2L2)(G2+w2c2)

i.e. = L (G2+w2c2) =C

R2+w2L2)(G2+w2L2)

= L G2+w2c2 = C

(R2+w2L2)

L G2 + w2c2 = C R2 + w2L2

square b.s

L2 (G2 + w2c2) = C2 (R2 + w2L2)

L2G2 + L2w2c2 = C2R2+C2w2L2)

Taking the real part.

L2G2 = C2R2

L = CR

Thus if L is variable the attenuation will be minimum when L = CR henries/km

Value of C for minimum attenuation.

This can be found in a similar manner as L where only C is considered variable. The
value for minimum attenuation may be determined by differentiating  WRT to C and
equating to zero.

Hence C = LG farads/km

Value of R and G for minimum attenuation

If either R or G is the only variable no minimum is found by differentiating and

equating to zero. However when R = 0 and G = 0 the attenuation is zero.

Conditions for minimum distortion

35
If the received signal is not an exact replica of the transmitted signal, the signal is said
to be distorted. There are three main causes.These are 

a. Mis-match: The characteristic impedance varies with frequency and

the line is terminated in an impedance that does not vary in frequency in the
same manner.

b. Attenuation distortion: Thhe line attenuation varies with frequency

such that waves at different frequencies are attenuated by different amounts.

c. Phase distortion: The velocity of propagation varies with frequency

so that waves at different frequencies arrive at different times at the
termination.

DISTORTION DUE TO Zo VARYING WITH FREQUENCY

From Zo = R + jwL , this can be rewriten as

G + jwc

Zo = R (1 + jw L/R)

G (1+ jwc/G)

When LG = CR then L = C

R G

Or (1+jwL/R) = (1 + jwC/G)

Hence jwL = jwc

 Zo = R 0 L 0

G C

Hence Zo no longer depends on ω in such a case but is independent of freq and is

resistive. Then a line in which LG = CR can be correctly terminated to its
characteristic impedance at all frequencies thus eliminating distortion.

DISTORTION DUE TO VARYING WITH FREQ

From γ= (R + jwL)(G + jwc)

γ 2 = (R + jwL)(G + jwc)

γ 2 = RG + jwcR + jwLG + j2w2L2c2

γ 2 = RG + jw (CR + LG) - w2LC…..(i)

when LG = CR then

CR = LG = CRLG

36
 Hence (CR + LG) = 2 CRLG…….(iii)

Substuting (iii) in (i).

γ 2 = RG + 2jw RGLC - W2LC

from (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

then a2 = RG

 a = RG and b2 = - W2 LC b = jw LC

then γ2 = ( RG + jw LC ) 2
.

γ = RG + jw LC

but γ =  + j. hence when LG = CR

  = RG

and  = w LC

if  = RG, it will be independent of frequency and hence there will be no

distortion due to attenuation varying with frequency.

DISTORTION DUE TO VELOCITY VARYING WITH FREQUENCY

The velocity of propagation V = w/ rads/km. When L

/R = C/G then  = w LC

Thus V = W = I km/sec

W LC LC

W has disappered from the velocity equation and hence V is independent of frequency.

THE DISTORTIONLESS CONDITION

When LG = CR, the line is distortion less.  and V should be independent of

frequency and hence no attenuation distortion and velocity distortion.  should be
directly proportinal to frequency i.e. no phase distortion.

LOADING

Loading is the process of changing the cable characteristics so as to minimize

distortion. This is usually done by increasing inductance since capacitance depends on
the construction of line. There are two types:

Continous loading: This is achieved by winding a high permeability ferro magnetic

wire or tape around the conductor. This increases L and R. R increases due to
hysterisis and eddy current losses. This method is very expensive and is confined to
submarine and low frequency lines.

37
 Patch Loading: This involves continous loading of sections of a cable and separated
by sections of unloaded cable. This reduces cost and gives the same advantages as
continous loading cable

Lumped loading: If inductance coils are introduced into a line at uniform intervals
along the line, This is called lumped loading. Since the inductive reactance increases
with frequency, the line behaves as a low pass filter.

Loading characteristic

 dBs/Km Lumped loading

1.5 Unloaded

. Continous

loading

0.5

1 2 3 4 FREQUENCY

NETWORKS

1A lumped network is a network in which the primary line constant are consolidated
(lumped)

2Balanced network – Is a network in which both legs have identical primary line
constants.

3. symmetrical network -The electrical properties are unaffected by reversing the

input and output terminals.

RADIO FREQUENCY FEEDERS

A radio frequency feeder is tranmision line whose length is very short hence l is
negligible. It is considered lossless but is electrically long i.e. several wavelengths,
this makes the phase shift to be large (jL is large) hence γ = jL. However a feeder
has certain losses due to:

a. Copper loss – Series R and appears as heat

b. Dielectric loss – Due to shunt G and appears as heat

c. Radiation loss – Is proportional to 2 and increases with conductor

spacing.- Negligible if spacing /2

EQUALIZERS

These are four terminal networks placed in the line which have a characteristic (, or
both) opposite to that of the line. It has an effect similar to loading. There are two
types of equalizers.

a. Attenuation Equalizzer

38
 b. Phase equalizer

THE ZOBEL EQUALIZER (Attenuation type)

R=Ro

1 3

Z1 Z2 R=Ro

2 4

For the equalizer to be correctly terminated,

Z1 Z2 = R2 but R = Ro

 Z1 Z2 = Ro2.

To find whether the equalizer is correctly terminated then

Z12 = Z1 R + Z2 R but R = RO

Z1+R Z2 + R

 Z12 = Z1RO + Z 2 RO = Z1RO(Z2+RO)+Z2RO(Z1+RO)

Z1+RO Z2+RO (Z1+RO)(Z2+RO)

= Z1ROZ2 + Z1RO2 + Z2Z1RO +Z2RO2

Z1Z2 + Z1RO + Z2RO + RO2

= but Z1Z2 = Ro2

 RO3 +Z1RO2 + RO3 + Z2RO2

Factorise
2 2
R + Z1RO + Z2RO + R
O O

= Ro (RO2 + Z1RO + RO + Z2RO)

RO2 + Z1RO + Z2RO + RO2

39
 = RO (1)

 Z12 = RO

Hence if Z1Z2 = RO the line is correctly terminated by the equalizer.

ZOBEL EQUALIZER CHARACTERISTIC

Again from the circuit Vout = V in Z 34/Z 12

= Vin Z 34 / Ro

 Vin/Vout = Ro/Z34 = R = R + Z2

RZ2 Z2

R+Z2

Vin = 1+R = 1 + Z1

Vout Z2 R

Hence if the equalizer is to have an attenuation characteristics that decreases with

frequency then V in/V out must decrease with an increase in frequency.

Therefore Z1 must be inductive (R + jwl)

Z2 must be Capacitive (R - j/wc)

ASSYMETRICAL NETWORKS

This is a network with a different characteristic impedance on the two sides. When
dealing with such networks the term “Iterative impedance” and “image impedance”
are used in place of characteristic impedance.

R1 R2

Ro A Rs Ro B

ITERATIVE IMPEDANCE

This is defined for a four terminal network as the impedance measured at one pair of
terminals when the other pair of terminals is terminated with an impedance of the
same value.

1 3

600  600  1 3

400 2 4004
2 4

Reffering to the diagram, the impedance seen when looking into terminals 1 and
2 is 600  when terminals 3 and 4 are terminated to 600  . Similarly impedance
40
 seen on the other network is 400 at 3 and 4 when 1 and 2 are terminated to 400.
When the two iterative impedance are equal (as they are in the case of symmetrical
IMAGE IMPEDANCE

networks) the common value is the characteristic impedance of the network.

These are defined as two impedance’s which are such that when one of them is
connected across the appropriate pair of terminals of a network, the other is presented
at the other pair of the terminals.

300  600 300 1 3

600
2 4
2 4

From the diagram it can be seen that the impedance looking at terminals 1 and 2 is
300, when terminals 3 and 4 are terminated to 600. Similarly the impedance seen
at 3 and 4 is 600 when terminals 1 and 2 are terminated to 300. NB An
asymmetrical network is correctly terminated when it is terminated to its image
impedance. For symmetrical network image impedance is the same as iterative
impedance and the name characteristic impedance is used for both.

IMAGE TRANSFER CONSTANT

I1 I2

E1 E2 Zo2
Zo1 Zo2

When an asymmetrical section terminated in its image impedance is considered, the

ratio I1/I2 will be different from the ratio E1/E2. In such a case the term propagation
constant θ is considered. θ is defined as one half the logarithm to the base e of the
vector ratio of the volt amperes entering the network to the volt amperes leaving the
network when the network is terminated by its image impedance.

θ
Thus e = E 1 I1 θ = 1/2 log e E1I1
E2I2 E2I2

θ = log e E1I1
E2I2

The real part of θ is known as the image attenuation constant and the imaginary
part is known as the image phase constant.

INSERTION LOSS
41
When a network is introduced between the generator and the load, the resultant
reduction in power in the load is known as insertion loss of the network. This loss is
expressed in neppers or dBs. Consider the case of a generator of internal impedance
Zo connected to a load ZL.

I1

Zg=Zo ZL

Let the current flowing be II If a four terminal network having image impedances Z OI
and ZO2 and image/transfer constant θ be inserted between the load and the generator
i.e.
I1 I2

Zg Z02 ZL
Zo1 θ = A+j Zo2

Then the current to the load will be altered to some value say I2

Hence insertion loss = log e II/I2 neppers

Or insertion loss = 20 log 10 II/I2 dBs

Or power loss = 10 log PI/P2 dB

= ½ loge E1I1 = ½ Log e P1 neppers

E2I2 P2

Example 1: An Asymmetrical τ pad has series arms 100 and 200 respectively and
a shunt arm of 50. Calculate the image and iterative impedance of the pad.

Solution - image impedance

1 100 200 3

RoA 50  RoB

2 4

(i) The image impedance seen from terminals 1 and 2 is the characteristic
impedance. Therefore

Ro A = Zsc Zoc = Rsc Roc

Roc = 100 + 50 = 150

42
Rsc = 100 + 200x50 = 140

250

 Ro A = 140 x 140 = 145

(ii) Seen from terminals 3 and 4 again RoB = Roc Rsc

Roc = 200 + 50 = 250

Rsc = 200 + 100 x 50 = 233.3 

150

 Ro B = Rsc Roc = 233.3 x 250 = 241.52

RoB ≃ 242 

it erative impedance

100 200

1 3

R2 R1 50  R2 R1
2 4

The iterative impedance seen from terminals 2 is:

R = 100 + 50 (200 + R1) = 100+10,000+50R1

250 + R1 250 + R1

250 R1 + R12 = 25,000 + 100 R1 + 10,000 + 50 R1

 R12 + 100 R1 – 35,000 = 0

from x = - b b2 – 4ac

2a ,

= - 100  1002 - 4 x 1 x 35,000

= - 50  387.3

43
 2

= - 50 193.6

 R = - 244 or 144 

Since resistance cannot be –ve,

 R1 = 144

Seen from 3 and 4

R2 = 200 + (100 + R2) 50

150 + R2

R22 = 150 R2 = 30,000 + 200R2 + 5,000 + 50 R2

R22 – 100 R2 – 35,000 = 0

R2 = - b b2 – 4 ac = 100 10000+4x1x35000

2a 2

= 100 + 387.3 = 50  193.6

 R2 = 244

Example 2: a. Calculate the characteristic impedance of the network shown.

80 80

i/P 120 O/P

b. A source having an Emf of IV RMS and internal impedance equal to Zo is

connected across the input terminals. Calculate the open circuit voltage across the
output terminals and the lumped impedance measured across them

c. Hence or otherwise show that the insertion loss of the network between this
source and the load is independent of the impedance of the load.

d. If the impedance of the load is Zo will the insertion loss of the network vary
with the internal impedance of the source (C&G 1962)

44
 Solution: a. Zo = Zsc Zoc, Zoc = 80 + 120 = 200

Zsc = 80 + 80 x 120 = 80 + 120 x 80 = 128

120+80 200

Zo = 200 x 128 = 160

Zo = 160

( b) (i) 80 80

160 120

1v 2

Zoc = 160 + 80 + 120 = 360

The open circuit voltage across the O/P 1 and 2 is;

120 x 1 = 120 = 1

160+80+120 360 3

 o/c voltage = 1/3 V Rms

(ii)The impedance across the terminals is by definition the characteristic

impedance Zo = 160.

That is Zo = 80 + 120 (160+80) = 80 +28000

160+80+120 360

= 80 + 80 = 160

 Lumped impedance across the cct = Zo = 160.

(c) The output terminals may be represented by a source of 1/3 V Rms and the
internal impedance is 160. Reffering to the original circuit, it may be shown as:

Hence from the figure a load resistance R is connected directly

II to the source. The current is

I1 = 1V
Zo R
Zo + R
IV When a network is inserted the source is effectively

replaced by the output terminals with a source current of 1/3

amps.

45
 I2

R
I
/3v

The current I2 now flowing in the load is V/RT = 1/3 ÷ (Zo +R)

= I2 = 1/3(Zo + R)

 Insertion loss = 2o log II/I2

= 20 log 1 ÷ 1

Zo + R 3(Zo + R)

=20log 1 x 3 (Zo + R)

(Zo + R)

= 20 log 3

= 9.54 dB which is independent of R.

d. If the internal independence of the source be different from Zo say Zx;

see figure .

II I2
II 80 80
Zx
Zx
120 Zo
Zo
IV IV

From the diagram II = 1

Zo + Zx

After the insertion of the network, I2 = 120 x II

46
 120 + 80 + Zo

insertion loss = 2o log I1

I2

= 2o log 1 x 200 + Zo (Zo + Zx)

Zo + Zx 120

= Zo log (200 + Zo) which is independent of Zx.

120

THE HALF SECTION

Both symetrical T section and  sections can be split into

two half ssections

Z1/2 Z1/2

2Z2 2Z2

T section split into two half sections

Z1/2 Z1/2

2Z2 2Z2

 section.

For both sections the resulting half sections are

Z1/2 Z1/2

2Z2 2Z2

½ T section or ½  section

Hence the T and  sections are identical

ITERATIVE IMPEDANCE

Z1/2 Z1/2

47
 2Z2 Z’01 Zo2
Zo’2

The two iterative impedances of a half section may be found by calculating the input
impedance of Z’o1 when the section is terminated at the other pair of terminals in Z’o1.

 Zo’I = ZI + 2Z2 Z’OI

2 2Z2 + Z’O I

Z’o12 + ZoI 2Z2 = ZIZ2 + Z1Z’O I + 2Z2ZO I

ZO I2 = Z1Z2 + Z1ZoI equating to zero,

 ZOI2 - ZIZO’I – Z1Z2 = 0

ZO’I = ZI ± ZI2 + Z1Z2

2 4

2a

 ZO’I = ZI ± ZI2 + ZIZ2

4 16

Considering the half section (b)

Z’O2 = 2Z2 (Z1/2 + Z’o2)

2Z2 + Z1/2 + ZO’2

2ZO’2 Z2 + Z1 Z’o2 + Zo22 = Z1Z2 = 2Z2Z’O 2

2

2
Z’O2 + Z1Zo’2 = Z2Z1

Z’o2 2 + Z1Zo’2 - Z1Z2 =0

Zo’2 = -Z1 ± Z12 + 421Z2

2 4
48
Zo’2 = -Z1 ± Z1 + 21Z2

4 16

IMAGE IMPEDANCE

Z1/2 Z1/2

1 3 1 3
Zo’1 2Z2 Z0’2 Z’01 2Z2
Zo’2

2 (a) 4 2 (b) 4
From fig (a) Zo1 = Z1 + 2Z2 Zo2 (Zo connected 1:1 3&4)

2Z2 + Zo2

2Z2Zo1 + Zo2Zo1 = Z1Z2 + Z1Zo2 +2Z2Zo2

Z1Z2 = 2Z2Zo1 + Zo2Zo1 – Z1 Zo2 – 2Z2Zo2….(i)

Similarly if an impedance Zo1 is connected across 1 & 2.

Then Zo2 = 2Z2 (Z1/2 + Zo1)

2Z2 + Z1/2 +Zo1

2Z2 Zo2 + Z1Zo2 +Zo1Zo2 = Z1Z2 + 2Zo1Z2

 Z1Z2 =2Z22Z2 + Z1Zo2 + Zo1Zo2 – 2Zo1Z2…(ii)

Subtracting (ii) from(i)

i.e. Z1Z2 = 2Z2Zo1 + Zo1Zo2 – Z1 Zo2 – 2Z2Zo2…(i)

and Z1Z2 = -2Z2Zo1 + Zo1Zo2 + Z1Zo2 + 2Z2Zo2…(ii)

49
 2

(i) - (ii) 0 = 4Z2Zo1 – Z1Zo2 – 4Z2Zo2

 4Z2Zo1 – Z1Zo2 – 4Z2Zo2 = 0

4Z2Zo1 – Zo2 (Z1+ 4Z2) = 0

 Zo2 (Z1 + 4Z2) = 4Z2 Zo1

 Zo1 = Z1 + 4Z2 ………..(iii)

Zo2 4Z2

Adding (ii) to (i)

2Z1Z2 = 2Z01Zo2

 Z1Z2 = Zo1Zo2 OR Zo2 = Z1Z2

Zo1

Subtituting this value in eqn (iii)

 (Zo1)(Zo1) = Z1 + 4Z2  Zo12 = Z1 + 4Z2

Z1Z2 4Z2 Z1Z2 4Z2

÷ RHS by 4, ZO12 = Z1 + Z2

Z1Z2 4

Z2

 ZO12 = Z12 + Z1Z2

4

 Zo1 ± Z12 + Z1Z2 = ZoT Section

4

Similarly subtituting the value of Zo1 in eqns iii:

i.e Zo1= Z1Z2 then

Zo2

Z1Z2 = Z ¼ + Z2

Zo22 Z2

Zo22 = Z1Z22

Z ¼ + Z2

 ZO2 = Z1Z22 or Zo2 = Z1Z2 = Zo

50
 Z ¼ +Z2 Z ¼ 2 + Z1Z2

Hence the image impedance of two sides of a half section connecting the series
impedance Z1/2 and shunt impedance 2Z2 are thus seen to be Zo T and Zo. These
impedances are equal to the characteristic impedance at T section and  section having
a total series Impedance Z1 and total shunt impedance Z2 which are produced by
combining such two half sections.

Z 1/2 Z 1/2 Z 1/2

ZoT 2Z2 Zo ZoT 2Z2 2Z2 ZoT

(a)

Z 1/2 Z 1/2

Zo 2Z2 2Z2 Zo

Z 1/2 Z 1/2 Z 1/2 Z 1/2

ZoT 2Z2 ZoT 2Z2 Zo 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 Zo

TX LINES AT VHF AND ABOVE

From the theory already covered, it has been seen that a transmission line suffers from
radiation loss, resistance and leakage losses. An open wire can be used up to a max of
200 mHZ beyond which the losses became too large. These losses are due to

(i) radiation (ii) skin effect losses etc. A coaxial cable can practically be used upto
3GHZ but above that the dielectric losses between the outer and inner conductor are so
large and hence impractical. The solution to this problem is the use of wave guides or
fiber optic cables.

51