Laws of Friction.

When a normal force N exists between two surfaces,

and we try to slide them over each other by applying a tangential force, we
may increase the applied tangential force upto a limiting value fsm before
sliding initiates. The frictional force developed when surfaces in contact
are not sliding is the force of static friction (fs). It is always equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied force and can have a
value maximum up to fsm. The ratio of magnitude of the limiting static
friction (fsm) to the magnitude of the normal force is called the coefficient of
static friction (s) for the two surfaces involved. Now the force of static
friction can be defined as
fs = F   s N and fsm =  s N (4.2a)

The moment when the applied force exceeds the limiting static friction
sliding starts between the surfaces and frictional force drops at once to a
characteristic value, which always opposes the sliding. This characteristic
frictional force is known as kinetic friction (fk). The ratio of magnitude of
kinetic friction to the magnitude of the normal force is called the coefficient
of kinetic friction (k). The force of kinetic friction is defined as
fk =  k N (4.2b)

The frictional forces between any pair of surfaces are decided by the
respective coefficients of friction. The coefficients of frictions are
dimensionless constants. The coefficient of static fiction ( s) is generally
larger than the coefficient of kinetic friction (k) by an amount upto 30% of
the vale of k but never become smaller; at the most in both of them may
be equal. Therefore, the magnitude of kinetic friction is approximately 25%
fsm smaller than the limiting static friction (fsm) and sometimes kinetic friction
fk becomes equal to the limiting static friction but it can never exceed the
limiting static friction. The variation in magnitude of frictional force with
net applied tangential force is shown in the Fig. 4.2.
45° The limiting static friction and the kinetic friction between any pair of
fsm F solid surfaces follow these two empirical1 laws.
Fig. 4.2
i. Frictional forces are independent of measured area of contact.
ii. Both the limiting static friction and kinetic friction are proportional to
the normal force pressing the surfaces in contact.
The kinetic friction and limiting static friction are decided by the
respective friction coefficient, which in turn depends on multitudes of
factors. To understand of true nature of these forces we have to look into
the events happening at the surfaces in contact on microscopic basis.

Mechanism of production of friction. Frictional forces are result of

interactions between molecules and irregularities at the contacting
surfaces when they slide or have tendency of sliding. Surface conditions
such as dust contaminations, oxide layer formed due to chemical reactions
in presence of the atmosphere and random nature of all these factors
makes it impossible to determine the value of frictional forces within an
accuracy limit of less than 20 percent. These interactions are not very
strong but it is their enormous number that makes and the random nature
that limits the strength of the frictional forces. Lack of exact formulations
to compute the strength of these interactions individually and their
random nature together restrict us to put forward an exact theoretical
basis to explain the origin of frictional forces however a qualitative
description has been suggested in terms of surface adhesion, irregularity,
and electrostatic charging etc.

1
A law, which is not deduced from theoretical principles of the subject but is solely based on experimental facts, is known as empirical law.
 Surface adhesion. On atomic scale, a surface that appears smooth with
naked eyes appears to have a great degree of irregularities. Fig. 4.3a shows
highly magnified view of a surface, which appears highly smooth with
naked eyes. When such two surfaces come into contact, high spots
(asperities) of one of them makes contact with the asperities of the other as
shown in the Fig. 4.3b. Normal force between the surfaces further reduces
the separation causing plastic deformation of asperities. Finite thermal
conductivity of the materials limits the spread of the energy lost in plastic
deformations to very small local volumes surrounding these contact points
and temperatures of some of the contact points may increase up to melting
point. Therefore, many contact points actually become cold wielded. The
cold wielded joints and strong molecular attraction at reduced separation
(in the range of 3×10−10 m) together constitute the phenomena of surface
Fig. 4.3a. A section of a highly
polished surface magnified up to
adhesion.
thousands of times of atomic
Force of static friction arises from the fact that these bonds have to be
dimensions.
broken and intermolecular attraction has to be overcome before sliding
commences. On the other hand, when surfaces are sliding these bonds are
being broken and continually reformed since new chance contacts are made.
This contributes the force of kinetic friction.
Surface roughness. Some of the asperities of one surface may stand
adjacent to asperities of other surface and creates asperity interlocking.
One surface needs to be lifted against normal force or asperities must either
Fig. 4.3b be deformed during sliding. These mechanisms consume energy
respectively in work done against normal force and in elastic hysteresis and
contribute to frictional forces.
While sliding, asperities on material of hard surface dig groves on the
surface of softer material. It also contributes a little amount to the frictional
forces.
Electrostatic effect. Some materials get charged when rubbed against
another. Work done in separating electrically charged regions on sliding
Surface
contribute to kinetic friction.
asperity
interlocking The surface adhesion accounts for more than 80 percent of the total
Fig. 4.3c
frictional force. Contribution of surface roughness and electrostatic effects
is limited well below 20 percent of the total frictional force and it is a very
common misconception that friction is mainly due to surface roughness.
This is why on increasing smoothness friction first drops (from few newtons
to zero) and then increases to a very large value for extremely smooth
surfaces.
Laws of friction also find suitable justification based on above theory. Since
total area of actual contact points is negligible as compared to the measured
contact area and the phenomena of surface adhesion occurs at the points of
actual contacts, the friction force is independent of measured contact areas.
The formation of cold wielded joints, lifting against surface asperities,
deformation or rupturing of asperities all require the normal force and
hence friction should depend on some way on it. The proportional
dependency is valid only for moderate ranges of the normal force.