TECHNICAL REPORT ON

“ELECTRIC TRACTION”
TECHNICAL REPORT SUBMITTED AT

JNTUH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING HYDERABAD

(Autonomous)
A REPORT SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRED FOR THE AWARD OF
DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

REPORT BY
ADEPU KRISHNA (20015A0201)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Dr. G. TULASI RAM DAS, PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

AND

K. NARESH, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

JNTUH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING HYDERABAD

(AUTONOMOUS)
KUKATPALLY, HYDERABAD-500085, TELANGANA STATE
2022
i
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON

“ELECTRIC TRACTION”

Submitted by
ADEPU KRISHNA (20015A0201)

Under the supervision of

Dr. G. Tulasi Ram Das K. Naresh

Professor Emeritus Assistant Professor
Department of EEE Department of EEE
JNTUH University College of JNTUH University College of
Engineering Hyderabad Engineering Hyderabad

JNTUH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING HYDERABAD

(AUTONOMOUS)

KUKATPALLY, HYDERABAD – 500085, TELANGANA, INDIA

2021-22

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Technical Report titled “ELECTRIC TRACTION” was carried out by me.
We are grateful to Prof. Dr. A JAYA LAXMI, Principal and Head of the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Prof Dr. G. TULASI RAM DAS, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, K. NARESH,
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUH University College of
Engineering, Hyderabad for their guidance and timely advice in completion of our Technical Report.

WITH GRATITUDE
ADEPU KRISHNA (20015A0201)

iii
 ABSTRACT

The main objective of this presentation is to determine how an electric traction is important in our
daily life and advantages by using electric locomotive over fuel operated trains and to show how
much coal we can save by using electric traction.
In India we can see that medium and long distance transport 76% of people prefer railway transport.
So to provide traction facility to that large amount of people we need great traction system. For that
if we are depending on diesel, steam operated traction system it leads to pollution and to provide
tractive effort we need large amount of energy.
To provide the required energy we are depending fossil fuels which are decreasing day by day and
the efficiency obtained from those steam, fuel engines is less.
By all these considerations if we move to electric traction mainly efficiency and high acceleration
can be achieved and we can also control the pollution much more.

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 INDEX

CONTENTS Page. No

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRAIN 2
3. COMPONENTS OF AC LOCOMOTIVE 3
4.COMPONENTS AND THEIR WORKING 3-12
3.1 Catenary wire 3
3.2 Pantograph 4
3.3 Circuit breaker 5
3.4 Traction transformer 6
3.5 Electric loco Tap-changer 7
3.6 Rectifier and Inverter 8
3.7 Battery 9
3.8 Compressor 9
3.9 Motors 10-12

4. BRAKING 12-16
5. SPEED TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS 16-18
6. DIFFERENT CONTROL UNITS 18-21
7. TRACTON LIGHTING/AIR CONDITIONING 21-26
8. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES 26-27
9. CONCLUSION 27
10.REFERENCES 28

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LIST OF FIGURES Page. No
Fig 1.1 Electric Traction 1
Fig 2.1 First Electric Train 2
Fig 3.1 Components of AC locomotive 3
Fig 4.1 Catenary wire 3
Fig 4.2 Pantograph 4
Fig 4.3 Circuit Breaker 5

Fig 4.4 AC traction transformer 6

Fig 4.5 Rectifier & Inverter 8
Fig 4.6 Battery 9
Fig 4.7 Compressor 9
Fig 4.8 Dc series motor 10
Fig 4.9 Single phase motor 11
Fig 4.10 Ac motor 12
Fig 5.1 Rheostatic Braking 14
Fig 6.1 speed time curve 18
Fig 7.1 Speed control unit 19
Fig 8.1 Ditch lights 22
Fig 8.2 Strobe lights 23

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LIST OF FIGURES Page. No
Fig 1.1 Electric Traction 1
Fig 2.1 First Electric Train 2
Fig 3.1 Components of AC locomotive 3
Fig 4.1 Catenary wire 3
Fig 4.2 Pantograph 4
Fig 4.3 Circuit Breaker 5

Fig 4.4 AC traction transformer 6

Fig 4.5 Rectifier & Inverter 8

Fig 4.6 Battery 9

Fig 4.7 Compressor 9

Fig 4.8 Dc series motor 10
Fig 4.9 Single phase motor 11
Fig 4.10 Ac motor 12
Fig 5.1 Rheostatic Braking 14
Fig 6.1 speed time curve 18
Fig 7.1 Speed control unit 19
Fig 8.1 Ditch lights 22
Fig 8.2 Strobe lights 23

1
1. INTRODUCTION:

An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from an external source. Sources include
overhead lines third rail, or an on-board electricity storage device such as a battery, flywheel system, or fuel
cell. One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives themselves.
Electrification also results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs, and lower energy costs for electric
locomotive.

Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive
engines. Also the power for electric locomotives can come from clean and/or renewable sources,
including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power, and wind turbines. Electric
locomotives are also quiet compared to diesel locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise and less
mechanical noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means that electric locomotives are easier on track, reducing
track maintenance.

Power plant capacity is far greater than what any individual locomotive uses, so electric locomotives
can have a higher power output than diesel locomotives and they can produce even higher short-term surge
power for fast acceleration. Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops.
They are used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the US, Shinkansen in Japan and TGV
in France. Electric locomotives are also used on freight routes that have a consistently high traffic volume, or
in areas with advanced rail networks.

Electric locomotives benefit from the high efficiency of electric motors, often above 90%. Additional
efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows kinetic energy to be recovered during braking
to put some power back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor inverter drive systems that
provide for regenerative braking.

Fig 1.1 Electric train

1
2.HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION:

The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen, and
it was powered by galvanic cells (batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named Galvani,
exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-
drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each
axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour (6 kilometers per hour) for a
distance of one and a half miles (2.4 kilometres). It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in
September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was
destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their job security.
The first electric passenger train was presented by Werner von Siemens at Berlin in 1879. The locomotive
was driven by a 2.2 kW, series-wound motor, and the train, consisting of the locomotive and three cars,
reached a speed of 13 km/h. During four months, the train carried 90,000 passengers on a 300-meter-long
(984 feet) circular track. The electricity (150 V DC) was supplied through a third insulated rail between the
tracks. A contact roller was used to collect the electricity.
The first practical AC electric locomotive was designed by Charles Brown, then working for Oerlikon,
Zürich. In 1891, Brown had demonstrated long-distance power transmission, using three-phase AC, between
a hydro-electric plant at Lauffen am Neckar and Frankfurt am Main West, a distance of 280 km
The first electric train ran in India with the inauguration of services between Bombay VT and Kurla Harbour
on 3rd Feb 1925 on ex-GIP Railway system. The section was electrified on 1500 Volt DC. Electric traction
was subsequently extended on Central Railway upto Igatpuri on Northeast line and Pune on Southeast line
where heavy gradients on the Western Ghats compelled introduction of electric traction.

Fig 2.1 First Electric train

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3. COMPONENTS OF AN AC LOCOMOTIVE:

Fig 3.1 Schematic diagram of AC locomotive

4. COMPONENTS AND THEIR WORKING:

4.1 Catenary wire:

Fig 4.1 Catenary wire

A catenary wire, or a catenary system, is used in today’s modern running of electrically wired public
transportation such as in trains.

3
The purpose of implementing this system when constructing new train stations and lines or adding new
trains or trams to an existing line is to provide power. All systems are controlled from a feeder station
and are powered by and managed remotely. The system allows for easy, offsite regulation without
needing to physically power a vehicle from the localised source within the machine itself.

Unlike uninsulated wires attached to crosswires by clamps, a catenary system uses two wires – a
catenary wire and a contact wire. The catenary wire is hung between line structures at specific tension
and a contact wire is attached to it at a frequent interval by droppers. This second wire is straight,
parallel to the railway track and integral to the catenary system’s structure.
Catenary wire material is made up of tiny threads which feed electricity through to a vehicle from the
pantograph which presses against the underside of the lowest overhead wire- contact wire.

4.2 Pantograph:

Pantographs are a special devices mounted on electric trains to collect current from one or several contact
wires. They consist of a pantograph head, frame, base, and drive system, and their geometrical shape is
variable.
Pantographs in operation are entirely or partially charged to build electric contacts between electric
equipment and contact lines, and realize collection and transmission of electric energy required by electric
trains. Whether stationary consumption of an auxiliary facility and domestic installation or mobile
consumption of traction train, collection, and transmission of electric energy should be safe and reliable.

Fig 4.2 pantograph

4.3 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Circuit breakers are the main electrical components use for the protection of the track power circuit from
any type of faults. Circuit breakers used in the traction Power circuit are of various types. It depends on their
location. They are classified as High voltage breakers, 25kV circuit breakers, feeder circuit breaker etc. The
circuit breakers used in the traction power circuits are mostly of Air blast type and Vacuum type circuit
breakers. Air Blast Circuit Breakers are designed for the isolation of power to the traction motor in the event
of faults. Air Blast Circuit Breaker needs greater amount of maintenance due to inbuilt features like large
number of parts (approximately 735 parts), complex control block and extinguishing of arc during breaking
of current in the air. Due to this the life of main contact is too limited. This breaker also requires large
amount of dry air for each switching operation. Some of these disadvantages are overcome in vacuum type
circuit breakers. Vacuum Type circuit breaker is having simplified design and with lesser number of parts

4
(Approximately 260 parts). Also it has simplified control block and self containing interruption medium i.e.
vacuum.
Due to the above features the life of the main contacts is more as compared to Air blast circuit breaker.
Along with this, it also offers the advantages of reduced size, reduced weight and reduced maintenance cost
as compared to these for air blast circuit breakers. They are used for higher rating as compared to air blast
circuit breakers. The function of both the circuit breaker is same i.e. to interrupt the power in case of faults.
Earthing switch is provided to every traction power circuit. The earthing switch is to be closed whenever the
line maintenance is to be done on the system. For the operation and maintenance of the lines, the circuit
breakers are opened first and then the earthing switch is closed. If by any reason the charge still present on
the line will get discharge through ground with the help of earthing switch. It provides an additional
protection to the person who is performing maintenance on the line.

Fig 4.3 Circuit breaker

4.4 TRACTION TRANSFORMER

Thus, high power can be conducted over long distances on lighter and cheaper wires. Transformers in the
locomotives transform this power to a low voltage and high current for the motors. the transformers are
designed to power heavy freight loads over long distances of more than 1,000 km and on tracks with many
challenges - steep profiles, short curve radii, excessive wear, voltage drops in long sections, and extreme low
and high temperatures.

EMCO manufactures 1-phase and 3-phase Locomotive Transformers upto 7500 kVA, 25 KV class, which is
the largest rating being used in India. It's one of the few manufacturers who have been approved by Indian
Railways. Transformers are low weight and compact in size. EMCO manufactures Traction Power
Transformers for the Indian Railways upto 42 MVA, 220 kV class. These transformers are single phase double
limb wound construction and are specially designed and tested to withstand frequent .

Locomotive Transformer

Type: Locomotive Transformer

Rating: Upto 7500 kVA for 3-phase locomotives

Voltage: Upto 25 kV Class

5
 Fig. 4.4 AC Traction Transformer 25kva

"Electric Trains" redirects here. For the 1995 Squeeze single, see Electric Trains (song). An electric locomotive
is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or an on-board energy storage device
(such as a chemical battery or fuel cell).

Electrically propelled locomotives with on-board fuelled prime movers, such as diesel engines or gas turbines,
are classed as diesel-electric or gas turbine-electric locomotives because the electric generator/motor
combination only serves as a power transmission system. Electricity is used to eliminate smoke and take
advantage of the high efficiency of electric motors; however, the cost of railway electrification means that
usually only heavily used lines can be electrified. A transformer is a power converter that transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils.

A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and
thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling. If
a load is connected to the secondary winding, current will flow in this winding, and electrical energy will be
transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced
voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio of
the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary. Transformers range in size
from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing
hundreds of tons used in power stations, or to interconnect portions of power grids.

The principle behind the operation of a transformer, electromagnetic induction, was discovered independently
by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831. However, Faraday was the first to publish the results of his
experiments and thus receive credit for the discovery. The relationship between electromotive force (EMF)

6
or "voltage" and magnetic flux was formalized in an equation now referred to as "Faraday's law of induction":

4.5 ELECTRIC LOCO TAP-CHANGER

On the Indian Railways, a large number of electric locomotives are in operation today. Many different models
of these locos have been manufactured, many of which have now been scrapped. However, many of those
models which are still in service such as the WAM-4, WAP-4, WCAM-1, WCAM-2, WCAM-3, WCAG-1,
WAG-5, WAG-7, etc., use almost the same electrical setup (excepting the newer 3-phase AC locos such as
the WAP-5 and WAG-9)..These characteristics are obtained in electric locos on the Indian Railways by the
use of the series-wound DC traction motor which has an inherent characteristic of exerting a high torque during
its starting phase and a high speed during the running phase when the train resistance is minimal. However in
order to have proper speed control over these traction motors the voltage supplied to these motors must be
varied. Increasing the voltage to the motor increases its torque and speed and vice-versa. Before explaining
the working of the tap-changer provided in these locos, it will better if the broad outline of the power circuit
of these locos is understood properly.
These locos operate on a nominal voltage of 25,000V AC (single phase). The power is supplied from the
overhead equipment (OHE). This power is collected from the OHE by the pantograph which then passes it to
the main circuit breaker (DJ).. This reduces space requirement and also provides better magnetic coupling.
The first transformer is an autotransformer with around thirty one tapings which are brought out to the tap-
changer.
The output voltage of the autotransformer depends on the tap at which the selector of the tap-changer is resting.
Hence, by changing the position of the tap-changer selector the output voltage of the auto -transformer can be
varied conveniently. The Tap-Changer is provided on the high-tension side of the transformer which reduces
its size due to the lower current. Insulation is enhanced by filling the selector casing with oil. The output of
the autotransformer is fed to the second transformer which has a fixed ratio and steps down the voltage to a
fixed fraction.

The output of this second transformer is then fed to the rectifier blocks (RSI 1 and RST 2). These convert the
AC into DC. In turn the DC output is fed into a pair of chokes known as smoothing reactors (SL 1 and SL 2).
The smoothing reactors are provided to remove the AC ripple which is left over from the rectification cycle.
This smoothened DC is then handed over to the DC switchgear for the line and combination control of the
traction motors and then finally to the traction motors themselves. The subject of this article is the detailed
manner in which the above mentioned tap -changer works. Takes 25kV 50Hz single phase overhead power
and converts this to 1500V 50Hz.The Tap-Changer is provided on the high-tension side of the transformer
which reduces its size due to the lower current. Insulation is enhanced by filling the selector casing with oil.
The output of the autotransformer is fed to the second transformer which has a fixed ratio and steps down the
voltage to a fixed fraction.

7
4.6 Rectifier and inverter:

These rectifiers convert ac supplies to dc for feeding power to dc traction motors on locomotives. Two single-
phase full bridge diode rectifiers are used in the locomotive, each feeding to three traction motors connected
in parallel.

These inverters convert incoming DC power to AC power as well as control the amount of power (voltage and
frequency) being supplied in accordance with the train’s speed, etc. This small and lightweight inverter is an
ideal tool for those who work in a locomotive, it is designed to securely power a laptop as well as any other
device requiring 100VA or less. This inverter is designed to power a locomotive cab refrigerator or any other
AC powered device with a rated power of 300VA or less.

Fig. 4.5 Rectifier and inverter

4.7 Battery:
An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board
energy storage such as a battery. The electric locomotive uses a 110V, 70Ah battery bank. The batteries are
provided on locomotives for the purpose of Control circuit Protective relays, Indication lamps, Operation of
baby compressor.

Fig. 4.6 Battery

8
4.8 Compressor:

An air compressor converts power, most commonly from an electric motor, a diesel engine or a gasoline
engine, into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air that is then released in quick bursts or flows
to operate equipment. Air compressors work by forcing air into a container and pressurizing it. Then, the air
is forced through an opening in the tank, where pressure builds up. Think of it like an open balloon: the
compressed air can be used as energy as it's released. Robust in design with enhanced performance and low
maintenance. Efficient air filtration system ensures higher compressor efficiency. W type configuration,
three cylinder, two-stage, oil-splash lubricated, air-cooled and direct coupled Low noise level.

Fig. 4.7 Compressor

4.9 Motors:
DC series motor is popularly known as the high-speed dc running motor, hence the torque of the motor is
very high so it can bear heavy load. Traction requires high starting torque at the initial stage which will be
provided by the dc series motor because they need high starting torque to rotate the shaft. Speed control of the
dc series motor is also very easy. The torque developed in the motor is directly proportional to the armature
current, thus the power input required will be very less as an increase in the load torque. This makes the series
motor withstand the excess loads compared to the other motors.

DC series motor is independent of supply voltage because the change in flux is directly proportional to the
armature current as well as torque so the sudden changes in supply voltage will not affect the motor.

The commutation of the dc series motor is very good until twice the full load this decreases maintenance such
as the replacement of brushes. In parallel operation, the motors will share the load equally but in a series motor,
the slight difference in voltage will lead to a change in the load sharing of motors. The above things made DC
series motor used in the Electrical traction.

Fig. 4.8 Dc series motor

9
Therefore, some modifications are required for the satisfactory operation of the DC series motor on the AC
supply, (i.e. AC series motor) and they are as follows −
The magnetic circuit of the AC series motor must be laminated to reduce the eddy current losses. In order to
reduce the inductive reactance of the series field winding, the series field winding of the AC series motor must
be designed for few turns. The decrease in the number of turns in the series field winding reduces the load
torque, i.e., when series field winding turns decrease, its MMF decreases and hence the flux, which will
increase the speed of the motor and hence the torque developed will decrease. But, to maintain constant load
torque, it is necessary to increase the armature turns proportionally. Thus, in AC series motor, large number
of armature conductors are used. When the number of armature turns increase, the inductive reactance of the
armature would increase. Thus, in case of AC series motor, compensating windings are provided to neutralize
the effect of increased armature inductance. An AC series motor should be operating at low voltage because
the high voltage and low current supply would require large number of turns to produce desired magnetic flux.
An AC series motor should be operating at low frequency, because the inductive reactance of the field winding
is directly proportional to the frequency. Therefore, at low frequency, the inductive reactance of the field
winding decreases.

Fig. 4.9 single phase AC motor

Induction motor is equivalent to Transformer where secondary is short circuited and free to rotate. Three
phase primary winding is mounted on Stator distributed spatially at 120 degree. Resultant Field flux
produced in the air gap, due to time and space varying each phase flux, is of constant magnitude but rotating
at a synchronous speed of Ns. The value of Ns is given by 120(f/P ) where f is frequency and P is number of
poles. This flux induces emf and current in the rotor and causes it to rotate in the direction of stator flux and
tries to catch it up. The induction of voltage and current in the rotor circuit will depend upon the relative
motion between field and rotor. The induced emf, rotor reactance and frequency is having value of sE, sX
and sf where s is called slip frequency given by (Ns-Nr)*100/Ns
Speed of an Induction motor depends only on number of poles and frequency of applied power supply from
the formula ωs =120f/p or to some extent by reducing the supplied voltage which results in reduction of
generated torque resulting in reduction of speed. These speed control method could not find any universal
application for any purposeful gain. There is one example of using pole change from 4 to six pole for twin
speed vacuum exhauster used on WAG1 class of locomotive for quick creation of vacuum after application
of brakes.

With the development of advance power devices like thyrister, GTO and IGBT, frequency control became
feasible.

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Speed-torque characteristics of Induction motor derives the Tractive effort vs speed characteristics of Three
phase Induction Motor.

Fig. 4.10 AC motor

5. BRAKING

5.1 BREAKING OF LOCOMOTIVES & ITS TYPES

Breaking is the main function of the locomotives. It is used for holding the locomotives. Brakes were manually
applied and released by turning a large brake wheel located at one end of each car. The brake wheel pulled on
the car's brake rigging and clamped the brake shoes against the wheels. As considerable force was required to
overcome the friction in the brake rigging, the brakeman used a stout piece of wood called a "club" to assist
him in turning the brake wheel.

The job of a passenger train brakeman wasn't too difficult, as he was not exposed to the weather and could
conveniently move from car to car through the vestibules, which is where the brake wheel was (and still is, in
many cases) located. Also, passenger trains were not as heavy or lengthy as their freight counterparts, which
eased the task of operating the brakes.

There was nothing to grasp other than the brake wheel itself, and getting to the next car often required jumping.
Needless to say, a freight brakeman's job was extremely dangerous, and many were maimed or killed in falls
from moving trains.

5.2 Types of braking.

1. Regenerative braking

11
2. Dynamic braking

2.1 Ac dynamic braking

2.2 Dc dynamic braking

1. Regenerative braking

A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object down by converting
its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used immediately or stored until needed. This
contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction
in the brake linings and therefore wasted.

The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an electric generator. In
electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the supply system, whereas in battery electric and
hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also
be stored mechanically via pneumatics, hydraulics or the kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel. During braking,
the motor fields are connected across either the main traction generator (diesel-electric locomotive, hybrid
electric vehicle) or the supply (electric locomotive, electric vehicle) and the motor armatures are connected
across braking grids (rheostatic) or the supply (regenerative). The rolling wheels turn the motor armatures and
when the motor fields are excited, the motors act as generators. Regenerative braking has been in extensive
use on railways for many decades.

2. Dynamic braking

Dynamic braking is the use of the electric traction motors of a vehicle as generators when slowing. It is termed
rheostatic if the generated electrical power is dissipated as heat in brake grid resistors, and regenerative if the
power is returned to the supply line. Dynamic braking lowers the wear of friction-based braking components,
and additionally regeneration reduces energy consumption with dynamic braking, the electrical energy
generated by the motor during braking is directed to a resistor bank where it is dissipated as heat. A relatively
simple control unit is used to connect the braking resistors when braking is required and modulate the braking
current. Because the braking energy cannot be reused, dynamic braking is used in applications that do not
generate a lot of braking energy or do not have a means for storing braking energy or using it elsewhere.
During dynamic braking the traction motors which are now acting as generators are connected to the braking
grids (large resistors) which put a large load on the electrical circuit. When a generator circuit is loaded down
with resistance it causes the generators to slow their rotation. By varying the amount of excitation in the
traction motor fields and the amount of resistance imposed on the circuit by the resistor grids, the traction
motors can be slowed down to a virtual stop.

12
 Fig. 5.1 Rheostatic braking

2.1 Ac dynamic braking

Dynamic braking in an AC induction motor is also sometimes called DC injection braking. You can even get
such brakes to put on table saws and the like. What you are doing is feeding the AC motor with DC current,
which is at 0 Hz. Think of the 0 Hz DC current as shafts and the like.

2.2 Dc dynamic braking

DC voltage is applied to the AC motor windings thus forcing a DC current to flow. The resulting magnetic
field causes an opposing magnetic field to develop in the motor rotor similar to the action of an eddy-current
brake. There is a high braking torque at high speed and no torque at zero speed. The braking energy is
dissipated in the motor rotor. Since DC braking can be provided by simply altering the switching sequence of
the VFD, it is very inexpensive. It is used in applications requiring only a small amount of braking torque. It
is often used to reduce the motor speed prior to applying a friction brake.

5.3 AIR BRAKE

In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air pushes on a piston in a cylinder.
The piston is connected through mechanical linkage to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels, using the
resulting friction to slow the train. The mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly distributes
force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12 wheels.

The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive and is sent from car to car by a train line
made up of pipes beneath each car and hoses between cars. The principal problem with the straight air braking
system is that any separation between hoses and pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss of the
force applying the brakes.
An air brake is a conveyance braking system actuated by compressed air. Modern trains rely upon a fail-safe
air brake system that is based upon a design patented by George Westinghouse on March 5, 1872. The
13
Westinghouse Air Brake Company (WABCO) was subsequently organized to manufacture and sell
Westinghouse's invention. In various forms, it has been nearly universally adopted.

The Westinghouse system uses air pressure to charge air reservoirs (tanks) on each car. Full air pressure signals
each car to release the brakes. A reduction or loss of air pressure signals each car to apply its brakes, using the
compressed air in its reservoirs.

5.4 AUTO-EMERGENCY BRAKES (AEB)

Auto-Emergency Brakes (AEB) refers to a special system of braking employed on some ghat sections with
steep gradients, notably the Braganza ghat between Kulem and Castle Rock. With this system, the loco's speed
is limited to 30km/h and the brakes are automatically applied if the loco moves faster than that at any time on
the AEB section.

The AEB system is activated by means of a key obtained at the top of the descending grade (at Castle Rock
for the Braganza ghat). The key, which is specific to each loco, is engaged and turned in the loco, and then
removed and handed to the guard of the train (except for light locos where there is no guard). While the AEB
system is activated, the loco cannot run faster than 30km/h; the brakes are applied immediately if the speed
rises above that.
When the loco reaches the bottom of the down grade (Kulem at the foothills of the Braganza ghat), the AEB
system is deactivated and the key is handed over to the Station Master of the station at the bottom of the ghat
section (Kulem). From there onwards, the loco can proceed at normal permissible speeds. The AEB key
specific to a loco is handed over to the loco pilot by the Station Master of the station at the bottom (Kulem)
when the loco is above to ascend the ghat section. The AEB system depends on a speed sensor attached to the
axle generator (tachometer generator) of the locomotive.

5.4.1 Braking rheostat

Large air-cooled resistors, located in the roof of the unit, used to dissipate braking power generated by the
traction motors while braking. Also known as "dynamic brake"; in this application it is used exclusively at
high speeds, and combined with wheel brakes as the speed drops below a predetermined level. Overall they
can take up almost half of the braking energy in stopping a train set from full speed. There are two sets of
rheostats, one for each power pack. Their effective resistance can be modulated by the chopper to vary braking
effort.

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5.4.2 Pneumatic block and wheel brakes

The main compressor is used to fill the air tanks used for the braking system. These tanks are located
underneath the frame of the unit. There are two brake lines running the length of the train set, as is common
for the electro pneumatic brake system used on most passenger trains. The first, the "principal line", is
maintained at a pressure of 8 or 9 atmospheres at all times and is used to fill the auxiliary brake reservoirs on
each vehicle in the trainset. The second, the "general line", modulates the wheel braking level between full
application (3.5 atmospheres) and full release (5 atmospheres).

6.TYPES OF RAILWAY SERVICES:

Railways offer the following three types of the passenger traction services viz −
 City or Urban Service
 Suburban Service
 Main Line Service

City or Urban Railway Service

In the city or urban railway service, there are frequent stops, the distance between these stops being nearly 1
km or less. Therefore, in order to obtain moderately high schedule speed between the stations, it is essential
to have high acceleration and retardation.

Suburban Railway Service

In case suburban railway service, the average distance between the stops ranges from 3 km to 5 km. The
suburban railway services require rapid acceleration and retardation for frequent starting and stopping.

Main Line Railway Service

In the main line railway service, the operation is over long routes and stops are infrequent. In this types of
railway service, the operating speed is high and acceleration and retardation period are relatively less
important.
Note - The three types of traction services are also available on goods traffic side, which are −
 Main Line Freight Service

 Local or Pickup Freight Service

 Shunting Service

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Characteristics of Railway Services
The following table highlights the characteristics of various types of railway services −

Characteristic City or Urban Suburban Railway Main Line Railway Service

Railway Service Service

Acceleration 1.5 to 4.0 kmphps 1.5 to 4.0 kmphps 0.6 to 0.8 kmphps

Retardation 3 to 4 kmphps 3 to 4 kmphps 1.5 kmphps

Maximum speed 120 kmph 120 kmph 160 kmph

Distance between Up to 1 km 1 to 8 km More than 10 km

stations

Running & No free running No free running Free running period. Long coasting
coasting periods period. Small period. Long period. Relatively small acceleration
coasting period. coasting period. and braking periods.

SPEED TIME CURVE

A speed-time curve is defined as the graph plotted between the speed and time, by taking speed (in
km/hour) on the Y-axis and time (in seconds or minutes) on X-axis. The speed-time curve provides complete
information of the motion of the train.

Parts of a Speed-Time Curve

A typical speed-time curve (refer the figure) mainly consists of the following −

 Initial Acceleration
 Constant Speed Run or Free Run
 Coasting
 Retardation

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 Fig. 6.1 speed-time curve

Initial Acceleration
The acceleration consists of two parts −
1.Constant Acceleration or Acceleration during Notching Up – During the notching up period (0 to t0),
the current to the motor is maintained approximately constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually
increased by cutting out the starting resistance. Therefore, the tractive effort is constant and hence the
acceleration remains constant during this period.

2.Speed Curve Running or Acceleration on Speed Curve – During the speed curve running (𝑡1 to 𝑡2),
the voltage across the motor remains constant and the current starts decreasing with the increase in the speed
according to the characteristics of the motor and finally the current taken by the motor becomes constant.
During this period, though the train accelerates but the acceleration decreases with the increase in speed and
finally becomes zero at the speed at which the tractive effort developed by the motor becomes exactly equal
to the resistance to motion of the train.

Constant Speed Run or Free Run

At the end of speed curve running, i.e., at 𝑡2, the train attains the maximum speed. During this period, the train
runs with constant speed attained at the time instant t2 and constant power is drawn by the motor.
Coasting
At the end of constant speed run or free running period, i.e., at 𝑡3, the power supply is cut off and the train is
allowed to run under its own momentum. The speed of the train starts decreasing on account of resistance to
the motion of train. The rate of decrease of speed during the coasting period is termed as coasting retardation.
Retardation or Braking Period
At the end of coasting period, i.e., at 𝑡4, the brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During
this period, the speed decreases rapidly and finally reaches to zero.
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7. DIFFEREENT CONTROL UNITS:

A. Speed control unit

B. Power control unit

C. Traction control unit

D. Load control unit

E. Engine control unit

7.1 Speed control unit

For precise speed and load control, Woodward PGE and PG-EV locomotive governors have been proven in
locomotive service throughout the world. A variety of diesel fuel injection common rail systems, provide
reliable service. Electronic engine controls and rapid control system development tools interface with
locomotive control systems to optimize performance and efficiency. Actuation and valve technology can
precisely control exhaust gas flow, turbocharger boost technologies, from simple mechanical injection to the
latest in low-emissions, high-pressure pressures, air flows, and other processes to improve power output,
efficiency, and emissions. After treatment control units provide automatic regeneration of particulate filters
and dosing control.

Fig. 7.1 Speed control unit

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7.2 power control unit

7.2.1 Auxiliary power supply unit

A static converter that generates head-end electrical power for the rest of the train. HEP ("hotel power") is
380V 50Hz, while interior lighting is supplied with 72V DC. Output of the converter also runs some equipment
in the power car: the transformer oil pumps and cooling fans, the brake rheostat cooling fans, the thyristor
cooling fans, etc.

7.2.2 Automatic coupler

The Scharfenberg-type coupler makes pneumatic and electrical connections without external intervention. It
allows to couple two TGV trainsets nose to nose, either for normal multiple unit operation (even at high speeds)
or for towing. When not in use, the coupler is concealed by two fiberglass clamshell doors that form the nose
of the unit. These can open away to each side to reveal the coupler.

7.2.3 Impact absorption block

It is an impact shield to defend the cab cubicle. The deformation of this thick aluminum honeycomb block
absorbs a part of the collision energy if a large object is struck.

7.3 Traction control unit

Train Control Systems are fundamental to the safety and efficiency of the modern railway system. Hima-Sella,
through our expert engineers and staff, is working to provide the very latest thinking in the field. Using
emerging technologies and the best product partners we install systems that deliver safety with a flexible
approach.

7.4.1 Runback Protection

We designed to prevent a train from rolling backwards, having reached its destination. The design meets the
requirements of Safety Integrity Level 2 (SIL2) in accordance with the IEC 61508 standard for functional
safety and includes a data logging facility to record when faults and runback conditions occur. Runback has
been fitted to underground trains across London.

7.4 Engine control unit

The TECU is a next generation locomotive control system designed to communicate with new electronic
locomotives. The TECU can manage hundreds of digital and analog inputs and outputs for a locomotive and
has features such as traction control and event recording. The TECU's modular architecture allows it to be
easily modified to suit a variety of different locomotives, from cutting edge multi-engine locomotives, to
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conventional diesel-electric locomotives, to street cars. TMV Control Systems has many years of locomotive
control system design experience and is ideally suited to design this next generation control system.

7.5 Control Elements

 Uses the CAN data bus to control engine RPM and receive engine data for control, display and
diagnostics.
 Control the power contactors and main generator excitation for Power and DB operation.
 Wheel slip/slide control in Power and DB based on axle speed sensors. Creep control for maximum
adhesion.
 Engine Stop/Start control, with starter thermal overload protection. (AESS)
 Cooling Fan control.
 Main generator voltage and current limits for protection.
 Main generator field control, with over current trip.
 Air Compressor control.
 Transition control.
 Low water input.
 Main Reservoir blow-down (optional)
 Built-in-Tests: Locomotive self-load, Contactor test, Relay test, Fan test, etc.
 Traction Motor current sensing, limiting and protection.

7.6 Mechanical transmission:

The output shaft of the motor is connected to the axle gearbox by a tripod transmission, using sliding cardan
(universal-joint) shafts. This allows a full decoupling of the motor and wheel dynamics; a transverse
displacement of 120 mm (5 inches) is admissible. The final drive is a gear train that rides on the axle itself and
transfers power to the wheels. This final drive assembly is restrained from rotating with the axle by a reaction
linkage.

8. TRACTON LIGHTING/AIR CONDITIONING:

Trains include a variety of types of lights, for safety, illumination and communicating train status. Axel
driven generators are used to store batteries that power light, fans and electrical fittings. For powering AC
equipment , an inverter was used to convert the DC output of a set of batteries to 415V.Older coaches use
banks of 24V batteries while 110V in newer coaches. In Many air conditioned coaches,a Mid-on
generation(MOG) is used.

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Classification lights
Also known as marker lights, these are used to provide information on the type and status of a train.
Traditionally, classification lights existed in three colors: white lights indicated an "extra" train (a train that
is not scheduled but added due to demand), green lights were displayed on a regularly scheduled train that
was being followed by additional sections (extra train(s)), and red lights indicated the rear of a train.
In the 21st century, the first two types of classification lights are seldom used, but several railroad companies
continue the use of red marker lights to indicate the rear of a train. This is particularly used when
locomotives are pushing a train from the rear - seeing red marker lights indicates that the train is moving
away from the viewer, not towards them.
Emergency lights
These lights activate when a train makes an emergency brake application. Emergency lights are usually
red, and often flash.
Ditch lights

Fig. 8.1 Ditch lights

Ditch lights, also known as auxiliary lights or crossing lights, are additional lights at the front and
sometimes rear of a locomotive or cab car that are positioned closer to the track than normal headlights.
They are used to make trains easier to spot, for safety. Many ditch lights are also designed to flash when a
train sounds its horn, for additional visibility. Early versions of ditch lights were introduced on railroads in
North America in the 1960s by Canadian National Railway, and by the 1970s Transport Canada made them
a requirement on locomotives. The United States followed suit with a December 31, 1997, deadline for all
"equipment operating over public grade crossings at speeds greater than 20 mph" to be equipped with ditch
lights. Limited exceptions exist for historical equipment. Regulations set out the position of ditch lights,
including how far apart they are from each other and their height above the rails. The predecessor of the
ditch lights was the Mars Light. They are used to make trains easier to spot, for safety.
Strobe lights
On remote control locomotives, a strobe light is often used to indicate the locomotive is not occupied.
Strobe lights are also used on normal locomotives as a means of making the train more visible.

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 Fig. 8.2 Strobe Lights

Door indicator lights

On passenger railroad cars, there are often indicator lights above each external door that illuminate when the
door is open. These allow the train crew to ensure a train does not leave a station until all doors are closed. In
newer trains, they also flash when the door closes.
Train lighting is one of the important passenger amenities which influence the image of Railways. Although
the first train ran on 16th April 1853, train lighting system came to Indian Railway in 1930 through axle
driven Dynamo pioneered by Ms. J. Stones & co. Power supply system for trains is designed and developed
to suit the requirement of AC and non-AC working in the trains. Few factors considered for development of
such systems are as under.

 Coach load
 Speed of the train
 Weight of the equipment
 Available technology for reliable equipment etc
 Self-generating
 Mid-on-generation
 End-on-generation
 Head-on-generation

Self-generating:

 Axle driven system working on 24V DC

 Axle driven system working on 110V DC

Mid-on-generation:

 MOG with 415V, 3 phase generation, and 110V AC utilization

End-on-generation:

 EOG with 415V,3 phase generation, and 110V AC utilization

 EOG with 750V, 3 phase generation and 415 & 110V AC utilization.

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Head-on-generation(HOG):

Power feeding from OHE for lighting loads (EMUS):

 750V DC –light & fan works on 110V DC

 1500V DC – light & fan works on 110 VAC
 25 KV—light & fan works on 141 VAC

Power feeding from HOG for Hotel Loads (Loco):

 Hotel load power is taken from Electric/Diesel Locomotive.

 Hotel load power supply taken directly from OHE through a separate pantograph mounted on the
power car.

Self Generation system:

The power supply arrangement of SG coach has underslung alternator, which is driven by the running axles
of the coach with the belt of the coach. The voltage of the alternator which varies with the speed of the train
is regulated with the help of RRU and converted to 110 v DC and is used for charging the battery. The
electrical load of the coach is supplied through the 110 v DC battery at the halt.

Advantages:

 The system is independent of the mode of traction.

 As each coach has a battery, so no additional source is required.
 The problem/defect in any particular coach does not affect the others.
 The system can be designed to suit its specific requirement.
 It gives better flexibility in rake formation majority of SG type coach is more.

Disadvantages:

 The electrical load of the coach is restricted by the limitation of the capacity of generation i.e.
2*25 kw per coach at present.
 The power is not generated during standing or slow movement of the train, therefore bulky
batteries are provided.
 There is no standby source for alternator and batteries, so system became poor reliability.
 The system requires the extensive maintenance of alternator, batteries, belts, tensioning device
etc.
 The system has the very poor efficiency of 57%for power it receives from the locomotive.

EOG (End-on-generation):

The EOG system is used in Rajdhani and Shatabdi type trains which have only AC coaches and have large
power requirement. Each EOG train has 2 power cars with 2*250kw alternator each. The power is fed by
any two DA sets through IVC. The power is supplied at 3 phase, 750V, which is stepped down in an
individual coach to 3 phase,415v for supplying various loads like RMPU, WRA etc. The 110v AC supply for
lights and fans is obtained by further stepping down the 415v supply. A 24v battery is used for supplying a
few emergency lights provided in the coach.

Advantages:

 With the development of high capacity power cars, 2*336 kw power is available from each power
car.
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  The system does not require the use of bulky batteries and alternators in individual coaches.
 The system has higher reliability due to standby DA sets and reduced number of equipment.
 Due to an elimination of heavy equipment, the dead weight of the coach is reduced.
 The system is independent of the type of traction i.e. diesel or electric locomotive.
 The system has better energy efficiency as compared to the self-generating system.
 Low maintenance.

Disadvantages:

 The cost of energy is high due to fuel cost.

 Even with 750V, 3 phase, there is still an effect of voltage drop at the farthest end of the train.
 Noise and smoke pollution are generated from power cars.
 The passenger carrying capacity of the train is reduced due to provision of power car

MOG (Mid-on-generation):

The MOG system was adopted by IR for slow-moving passenger trains which have the very low generation
to non-generation ratio. These trains had one power car in the middle of the train, which fed power supply to
the coaches at either side of power car. The power car coach had two DA set of 30 KVA each out of which
one was used as standby. The power car coach also had one 3 phase, 30 KVA step down transformer of
415/110 v. The 110 v AC supplied to the coaches through couplers.The system was discontinued after the
introduction of EMU and DMU service.

Advantages:

The system was most suitable for slow-moving branch line passenger trains. Light and fan of all the coaches
had centralized control in power car coach. Fan and lights were working on AC supply. There was no need
for standby batteries in the coaches.

Disadvantages:

 There were noise and smoke; pollution due to DA set working.

 The operator was required to power car coach.
 Some valuable passenger spaces were occupied by DA sets.

HOG (Head-on-generation):

The HOG scheme is widely used power supply by Railways world over. The power supply system for the
coaches is either received from the locomotive or it is directly tapped from traction overhead lines into the
power cars. The system is considered to provide cost-effective, reliable and energy efficient supply system
for coaches.

The HOG scheme can be considered with following two options. Hotel load power is taken from
Electric/Diesel Locomotive. Hotel load power supply taken directly from OHE through a separate
pantograph mounted on the power car. The second system is not considered technically feasible for Indian
Railways due to some limitations. HOG scheme where power is taken from Electric/Diesel Locomotive:

The power supply is received directly from locomotive through couplers. The supply from locomotive can
be a 750v, 3 phase supply or a single phase supply received from loco is regulated and stepped down in
individual AC coaches, with the help of converters to provide a regulated 415 v, 3 phase supply. Similarly,
in AC coaches, power supply from locomotive can be stepped down and regulated to provide single phase,
110 v AC supplies. One power car with standby DA sets is also used in the train, which can supply power to
the coaches in case of failure of a locomotive.

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Advantage:

 Cheaper cost of power as compared to EOG & SG system.

 Pollution is less as compared to EOG system.
 One power car may be replaced by trailer coach, revenue increased.
 Escorting staff will be reduced to one power car.
 The net dead weight of the train is reduced as compared to SG system.
 HOG type AC coaches can be used in EOG type trains.
 This system is compatible with diesel and electric traction.
 Maintenance cost of HOG system coaches is lower as compared to SG coaches

Disadvantages:

While working with electric locomotive there are power interruptions for short durations to various electrical
equipment except for lights while through the neutral section. One power car is still required for supplying
power during failure of OHE supply or locomotive etc.HOG type coaches require rake integrity of coaches
similar to EOG system.

9.ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES:

ADVANTAGES:

The major advantages of electric traction system over other types of traction (such as steam traction) are
described below −
 Cleanliness − Electric traction is free from smoke and flue gases, etc. Therefore, it is most
suitable type of traction system to be used for underground and tubular railways.
 Less starting time − Electric locomotives can be stating without any loss of time.
 Less maintenance cost & time − The maintenance cost of an electric traction system is about
half of that of steam traction system and also the time required for maintenance is quite low.
 High starting torque − The motor used in electric traction is DC series motor or AC series
motor which has a very high starting torque. Hence, the electric locomotives has very high
acceleration about 1.5 to 2.5 kmphps.
 High traffic handling capacity − As the electric locomotives have high acceleration which
makes the traffic handling capacity almost double of that of the steam locomotive.
 Require lesser terminal space − As the electric traction has high traffic handling capacity.
Therefore, it needs lesser terminal space because quicker disposal of passengers to destination
is there and hence gathering is reduced.
 Regenerative braking is possible − In case of electric traction system regenerative braking can
be applied which feeds back about 80% of electrical energy to the supply. Also, due the presence
of electric braking, there is less requirement of mechanical braking. Thus, maintenance cost of
brake shoes, wheel types and rails get reduced on account of less wear and tear.
 Center of gravity − Height of electric locomotive is quite less as compared to steam
locomotive which results in lowering of center of gravity. This makes the electric locomotive
more suitable for taking curvy turns at higher speeds safely.
 Saving in high grade coal − The use of electric locomotive saves high grade coal which is
quite deficient in India. Electrical energy required for running electric locomotives is taken
either from hydro-electric power station or thermal power station which uses low grade coal for
electricity generation.
 Absence of unbalance Forces − Due to absence of unbalanced forces produced by the
reciprocating masses, the coefficient of adhesion is more for electric traction. This reduces the
weight to power ratio of locomotive.
 Electric traction has high power-to-weight to ratio.

25
  The electrification of railway encourages rural electrification.
Disadvantages of Electric Traction
In spite of the fact that the electric traction has so many advantages, it suffers from many disadvantages which
are given below −
 Electric traction has high capital cost due to overhead equipment, so electric traction becomes
uneconomical unless heavy traffic is to be handled.
 In electric traction, a power failure for few minutes causes distortion in traffic.
 Electric traction can be used only at the places which are electrified.
 Electric traction is tied to electric routes.
 Power lines for electric traction causes disturbance in neighboring communication lines.
 In electric traction system, provision of negative booster is necessary, otherwise it results in
corrosion of underground pipes.

9. CONCLUSION:

With the use electric traction we reduce the use of non-renewable resources, pollution and cleanliness can be
achieved. Though it as high initial cost for constructing electric lines but the efficiency is high that makes a
difference and we can get a longer run benefits. Mainly when coming to cities we achieve faster acceleration
and control can be done very fastly. Due to this reason we can see a lot metro trains and mmts. Developing
electric lines for the heavily-used lines can be beneficial more if we consider the initial cost as a major
aspect.

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REFERENCES:
• https://railsystem.net/electric-traction-systems/
• https://www.skkatariaandsons.com/view_book.aspx?productid=8373
• https://www.fer.unizg.hr/en/course/etps
• https://www.myelectrical2015.com/2021/03/speed-time-curve-of-train.html

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