Internship Report On

BASICS OF ELECTRC VEHICLES ON 4 WHEELERS

A Report Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the credits to
INTERNSHIP PROGRAM
In
IV YEAR-II SEM
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By
ALLADI SRI SAI TEJA
20JR1A0303

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

KKR & KSR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES
(Affiliated to JNTU KAKINADA||Accredited “A” grade by NAAC||
Accredited by NBA||Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Vinjanampadu Village, Vatticherukuru Mandal, Guntur,
Andhra Pradesh, Pin-522017, Ph: 0863-2286666, 2286777.
 CERTIFICATE OF INTERNSHIP

This is to certify that this internship report entitled “BASICS OF ELECTRC VEHICLES ON 4
WHEELERS” submitted by A. SRI SAI TEJA (20JR1A0303) to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Kakinada, through KKR & KSR Institute of Technology and Sciences (Autonomous) for the
award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering is a bonafide record of
internship work carried out by him during the year 2023-2024.

V. SRI KUMAR
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
 Preface

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for
propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from
extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery or by
converting fuel to electricity using a generator or fuel cells. EVs
include road and rail vehicles, electric boats and underwater vessels, electric
aircraft and electric spacecraft. Early electric vehicles first came into existence in the
late 19th century, when the Second Industrial Revolution brought
forth electrification. Using electricity was among the preferred methods for motor
vehicle propulsion as it provides a level of quietness, comfort and ease of operation
that could not be achieved by the gasoline engine cars of the time, but range
anxiety due to the limited energy storage offered by contemporary battery
technologies hindered any mass adoption of private electric vehicles throughout the
20th century. Internal combustion engines (both gasoline and diesel engines) were
the dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, but
electricity-powered locomotion remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such
as overhead line-powered mass transit vehicles like electric
trains, trams, monorails and trolley buses, as well as various small, low-speed, short-
range battery-powered personal vehicles such as mobility scooters.
Hybrid electric vehicles, where electric motors are used as a supplementary
propulsion to internal combustion engines, became more widespread in the late
1990s. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, where electric motors can be used as the
predominant propulsion rather than a supplement, did not see any mass
production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical
options for the consumer market until the 2010sProgress in batteries, electric motors
and power electronics have made electric cars more feasible than during the 20th
century. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon dioxide and other
pollutants, and to reduce use of fossil fuels, government incentives are available in
many areas to promote the adoption of electric cars and trucks.
 CONTENTS

SL.NO HEADINGS
1. ELECTRICITY
1. Introduction of Electricity
2. Basics of Electricity
3. Terms of Electricity

2. ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1. Introduction to EV'S
2. Types of Batteries
3. Battery Management System
4. Electrical Vehicle Charging Technology
5. Working Principle of Battery Charging
6. Types of EV Charging Technology
7. Electric Vehicle Power Train Assembly
8. Types of Auto-Mobile as per Body Shape
9. Engine and Engine Terms
10. Main Engine Components & their Functions
11. Evolution of Petrol Management System
12. Purpose & Function of an Exhaust System
13. Components of Exhaust System
14. Introduction to Tools
15. Basics of Multi meter

3. CONCLUSION
1. ELECTRICITY
1.1 Introduction of Electricity
Electricity is a form of Energy called "Electrical Energy" it is an unseen force which can't be seen,
heard, Smelt, Felt
what is Energy?
* Energy means the ability to do a work
* Energy has some properties which are:
⚫ Energy is always conserved.
⚫ Energy Cannot be created or destroyed.
⚫ Energy Can be transferred from one object to another.
⚫ Energy can be transferred from one form to another.
Basics of Electricity.
→ Structure of an Atom :
To understand about Electricity one needs to understand the electrical Theory & the atoms
* Everything in the world which occupies Space whether Solid, liquid, or gas is made up of atoms
These atoms are the smallest particles of an Element.
* Each atom Contains:
- Electrons (negatively charged)
- protons (positively charged)
- Neutrons (no charges)
→Structure of an Atom - Electrical charges.
* Opposite Electrical charges always attract each other-so these particles with opposite charge will
tend to move for toward, each other.
* Like electrical charges always repel so Particles with like charges will move away from each
other.
→structure of an Atom-positive & Negative ions
* An atom is called balanced atom if it has equal no. of electrons and protons.
* If on atom gains an electron, it becomes negative ion and if a Positive ion. atom loses electron it
become positive ions
* Positive ions attract electron from neighboring atoms to become balanced, this process is called
the electron flow.
•Structure of an Atom & Free Electrons
* The no-of Electrons in the outer shell as the Valence Shell determines the atom's ability to
conduct electricity.
* In an atoms the electrons of the inner rings which are closer to the core (nucleus) and strongly
attracted to the protons one called Bound Electrons"
* Electrons in the outermost rings are loosely attracted by the protons which are called free
Electrons"
* Structure of an Atom- Flaw of Electrons

* Electrons can be freed by external Forces, Such as friction, heal, pressure, magnetic action etc.
These freed electrons move to another atom, these stream of flow of Electrons is Called the
Electricity.
Current Flow Theories
→Electron Theory
* current flows from Negative to positive
→Conventional Theory
* Current flows from positive to Negative

1.2 Basics of Electricity

Basics of Electricity:
Structure of Atom:-
To understand about the Electricity, one needs to understand the Electrical theory & the atoms:-
→ Everything in the world which occupies space whether solid, liquid, gas is made up of atoms
→ These atoms are the smallest particles of an Elements.
Each atom contains:-
Electron.
neutron
- Electrons (-ve charge)
-protons (+ve charge)
- neutrons (No charge)
Structure of Atom -electrical charges.
→opposite electrical charges always attract each other So these particles which oppsite Charger
will tend to move toward each other.
→Like electrical charges always repel so particles with like charges will move Particles away
from each other.

Structure of atom +ve &-ve ions:-

*An atom is called balanced atom if it has equal no of electrons & protons
*If an atom gains an election, it becomes -ve ion & if a atom loses electron it becomes +ve
→ +ve ions attract electrons from neighbouring a tom

1.3 Types of Electricity

Terms of Electricity
→ Current
* It is known as the rate of electron flow.
* it is measured in amperes
* Current will increase as pressure as voltage is Increased-provided that circuit resistance remains
constant
* Amperes is also known as intensity of consent.
* Symbol 15 A for current intensity is I & for amperes
Measurement
* An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeter are placed in series to count the
electrons passing through it.
voltage
* it can be described as an electrical pressure
*The amount of pressure applied to a circuit is stated in the no. of volts
* another term for voltage is electromotive force.
* Symbol fin electromotive force is E. Symbol for volts is V
Measurement
* volt meter measures the amount of electrical Pressure difference between two points being
measured.

2. ELECTRIC VEHICLES

2.1 Introduction to EV'S

Main components of Electric vehicles

* Traction battery pack

* DC-C Converter.
* Electric motor
* Power inverter.
* Charge port
* onboard charger
* Controller
* Auxiliary batteries.
*Thermal System (coding)
*Transmission

Traction battery pack

* A traction battery pack is also known as an Electric vehicle battery (GVB). It powers the
electric, motors of an electric vehicle. The battery acts of Electrical storage system. it Stores
energy in the form of DC Current. The life time of a traction battery pack is estimated 2,00,000
miles..

2) DC-DC Converter
* The traction battery pack delivers a constant Voltage: Bat different components of the vehicle
have different requirements. The DC-DC Convert .. distributes the output power that is coming
from the battery to a required level. it also Provides the voltage required to change the auxiliary
battery.

3) Electric motor
* The electric traction motor is the main Component of an electric vehicle. The motor converts
electrical energy into Kinetic energy The energy rotates the wheels. An electric met is the main
component that differentiates an electric car from a conventional car. Am important feature of an
electric motor is the regenerative braking mechanism.
4. Power inventor
* it converts DC power from the batteries to Ac power. it also converts the Ac current generated
during regenerative braking into a Dc current. This is further used to recharge the batteries.

5. charge Port
* The charge port connects the electric vehicle to an external supply. it charges the battery pack.
The charge part is sometimes located in the front or rear part of the vehicle.

6. on board charger
* on board charger is used to convert the Ac supply

2.2 Types of Batteries

Basically, batteries are divided into 2 types:

● Batteries that are non-rechargeable (primary batteries)
● Batteries that are rechargeable (secondary batteries)
Non-rechargeable Battery: Basically, they are known as main batteries and they can only be
used once. It is difficult to recharge these batteries and use them again. Let's see about the daily,
everyday life of the main batteries we see

1. Alkaline Batteries
 The chemical composition of zinc (Zn) and manganese dioxide (MnO2) is practically
constructed, since the electrolyte contained in it is potassium hydroxide, which is purely an
alkaline material. The battery is considered an alkaline battery with a power capacity of 100
Wh / Kg.

Advantages:

1. Cycle life is comparatively more.

2. More compatible and effective for portable devices to power up.
3. Shelf life is more in it.
4. Small in size.
5. Highly efficient.
6. Low internal resistance so that there is less discharge state in idle mode.
7. Leakage is minimal

Disadvantages:

1. High cost.

Applications:
It can be used for torches, remotes, wall clocks, small handheld devices, etc.

2.Coin cells Batteries:

The chemical composition of batteries from coil cells is also alkaline in nature. Lithium and
silver oxide additives would be used in addition to alkaline composition to produce these
batteries that are more effective in delivering steady and stable voltage in such small sizes. It
has a density of 270 Wh / Kg of energy.
Advantages:
1. Weight is light
2. Small in size
3. Elevated density
4. High Cost.
5. Strong (up to 3V) nominal voltage
6. Fast to coordinate high voltages by serially arranging
7. Long shelf lifespan.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires a keeper for holding.
2. Capability to draw low current
Applications:
Found in watches, small electrical products, wall clocks, etc.

3. Rechargeable Batteries

These are commonly referred to as secondary batteries that can be recharged

and used again. While the cost is high, they can be recharged and reused and,
when well used and safely charged, can have a large life cycle.
4. Lead-acid Batteries
It consists of very inexpensive lead-acid that is often used in cars and trucks to
fuel the lighting systems in it. In products where size / space and weight do not
matter, these are more preferable. These come with a nominal voltage starting
from 2V to 24V and are most widely used as batteries of 2V, 6V, 12V and 24V.
It has a density of 7 Wh / Kg of energy.
 Advantages:
1. Inexpensive in price
2. Rechargeable quickly
3. Capability of high-power performance
Disadvantages:
1. Quite heavy, quite heavy.
2. Occupying a lot of space
3. The density of power is very low
Applications:
Used in vehicles, robots, heavy equipment, UPS (uninterrupted power supply),
etc.

2.2 Battery Management System

This specialty explores the right management and regulation of battery packs,
which typically contain several cells.
A battery management system or BMS, which is an integrated system
(purpose-built electronics plus processing to enable a particular use, will
usually apply the and algorithms we describe.
A BMS has the following priorities:
● Protects the protection of the host device operator; identifies and reacts
to hazardous working conditions;
● Protects battery cells from harm in cases of misuse / failure
● Prolongs battery life (normal working cases)
● Maintains the battery in a state where the practical architecture
specifications can be fulfilled.
● Informs the control machine of the host application how to make the
most use of the pack right now (for example, power limits), control
battery, etc.
General BMS functionality:
● BMS is interconnected with all elements of the battery pack and with
the device control host programmed.
● It is possible to break down features into many categories:
a. Sensing and high-voltage regulation: voltage, current, temperature
measurement; contactor regulation, pre-charge; monitoring of
ground-fault; thermal management.
b. Defense against: over-charge, over-discharge, over-current, and
high temperatures, short-circuit.
c. Interface: calculating the spectrum, correspondence, tracking data,
reporting
d. Output management: calculation of state-of - charge (SOC),
computation of power-limit, balance / equalize cells.

e. Diagnostics: Diagnosis of violence, estimate of state-of-health

(SOH), estimate of state-of-life (SOL).
 BMS Architecture:
● A modular pack of batteries also implies a hierarchical master-slave
BMS configuration.
● Each module is connected with one" slave "BMS unit:
• Welded / bolted cells of the assembly to slave PCB, reducing
losses of wiring and wiring
• Slave has circuitry for calculating voltage, cell balance,
● A single "master" unit is then usually available for each pack:
• Master dimensions pack current, contactor controls
• Communicates via daisy-chain or star architecture with slaves
• Master / slave connectivity uses few (e.g. two) wires to eliminate
nightmare wiring-harness.
 BMS Slave Role:
● BMS slave needs to:
● Measuring the voltage inside the module of any cell.
● Ideally, calculate temperatures of each cell, but some n
temperatures are calculated in several packages, especially if the
pack has cells in parallel.
● Balance the energy contained inside the module in each cell, as
we can see in Course 5 of this specialization, as cells have
distinct efficiencies, self-discharge speeds, etc.
● Communicate this data to the master.
BMS Master Role:
● BMS master needs to
● Control contactors that attach the battery for charging.
● Present pack track, isolation
● Communicate with slaves from BMS
● Communicate with Controller host programmed
● Thermal-management power

2.3 Electrical Vehicle Charging Technology:-

Charging Levels:

Level 1 Charging: This involves using a standard household electrical outlet (typically 120
volts AC) to charge an EV. Level 1 charging is relatively slow, typically providing around 2-
5 miles of range per hour of charging.

Level 2 Charging: Level 2 charging utilizes higher-powered charging stations, usually

operating at 240 volts AC. These chargers can deliver significantly faster charging rates
compared to Level 1, offering around 10-30 miles of range per hour of charging.

Level 3 Charging (DC Fast Charging): DC fast charging stations provide the fastest charging
speeds, delivering high-voltage DC power directly to the vehicle's battery. DC fast chargers
can replenish a significant portion of an EV's battery capacity in a relatively short amount of
time, making them suitable for long-distance travel and quick top-ups.

Charging Infrastructure:

Public Charging Stations: Public charging stations are installed in various locations such as
parking lots, shopping centers, and along highways to provide EV drivers with convenient
access to charging. These stations can offer Level 2 or Level 3 charging, depending on the
infrastructure and power capabilities.

Home Charging Stations: Many EV owners choose to install dedicated home charging
stations, also known as electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), to recharge their vehicles
overnight. These stations typically provide Level 2 charging and can be connected to a
residential electrical circuit.

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Workplace Charging: Employers may install EV charging stations in workplace parking lots
to support employees who drive electric vehicles. Workplace charging can help extend the
driving range of EVs and encourage more people to adopt electric transportation.

Charging Protocols and Standards:

CHAdeMO: A DC fast charging protocol developed by Japanese companies, primarily used

by Nissan and Mitsubishi EVs.

Combined Charging System (CCS): A DC fast charging standard that combines AC and DC
charging into a single connector. CCS is widely adopted by many automakers, particularly in
Europe and North America.
Tesla Supercharger: Tesla's proprietary DC fast charging network, exclusive to Tesla
vehicles. Superchargers offer high-speed charging for Tesla EVs and are strategically located
along major travel routes.

Smart Charging and Connectivity:

Smart Charging: Smart charging technologies enable communication between the vehicle,
charging station, and grid infrastructure to optimize charging schedules, manage energy
demand, and minimize costs. These systems may utilize internet connectivity, mobile apps,
and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communication.

Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): V2G technology allows EVs to discharge energy back to the grid
during peak demand periods or provide ancillary services such as frequency regulation. This
bidirectional energy flow can help stabilize the grid and maximize the value of EV batteries.

Wireless Charging:

Wireless charging technology allows EVs to recharge their batteries without the need for
physical cables or plugs. Wireless charging pads or coils are embedded in the ground or
mounted on parking spots, and a compatible receiver on the vehicle automatically aligns with
the charging pad to initiate charging. Wireless charging offers convenience and eliminates the
hassle of plugging in cables.

2.5Working Principle of Battery Charging

The working principle of battery charging involves the transfer of electrical energy from an
external power source to the battery, where it is stored as chemical energy. This process
typically occurs in several stages, each of which is designed to optimize the charging
efficiency and battery lifespan. Here's a general overview of the working principle of battery
charging:

Initial Connection: When a battery is connected to a charger, the charger applies a voltage
higher than the battery's current voltage to initiate the charging process. This voltage

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difference creates a potential gradient that drives the flow of electric current from the charger
to the battery.

Constant Current (CC) Stage: In the initial stage of charging, the charger delivers a constant
current (hence the name "constant current stage") to the battery. During this stage, the
battery's voltage gradually increases as it absorbs the incoming electrical energy. The
charging current remains constant until the battery voltage reaches a predetermined threshold,
typically around 70-80% of its full capacity.

Constant Voltage (CV) Stage: Once the battery voltage reaches the predetermined threshold,
the charger switches to a constant voltage mode ("constant voltage stage"). In this stage, the
charger maintains a constant voltage while allowing the charging current to decrease
gradually. The battery continues to absorb energy, and its voltage approaches its maximum
capacity.

Taper Charge (or Trickle Charge) Stage: In some charging protocols, particularly for lead-
acid batteries, there may be a taper charge stage following the constant voltage stage. During
this stage, the charging current decreases further as the battery approaches full capacity. This
helps prevent overcharging and minimizes the risk of overheating or damage to the battery.

Termination: Once the battery is fully charged, the charger terminates the charging process to
prevent overcharging. This can be achieved through various methods, including voltage
sensing, current sensing, or timer-based cutoff. Terminating the charging process at the
correct time is crucial for maximizing battery lifespan and safety.

2.6 Types of EV Charging Technology:

Level 1 Charging:

Level 1 charging uses a standard household electrical outlet (typically 120 volts AC) and
a basic charging cable.
It is the slowest charging option, providing a charging rate of around 2-5 miles of range
per hour (depending on the vehicle).
Level 1 charging is suitable for overnight charging at home or in situations where
faster charging is not required.

Level 2 Charging:

Level 2 charging operates at 240 volts AC and requires a dedicated charging station or
Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE).

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 It offers faster charging compared to Level 1, typically providing around 10-30 miles of
range per hour.
Level 2 charging stations are commonly found in public charging networks, workplaces,
and residential settings.
Level 2 charging is suitable for daily charging needs and can fully recharge most EVs
overnight.

DC Fast Charging (DCFC) / Level 3 Charging:

DC fast charging provides high-power charging at direct current (DC) levels, allowing for
rapid replenishment of an EV's battery.
Charging stations deliver high-voltage DC power directly to the vehicle's battery,
bypassing the vehicle's onboard charger.
DC fast chargers can provide significantly faster charging rates, delivering up to 60-80%
of a full charge in 20-30 minutes.
DC fast charging stations are typically installed along major highways and at commercial
locations to support long-distance travel and quick top-ups.

Tesla Supercharger Network:

Tesla has developed its proprietary DC fast charging network, known as the Supercharger
network, exclusively for Tesla vehicles.
Superchargers offer high-speed charging specifically optimized for Tesla vehicles,
providing up to 250 kW charging rates.
The Supercharger network spans thousands of charging stations globally, strategically
located along popular travel routes.

Wireless Charging:
Wireless charging technology allows EVs to recharge their batteries without the need for
physical cables or plugs.
Charging pads or coils are embedded in the ground or mounted on parking spots, and a
compatible receiver on the vehicle automatically aligns with the charging pad to
initiate charging.
Wireless charging offers convenience and eliminates the hassle of plugging in cables,
although it typically provides slower charging rates compared to wired options.

2.7 Electric Vehicle Power Train Assembly:

The powertrain assembly of an electric vehicle (EV) comprises the components responsible
for generating propulsion and transmitting power from the battery to the wheels. While the
specific configuration may vary depending on the vehicle's design and manufacturer, a
typical electric powertrain assembly includes the following components:

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Battery Pack:

The battery pack is the primary energy storage system in an electric vehicle, typically
composed of multiple individual battery cells arranged in modules.
It provides the electrical energy required to power the electric motor(s) and other auxiliary
systems.
The battery pack's capacity, voltage, and chemistry can vary depending on the vehicle's
range, performance, and application.

Electric Motor(s):

Electric motors are responsible for converting electrical energy from the battery into
mechanical energy to drive the vehicle.
Most electric vehicles utilize one or more electric motors to drive the wheels directly (in a
single-motor or dual-motor configuration) or through a transmission system.
Electric motors can be either AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current) types, with
various designs such as induction motors, permanent magnet motors, or synchronous
reluctance motors.

Power Electronics:

Power electronics components, including inverters, converters, and controllers, are essential
for managing the flow of electrical power between the battery, electric motor(s), and other
vehicle systems.
The inverter converts DC power from the battery into AC power to drive the electric motor(s)
efficiently.
Converters may be used to regulate voltage or current levels and to provide DC-DC
conversion for auxiliary systems.
Controllers govern the operation of the power electronics and coordinate the interactions
between different components of the powertrain.

Transmission (optional):

Some electric vehicles feature a transmission system to adjust the torque and speed output of
the electric motor(s) and optimize performance and efficiency.
While many electric vehicles use a single-speed transmission due to the broad torque range
and instant torque delivery of electric motors, others may incorporate multi-speed
transmissions for better acceleration or higher efficiency at different speeds

Differential and Drivetrain:

The differential and drivetrain components transmit power from the electric motor(s) to the
wheels, allowing for variable wheel speeds during cornering and ensuring smooth and
efficient power delivery to the road.
In some electric vehicles, the electric motor(s) may be directly integrated with the wheels (in-
wheel motors), eliminating the need for traditional drivetrain components.

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Cooling System:

Electric power trains generate heat during operation, particularly in the electric motor(s) and
power electronics components.
A cooling system is essential to regulate the temperature of these components and prevent
overheating, ensuring optimal performance and longevity of the powertrain assembly.

Charging System (for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles with range
extenders):

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and electric vehicles with range extenders may
feature an onboard charging system to recharge the battery from an external power source,
such as a charging station or wall outlet.
The charging system includes components such as onboard chargers, charging ports, and
associated control systems to manage the charging process safely and efficiently.

2.8 Types of Auto-Mobile as per Body Shape

Sedan:

Sedans are passenger cars with separate compartments for the engine, passenger cabin, and
cargo space.

They typically have four doors and a traditional trunk at the rear.

SUV (Sport Utility Vehicle):

SUVs feature a raised ground clearance and are designed for off-road capability, although
many are primarily used for on-road driving.
They often have a spacious interior with ample cargo room and may offer all-wheel drive or

four-wheel drive.

Hatchback:

Hatchbacks have a rear door that opens upwards, providing access to the cargo area.
They typically have a compact footprint and offer versatility for carrying passengers and

cargo.

Coupe:

Coupes are characterized by their sleek, sporty appearance and typically feature two doors
and a sloping roofline.
They often prioritize style and performance over practicality, with seating for two to four

passengers.

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Convertible/ Roadster:

Convertibles, also known as roadsters, have a retractable roof that can be opened to enjoy
open-air driving.

They offer a unique driving experience and are often associated with style and luxury.

Minivan/ MPV (Multi-Purpose Vehicle):

Minivans or MPVs are designed for maximum interior space and passenger comfort.
They typically feature sliding rear doors and configurable seating arrangements to

accommodate passengers and cargo.

Pickup Truck:

Pickup trucks feature an open cargo area at the rear, known as the bed, which can be used for
transporting goods, equipment, or passengers.
They are available in various sizes and configurations, including compact, mid-size, and full

size models.

2.9 Engine and Engine Terms

The processor module scans the I/O channel, and updates the corresponding memory
location at fixed intervals. The main function of the processor is to analyze the data coming
from shop floor through input modules, make decisions based on the user's defined control
program, and return signals back through output modules to the shop floor devices.
Processors of most of the PLCs available today are capable of performing the following wide
verities of task:
a) Relay logic
b) Latches
c) Timing
d) Count
e) ASCII interface
f) Proportional integral derivative (Pill) loops
g) Shift register
h) Data high way communications
i) Arithmetic
j) Comparison

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k) Computer interface
l) Matrix manipulation
m) Binary coded decimal (BCD)
n) Binary conversion
o) Analog data manipulation
p) Variety of other peripherals like printers, display unit

2.10 Main Engine Components & their Functions

The memory system in the processor module has two parts

(1) System memory and
(2) Application memory.
The collection of control program, which controls the activities of PLC on execution
of the user's control program, driver for communication with peripherals devices and other
activities, are stored in the system memory area. Normally it is stored in read-only memory
devices. A scratch pad memory area is included in the system memory area for temporary
storage of data for interim calculation of control.
The application memory is divided into data table area and user program area. The
I/O status data, variables or preset values, flag values and other data are stored in data table
area. The data table is the one where data is monitored, manipulated and changed for control
purpose. The user program area is the one where the programmed instructions, entered by the
user, are stored as an application control program.

2.11 Evolution of Petrol Management System

The system power supply provides the voltages needed to run the processor modules,
memory system, I/O circuits etc. The battery power is also provided to retain the content of
memory in the processor modules in case of power failure.

2.12 Purpose & Function of an Exhaust System

The I/O interfaces are of modular type. They can be plugged in and out of the system.
The field signals are connected to PLC through I/O modules. The main purpose of the I/O
modules is to condition the various field signals. The Input modules convert the field signal
to digital signal acceptable to the PLC's processors. The output modules convert the
processors' signal (digital signal) to capable of driving various output devices.
I/O modules are housed in the same racks or panels that house the other components
of the PLC system. If there is no room for additional I/O modules in the main frame master
rack, the additional I/O modules can be housed in local I/O rack which can be placed-up

23
several thousand feet from main rack. The remote I/O rack may also be used to communicate
I/O information and to diagnose status of remote field devices.
Every I/O module in a PLC system has its own address and these addresses are used
to access to the I/O devices through user's program. A data communications network may be
connected to the PLC processor module to allow communications to other control systems or
computer networks.

2.13 Components of Exhaust System

The programming devices are used for programming the application software, editing
and troubleshooting the software. The on-line /off-line programming is also possible with
PLC. PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer and
then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is
stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory.
Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.

2.14 Introduction to Tools

Input Scan
Each cycle begins with an input status scan. The specific memory locations are
reserved for input channels called input status table / input process image. Scanning of inputs
is carried out as a single step, uninterrupted by other operation, to provide a clear snap shot of
the state of the process at a given instant.

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Program Execution
Next, the user program is executed using available feedback status and input signals
and the results are stored in a reserved portion of the memory location meant for output status
table or output program image.

Output Scan
In course of output scan the output values are sort to output field devices. Depending
on the PLC design, this process of updating the output devices may be done at the end of
program execution or updated immediately upon execution of its corresponding logic
statement in the user program. Normally output status table / output process image is updated
upon execution of user program. On each scanning the stored output values are sort to field
output devices.

Memory Word -Zero

In most of PLCs a period of housekeeping or overhead operations is performed called
memory word-zero time. These overhead functions include diagnostic checks on the PLC as
well as service of peripheral devices such as loader / terminals and communications
interfaces. As soon as these tasks are completed, the entire cycle begins again with another
input status scan The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called scan time The scan
time composed of the program scan time, which is the time required for execution of control
program, and the I/O update time or time required to read inputs and update outputs. The
program scan time generally depends on the amount of memory taken by the control program
and the type of instructions used in the program. The time to make a single scan can typically
vary from 16ms to 200ms.

2.15 Basics of Multi meter

Software Used: RSLOGIX-500
A programmable controller's program comprises the system program (or operating system)
and the application program the system program comprises all statements and declarations for
internal functions (such as data backup in the event of a power failure). The system program
is an integral part of the programmable controller, and the user cannot modify it in any way.
The application program (also called user program) comprises all user- programmed
statements and declarations for the processing of signals used to control a process.
The application program is subdivided into sections. Sectioning is arbitrary, and is the user's
responsibility.

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3. CONCLUSION
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy and In daily
experience. Engineers strive combine automated devices with mathematical and to
organizational tools to create complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of applications
and human activities. Automation provides 100% accuracy all time. So, the failures and
mismatch in production completely eliminates. It makes the system's efficiency higher than
manual as well as It controls wastages. So, the overall savings increases.
It provides safety to human being. By that industry can achieves the safety majors and
ISO and OHSAS reputation. It makes the operation faster than manual which causes higher
production and proper utilization of utilities. It increases the production by which the cost of
each product decreases and industry profit increases. It provides smooth control on system
response.
It provides repeatability, so that the same kinds of products are easier to manufacture
at different stages without wasting time. It provides quality control, so that the products
become reliable which improves industrial reputation in market. It provides integration with
business systems. It can reduce labor costs, so the final profit increases. Industrial automation
is very compulsory need of industries in today's scenario to meet market competition.

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