Chapter-2

Sensors and
Actuators
Types of Sensors Based on
Input Parameter Measured
• Thermal sensors
• Pressure Sensors
• Displacement Sensors
• Optical Sensors
• Level Sensors
• Motion Sensors
• IR Sensors
Thermal/Temperature Sensors
• Thermal energy Electrical energy.

• When a body is heated or cooled,

 Change in Physical or Chemical State
 Change in Electrical Properties
 Change in the Intensity of Radiation
Emitted.
 Temperature Sensors

 Temperature Change Change in Physical

Dimension.
Eg. Mercury Thermometer , Bimetal Strip.

• Temperature Change Change in Electrical

properties (Resistance
change or generation of
thermo e.m.f.)
Eg. Thermistor , LM 35 ,Thermocouple
 Thermistors
• Temperature Sensitive Resistors.
• Made up of Semiconductor
material like metallic oxides.
• Bead ,Disc shape , coated with
epoxy or glass.
• Have large Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance. (Tempco)
 Thermistors

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (Tempco)

defines the change in resistance as a function of
the ambient temperature.

The common way to express TCR is in ppm/°C,

which stands for parts per million per degree
centigrade.
Thermistors-Types

Thermistors

PTC NTC
(Positive (Negative
Temperature Temperature
Coefficient) Coefficient)
 Thermistors-Types
• PTC – • NTC –
Temperature Resistance Temperature Resistance
Thermistors - Features
• Non linear characteristics.
• Very high sensitivity (NTC type).
• NTC thermistors Range is -100 ° C to
+300 ° C .
• Low cost ,small size
• Highly stable operation
• Passive Sensor.
Thermistors - Applications
• In Biomedical Instrumentation
• Industrial applications to measure
the temperature of surfaces, liquids
and ambient gasses.
• Used in the food and beverage
industries, in scientific laboratories
and in R&D.
Thermal Sensor IC-LM-35
• LM 35 is an Integrated Circuit
Thermal Sensor .
• Output voltage proportional to
Input temperature in degree
celcius.
• Temperature range is from
-55°C to 150° C
Pin Diagram of LM-35

• Pin no.1 - Vcc

• Pin.no.2 - Output
• Pin.no.3 -Ground
LM-35 Circuits
Output Voltage of LM-35
• Output voltage α Temperature (° C)
• Scale Factor is 0.01 V /°C.
• If LM 35 is sensing 45 ° C ,then o/p voltage is
calculated as
• Vout = 0.01 x T (° C )
= 0.01 x 45
= 0.45 Volts
= 450 mV.
Features of LM-35
• Operates from 4 to 30 Volts
• Low cost ,small size
• Rated for full -55 °C to 150 °C
• Does not require external calibration.
• Low output impedence.
• Scaling factor of 10 mV/°C
Application of LM-35 Sensor
• Used to measure Battery Temperature

• Measuring temperatures for HVAC applications.

• Heating, ventilation, and air

conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of indoor
and vehicular environmental comfort.

• Used in Power Supply and in different appliances.

Temperature Monitoring
System Using LM 35

LM Signal
ADC Conditio Display Digital
35 ner
Driver Display

• LM 35 senses the temperature.

• Sensed analog voltage is converted into digital form
• ADC o/p is signal conditioned.
• Processed o/p is sent to display driver to convert it into
suitable form for displaying purpose.
 Optical Sensor -LDR
• Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Symbol

• Works on Photoconductive effect.

• Resistance Decreases when Surrounding
Light intensity Increases.
 LDR- Working Principle
• Constructed using Light Sensitive material
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) or Cadmium Selenide
(CdSe).

• When light falls on the device , electrons from

valence band gets excited to conduction band
due to gain of energy from photons.

• Due to this process, conductivity of material

increases and resistance decreases.
 LDR Characteristics

• Dark resistance-When
LDR is kept in dark , its
resistance is very high.

• As Light falls on it,

its resistance decreases
gradually.
LDR -Features
• Simple to construct and operate

• Low cost

• Good Sensitivity

• Linear response

• Works within small range of

Electromagnetic spectrum

• Slow device.
LDR - Applications
• Street light control.

• Automatic Headlight Dimmers in cars.

• Automated Rear View mirror in cars.

• Photocopy (Xerox) machines to check density of

toner

• Colorimetric test equipment

• Digital cameras

• Light intensity meters

• Burglar Alarm systems.

 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• A sensor that detects infrared
radiations from objects in the
field of view (range).

• Sensor does not generate any

IR radiations but only detects
it, so named as Passive Infrared
Sensor.

• Used in motion sensors to

detect moving objects.
Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)

• Infrared radiation exists in the electromagnetic

spectrum at a wavelength that is longer than visible
light. It cannot be seen but it can be detected.
 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• Any object that generate heat also generate infrared

radiation . Eg. animals and the human body.

• IR radiations will not pass through ordinary window

glass and plastic.

• But IR radiations will pass through, with some

attenuation, material that is opaque to visible light such
as germanium and silicon.
 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• PIR detects and measure -Incoming IR emitted by heated
body.

• PIR detects emissions in the range of 8 to 12 µm.

• Uses a photo detector which coverts radiations in

electrical current.

• O/p device is triggered when the photo detector detects

large or fast variations in emitted IR energy.

• The output power is almost entirely provided by the

measured signal without an excitation voltage.
Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• The detected radiations are converted into
proportional electrical charge.

• This charge is further improved by a built in FET

and fed to the output pin of the device which
becomes applicable to an external circuit for further
triggering and amplification of the alarm stages.
Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• The Passive infrared sensors
consist of three pins .

• Pin1 - positive supply 5V DC.

• Pin2 - output pin of the

sensor

• Pin3 - ground.
Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• Applications –
• Automatic lighting system
• Security system
• Smart Floodlights
• Burglar Alarm
• Automatic Doors
• Automatic Water Taps