Demonstrating the Social Construction of Race

Author(s): Brian K. Obach

Source: Teaching Sociology , Jul., 1999, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 252-257
Published by: American Sociological Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1319325

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1319325?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

American Sociological Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to Teaching Sociology

This content downloaded from

2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 NOTES
DEMONSTRATING THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE*

BRIAN K. OBACH
University of Wisconsin

THE IDEA THAT race is socially constructed is obvious teaching or conscious inculcation.
widely accepted within social science disci- Race becomes 'common sense'" (p. 62).
plines (Haney Lopez 1996; Omi and Winant The seemingly consistent categorization of
1986; Waters 1990). Relating this concept to people based upon identifiable physical at-
students, however, can present a serious tributes reinforces the notion that these cate-
challenge. Students, like most people, tend gories are objective groupings. This can be
to view their world as an objective reality seen in the fact that students often resist the
divorced, in many ways, from interpretation idea that "white" or "black" or the other
or constructed meaning. This is also true of
racial classifications, as they are commonly
the racial categories that are presented and
conceived, are not objective, scientific, bio-
reified throughout society, but which are logical categories, but rather, that they rep-
nonetheless, socially defined. Through the resent notions that developed historically and
use of an abstract exercise, removed from that have no biological significance beyond
ingrained notions of race, the absence of the meaning attributed to them by the mem-
natural groupings and the social construction bers of society. Enabling students to over-
of such categories can be more clearly pre- come this conceptual framework and to see
sented. In this paper, I describe such an the social embeddedness of racial under-
exercise and demonstrate how the insights standings can be very challenging.
achieved can then be easily applied to con- The social construction of race is, in many
cepts of race, offering students a better ways, more difficult to present to students
understanding of race as a social construct. than the constructed nature of other social
Most social scientists recognize that exist- categories such as that of gender. Unlike
ing racial categories developed due topartic- race, gender has the corresponding biologi-
ular historical circumstances (Haney Lopez cal category of sex. While the biological
1996; Omi and Winant 1986; Waters 1990). categories of sex are evident, students can
Yet, students often think of race as a given recognize how the roles and characteristics
biological fact based on established scientific associated with the sexes are, in many ways,
distinctions, ideas that are strongly reified unrelated to biology. Thus, when addressing
throughout society by the media, through this issue, the biological categories of "sex"
government policy and by individuals who serve as a reference point from which to
often embrace a racial identity. According to demonstrate the socially constructed cate-
Omi and Winant (1986), "Everyone learns gories of "gender." However, unlike the
some combination, some version, of the relationship between sex and gender, race
rules of racial classification...often without has no parallel in terms of natural biological
categories. Most students can easily under-
"*I developed this technique while teaching atstand the social nature of racial prejudice
Santa Monica College. I would like to thank and stereotypes. Yet unlike explaining the
Kathy Shamey for making that possible. Pleasebiological category of sex and the social
address correspondence to the author at thebasis of gender, here we must convey the
Department of Sociology, University of Wiscon-
notion that not only are racial stereotypes the
sin, 1180 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI product of social processes, but that race,
53706; e-mail: obach@ssc.wisc.edu
itself, is likewise socially constructed. In
Editor's note: The reviewers were, in alpha-
betical order, Carl Bankston, Craig Eckert, and
nature, no races exist. Nature only provides
William Smith. a vast array of physical variations that have

Teaching Sociology, Vol. 27, 1999 (July:252-257) 252

This content downloaded from
2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE 253

been used to construct categories

analyzing thatracial
the factors that underlie areand
ethnic conflict
ultimately ascribed meaning farare essential
beyond components
the of
hazy physical differences that
any treatment serve
of this as their
topic. However, before
basis. analyzing why racial categories were con-
The socially constructed
structed as nature
they were, it of racial
is first necessary to
establish
categories can, in part, the point that race is, in
be demonstrated byfact,
socially constructed. The
reviewing historical developments inexercise
which that I
the commonly used present
racial in this paper offers one
categories way of
were
established in additionrelating this concept. However,
to showing the way I have found
in
which those categories and
it useful their
to first meanings
introduce discussion ques-
have changed over time.tions thatSeveral
challenge basicuseful ac-
understandings of
counts can be utilized
race. for this purpose. In

Racial Formation in the United States One discussion strategy is to ask studen
(1986), Michael Omi and Howard Winant to categorize ethnic groups of somew
ambiguous
focus on how political struggles have led to race, such as those from t
the redefinition of racial identity. Middle
Other East or the Pacific Islands, into
scholars have drawn attention to the way commonly
in used racial designations.
which economic conditions contributed not evitably, disagreements arise. Some stude
argue that Middle Easterners are a race
only to the development of racial identities,
but also to the historical construction of themselves, while others insist that they
white, and still others believe them to
racial categories themselves (Ignatiev 1995;
Asian based on their geographic orig
Zinn 1980). Perhaps most useful for demon-
strating the social construction of race is Categorizing
Ian Pacific Islanders raises simil
debates, as do Latinos and those from
Haney Lopez's White by Law (1996). Haney
Northern
Lopez traces the legal rulings by courts in Africa. Many students have
the United States that received the onerous claimed that all Latinos are white, since they
task of separating the members of various originated from Spain, while some disagree,
ethnic backgrounds into the inherently ill- claiming Latinos to be a separate race or
defined racial categories. He documents the something other than a race. In the face of
court's reliance on shifting "scientific" des-such disagreement, students must examine
ignations of race and the ultimate embrace the basis of their beliefs and recognize in-
of a "common knowledge" standard, which consistencies and ambiguities in all systems
in many ways only restated existing preju- of racial classification.
dices and ad hoc theories of race. In the In my experience, debate often ensues
when students are asked to simply list the
process, many groups saw their race change
with each court ruling.' Changes in Census
racial categories themselves, again revealing
categories and the vacillating claims ofsubjective aspects of race. Many can
the
"raciologists" are also useful issues to raise
identify the categories presented on the Cen-
in presenting the social nature of racesus or other government forms, but some
and
the absence of any natural biological signifi-
offer additional categories or alternative des-
cance of the concept. ignations. One student insisted that Turks
represented a distinct race and several have
The Social Construction of Race: Discus-
suggested that Jewish people are a race.
sion Topics Other students have claimed that there are
four fundamental races specified by color
Reviewing the historical conditions under
which racial meanings were constructed (black,
and white, red, and yellow), and that
everyone else is some combination of those.
'For example, Asian Indians were determined
Some
by the courts to be non-white in 1909, white in defend the Census categories, taking
the government as the final arbiter. Others
1910 and 1913, non-white in 1917, white again
in 1919 and 1920, but non-white after 1923. cite anthropological evidence. But most are

This content downloaded from

2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 254 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY

unable to social any

offer construction basis
of race. Each onefor
chal- th
other having than "heard
lenges students to seek out andit somew
analyze the
International students
basis of their beliefs can
about racialbring
groupings. in
perspectives to Many
the discussion,
realize upon reflection that the basisas m
cultures do not often refer to the racial
for the distinctions was never explicitly clear
to them. As Omi and Winant (1986) point
classifications commonly used in the United
out: "Everyone 'knows' what race is,
States. Many Asian students report little
consideration of racial categories, instead
though everyone has a different opinion as to
focusing on ethnic differences amonghow themany racial groups there are, what they
Asian groups present in their countries areof
called, and who belongs in what specific
origin. Israeli students have reported racial
that categories" (p. 3). Students often
Ashkenazi and Sephardic are salient cate-
believe that they are able to easily identify a
person's race, yet most are never challenged
gories in their country, a distinction unfamil-
iar to most other students. A Moroccan to identify what it really means or to defend
student explained that while she was consid-
the underlying basis for the claim.
ered to be white in Morocco, here in the While these discussions can provide a
United States she was considered non-white.
foundation for understanding the socially
She also amazed the other students by ex-constructed nature of race, more participa-
plaining that in her homeland, variations in tory exercises are often better at fostering a
skin tone can result in a child being of adeeper understanding (Dorn 1989). Some
different race than her or his parents or thateducators have developed techniques for
siblings within the same family may be actively involving students in the analysis of
considered to be of different races. Of these issues. Marisa Alicea and Barbara
course, these international perspectives Kessel
re- (1997) describe an exercise in which
quire the presence of a diverse enrollment. students circulate around the classroom
My classes tend to be fairly large (35 guessing
to 50 one another's racial or ethnic iden-
students) and very diverse, however, tity. someThen they contrast these speculations
with each individuals' own chosen identity.
of these issues are likely to yield disagree-
ments and fruitful discussions even in less Those contrasts demonstrate some aspects of
diverse settings. the social character of race and ethnicity.
I have also found it useful for students toHowever, students may still feel that, de-
list the characteristics used to distinguish spite the varying interpretations of some
racial categories, thus generating an ac- individuals, "real" racial categories do exist,
counting of the commonly used features of even if they are not universally recognized.
skin color, hair, eyes, and so on.2 While all While these other discussions raise questions
believe these to be consistent measures of about the social nature of racial identity, the
race, I then confront them with such seem-following exercise demonstrates the lack of
any biological foundation for racial cate-
ingly arbitrary categorizations as a blond-
haired, blue-eyed, fair-skinned "white" per-gories. Thus, it reinforces the idea that race,
son from northern Europe with a black-itself, is a social construct.
haired, brown-eyed, dark-skinned "white"
person of southern European descent. The Social Construction of Race: A
All of these discussion techniques can Graphic Exercise
introduce students to the concept of theIn this lesson, I ask students to separate a
I ask them to consider what kind of accent I
2This (in addition to the Latino question raised
could have or which clothes I could wear that
earlier) also provides an opportunity to distin-
would lead them to believe that I am of another
guish between the concepts of race and ethnicity.
race. This introduces the notion that race is
Some students have suggested accent, language,
based on physical attributes while ethnicity is
or style of dress as a basis for determining race.
culturally rooted.

This content downloaded from

2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE 255

studentscircles
series of six patterned have constructed the sametwo
into cate- cate-
gories (the categories, it instances,
gories. In some will later be re
they have offered
three to
vealed, are analogous or more different
races). I categorization
print th
circles on a small schemes.
piece of paper and dis-
tribute them to each student in the class. The Once students have created their cate-
circles each have a unique pattern (see Fig-gories, volunteers describe the logic behind
ure 1), but some similarities exist amongthe way in which they separated their cir-
them. They vary by internal pattern (filled,cles. Reproducing the circles on the board
empty, or lined) and the way in which the enables the instructor to list the different
circle is divided (halved, quartered, or categorizations offered by the students. In
whole). Some are rotated in such a way as to my experience, there have always been at
blur their similarities. I instruct the students least two different categorization schemes
to divide the circles into two categories, A offered. However, if by chance every mem-
and B, by labeling each circle with the letter ber of the class offered the same categories,
of its category. They do not have to be the instructor could easily introduce others.
divided into two even categories of three and When all the students have explained their
three, but can be separated into groups of categorizations, I reveal that the circles rep-
four and two or even five and one. The key resent the human species and the categories
instruction is that each student divide the that they have created represent races. I then
use the circles to demonstrate the fact that
circles into two categories based on what-
the racial categories, themselves, lack any
ever characteristics they deem most signifi-
cant. scientific or objective biological basis.
An important aspect of this exercise is A good way to begin the discussion is to
that, based on the way in which the circlesfirst ask students which categorization strat-
are patterned, there is no single "correct"egy is the right one. This is a trick question
way to divide them. Depending on the char- in that there is no definitively correct way of
acteristic selected as most significant, the separating the circles. Each circle is unique
circles could logically be divided any num- and, depending on the characteristic se-
ber of ways, which is analogous to the lected, there are several "correct" strate-
inconsistent designation of racial categories gies. If students did not realize this when
in different societies. The possibility for they were creating their own categories, it
various logical divisions is important in that becomes clear to them as other students
students will most likely divide them accord- explain the logic of their alternative classifi-
ing to different characteristics. Using these cation schemes. After students understand
patterns, no more than two thirds of my this simple principle, I introduce the parallel

Figure 1. A Graphic Exercise for the Social Construction of Race

1 2 3 4 5 6

Students are
several diffe
completely f
completely u
divided in ha
characteristi
variation in h

This content downloaded from

2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 256 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY

with filled areasand

humankind together (see
theFigure 2),lack
leaving o
racial categories.
the remainingThe diverse
three as the other category. I r
man physicalask characteristics
the students who utilized this strategy if t
used as a basisthefor quartered circle
creating
with the filled quarters
raci
are analogous to (number 4) is more
the similar to the halved
different ch
of the circles.circle Those(number 1), which
human also contains a phy
teristics that are selected out as a basis for filled area, or to number 2, the other quar-
tered circle (see Figure 3). In other words,
designating racial categories (i.e., hair tex-
ture, eye color, etc.) are just a few among in only looking at two quartered circles and
many characteristics that could be used to one halved circle, would they still group
distinguish groups, just as it is possible them
to based on the fact that two contain some
conceive of several different circle cate- filled area? The answer has consistently
gories depending on the characteristic been thatthat they would not group them based
one chooses to emphasize. It is usefulon tothe fact that two contain some filled area,
reinforce this possibility by raising the and
factthat the characteristic of being quartered
that other cultures utilize alternative racial
seems more salient. The two quartered cir-
categories based upon different combina-cles, they acknowledge, seem to have more
tions of physical characteristics. in common than the two containing some
The non-scientific basis for creating cate-filled area. In essence, they are discovering
gories can also be revealed by demonstrating that there may be some members of one
category that actually appear more similar to
the variability within the groups that students
created. In my experience, the most com- members of the other category than to whose
with
mon strategy used by students is to group the which they were initially placed.
three circles that have some completelyAgain, I highlight the parallel to racial

Figure 2. Common Grouping of Circles

1 3 4 2 5 6

Group A Group B
The most commonly used strategy is to gro
completely filled area, leaving the others to c

Figure 3. Alternative Grouping of Circles

1 2 4

In comparing circ
actually more si
considering the c
and 4, which had
which had been ca

This content downloaded from

2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE 257

categories. As suggested above,

socially some
constructed with 60 mem-
percent indicat-
bers of the "white race" more
ing that it closely
was "very re-stu-
useful." Several
semble some members of the "black race" dents of mixed or ambiguous race have even
than they do some other "white" people. thanked me for helping them to understand
where they fit or why they fail to fit clearly
At this point, the racial definitions, which
students initially see as objective biological
in the racial typologies commonly used.
classifications, begin to appear more fluid.Students come to class with the notion that
The lack of any natural categorization canracial categories have objective biological
clearly be seen in the diverse ways in which significance. These categories are constantly
students grouped the circles and in the in-reified throughout the culture. Given how
consistencies in each strategy. While this entrenched these beliefs are, it is often
simulation is carried out in the abstract anddifficult to get students to see beyond this
categories are created individually, it en- through a discussion of race alone. By alter-
ables students to recognize that racial group-
ing the context using this simple graphic
ings are in no way naturally given, and thatexercise, students see the lack of any natural
social processes ultimately underlie the cre-
basis for creating categories among the cir-
ation of such classifications. As discussed
cles. This insight can then be easily trans-
earlier, it is important to dedicate time to
ferred to an understanding of race. Once the
reviewing the historical developments that idea that nature determines race has been
led to the creation of racial categories asovercome, students can comprehend the
they are currently conceived. However, thisprinciple of the social construction of race
exercise enables students to first overcome a
more readily.
significant mental hurdle to developing such
understanding: the idea that racial categories REFERENCES
themselves have no natural basis and that
they are purely the product of social pro- Alicea, Marisa and Barbara Kessel. 1997. "The
cesses. Socially Awkward Question: A Simulation Ex-
ercise for Explaining Racial and Ethnic La-
CONCLUSION bels." Teaching Sociology 25:65-71.
Dorn, Dean. 1989. "Simulation Games: One
More Tool on the Pedagogical Shelf." Teach-
That students find the notion of the social
ing Sociology 17:1-18.
construction of race difficult is often evident
Haney Lopez, Ian. 1996. White by Law. New
in the discussion around this issue. Review-
York: New York University Press.
ing historical developments relatedIgnatiev,
to the Noel. 1995. How the Irish Became
construction of race and raising questions
White. New York: Routledge.
Omi,
that challenge students to defend racial Michael and Howard Winant. 1986. Racial
cate-
gorization as a consistent and objectiveFormation
pro- in the United States. New York:
Routledge
cess can facilitate an understanding of the and Kegan Paul.
Waters,
socially constructed nature of racial cate-Mary. 1990. Ethnic Options. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
gories. However, in my experience, this
Zinn, Howard. 1980. A People's History of the
participatory exercise has proven to be help-
United States. New York: Harper & Row.
ful in further clarifying this concept. Many
students have told me about how much they
Brian Obach is a doctoral student at the University
enjoyed this exercise and how the visual
of Wisconsin, Madison. His research focuses on al-
presentation helped them to grasp the con-
liance formation among social movement organizations.
cepts. In a year-end survey, 96 percent of
He has taught courses at the University of Wisconsin,
the students identified the exercise as useful
Santa Monica College, and Mount Saint Mary's Col-
in enabling them to understand that lege
racein Los Angeles.
is

This content downloaded from

2.98.45.219 on Thu, 08 Dec 2022 11:44:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms