THUONG MAI UNIVERSITY

ENGLISH FACULTY

GROUP 4
Topic:
SENTENCE MEANING:
TYPES OF SENTENCE MEANING

Class name: Semantics

Class code: 2229ENTH0911
Lecturer: Duong Thi Hong Tham

Hanoi, 2022

1
 I. MEMBERS AND ASSIGNMENTS
No. Student Code Full name Assignment Assessment
Introduction, The
Trần Nguyễn Phương
4 19D170006 meaning of Good
Anh
sentences
Grammatically,
9 19D170291 Nguyễn Thu Hà meaningfulness and Good
Acceptability
Division of Tasks
The principle of
Ngô Thị Huệ
14 19D170225 compositionality + Good
(Leader)
The participants +
Editing Slide
The structural
Hoàng Thị Thanh meaning + Good
19 19D170226
Huyền The interpersonal
meaning
The textual
24 19D170100 Vũ Thị Quỳnh Nga meaning + The Good
representational
Material processes
29 19D170317 Trần Thị Diễm Quỳnh and Mental Good
processes
Relational processes
34 19D170114 Trần Thị Thu and Behavior Good
processes
Verbal processes
39 19D170187 Cáp Phương Trang and Existential Good
processes
Editing word +
Basic types of
44 19D170121 Phạm Ánh Tuyết processes and Good
participants + the
circumstances

1
II. OUTLINE

I. MEMBERS AND ASSIGNMENTS 1

II. OUTLINE 2
III. CONTENT 4
1. The meaning of the sentence 4
1.1. Sentence meaning 4
1.2. Differences between sentence and utterance 5
2. Grammaticality, meaningfulness and Acceptability 6
2.1. Grammaticality 7
2.2. Meaningfulness 7
2.3. Acceptability 7
3. The principle of compositionality 8
4. Variables in the function of sentence meaning 8
4.1. The structural meaning 8
4.2. The interpersonal meaning 9
4.3. The textual meaning 10
5. The processes and the participants 12
5.1. The process 12
5.1.1. Definition 12
5.1.2. Classification 12
5.1.2.1. Material processes 13
5.1.2.2. Mental processes 15
5.1.2.3. Relational processes 18
5.1.2.4. Behavioral processes 19
5.1.2.5. Verbal processes 20
5.1.2.6. Existential processes 21
5.2. The participants 22
5.2.1. Definition 22
5.2.2. Classification 23
6. Basic types of processes and participants and the circumstances 25
6.1. Basic types of processes and participants 25
6.2. The circumstances 27

2
III. CONTENT
In the last two chapters, we have been concerned with the meanings of the
words (called lexical semantics) and sense relations. We now move on to a
consideration of the meaning of sentences. We have also briefly discussed the
truth-based theory of the meaning of sentences.

1. The meaning of the sentence

1.1. Sentence meaning

In this series of lectures, our group subscribes to the theory that the
sentence is the largest syntactic unit since (i). it is a notion most people are
familiar with, (ii). There is no distinction to be drawn between the clause and the
sentence as far as simple sentences go, and (iii). The clause of composite
sentences can be derived from simple sentences by embedding them in complex
sentences or conjoining them in compound sentences. The alternative view is to
regard the clause as the unit of the highest order and the one which corresponds
to the proposition. According to this theory, it does not make sense to speak
about the distinction between a simple or a complex sentence. A simple sentence
is realized by a single clause whereas a complex sentence is a combination of
clauses.

The issue of defining the meaning of the sentence is certainly no easy

task. We all feel that the meaning is there. And the meaning of a sentence is not
a sum of the meanings of the words that occur there. It is more correct to regard
it as a function of the meanings of the words used in the sentence, modality, and
structural meaning signaled by the ways words are organized into sentences.

There are examples of the sentence types include the following:

- A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a
subject, a verb, and a completed thought. A simple sentence can also be referred
to as an independent clause. For example: A cat drinks milk.

- A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses

3
(or complete sentences) connected with a coordinating conjunction (For, Nor,
And, But, Or, So, Yet). For example:

I was late already but I decided to wait a bit longer for my friends.

- A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is like an independent
clause or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it
a complete sentence. For example:

I had to work on Saturday last week because there was a lot of work.

- A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses joined to one or

more dependent clauses. For example:

Although she asked me to come, I just could not go because Jim was sick, and I
was expecting a visitor.

1.2. Differences between sentence and utterance

With the review of literature, our group suggests that many distinct theories
can apply to the determination of sentence and/or utterance meaning. However,
it would be naive to suppose that there is a "pure" theory, and they do not have
anything in common. There is much overlapping. Among the main ones, we
would like to mention: (i). the denotational theory, (ii). the conceptualist theory,
(iii). the pragmatic theory, and (iv). cognitive theory. We want to note that the
first two of these can also apply to word meaning determination.

(i). The denotational theory characterizes the meaning of an expression in

terms of the notions of reference and truth. The meaning of a sentence can be
described by specifying when it is true, and the meaning of other expressions
can be described by specifying the entity or entities it refers to. Thus, the
correspondence between language and the world is taken to be the crucial
element of meaning (hence the name "correspondence theory of meaning"). The
denotational theory is typical of logical semantics which is truth-conditional and
model-theoretic (Montage, 1974).

(ii) The conceptualist theory identifies the meaning of an expression with

the concepts or ideas associated with the expression, i.e., with a mental
representation of the content of that expression, often making use of
decomposition of meaning (or compositionality of meaning). The semantic work

4
which has been done within generative grammar is usually based on a
conceptualist theory: Katz-Fodor semantics, and conceptual structure
(Jackendoff, 1983).

(iii) The pragmatic theory identifies the meaning of an expression with the
use that is made of it by participants in an interaction. This theory is often
named the meaning-is-use theory after Wittgenstein (1953). It is also
characteristic of those theories in which speech acts play a central role,
following Austin (1962). The three approaches need not be incompatible,
because they all deal with different aspects of meaning.

(iv). The cognitive theory is the one we adopt as the theoretical

underpinning of this book. This theory identifies the meaning of an expression
as a reflection of the way we conceptualize the world out there. As such, the
meaning of a sentence or utterance will reflect our experience of the world
(Halliday's experiential meaning) and is the combination of its parts (the
principle of compositionality, which we will discuss below).

Our group feels that it is necessary to make a distinction between sentence

and utterance since our treatment is divided into two parts: one deals with
sentence meaning and the other is concerned with utterance meaning. An
utterance is often regarded as any stretch of speech before which and after which
there is a pause. Thus, it may be any piece of languages such as a sequence of
sentences, or a sentence, or just a phrase, or even a single word, used on a
particular occasion. For example:

(i). Fire!

(ii). Nice day, isn't it?

(iii). Where to?

(iv). Come in, please.

In this sense, utterance refers to spoken language, or as the above

examples indicate, products of the process of uttering. It should be remembered
that the term "utterance" can have another sense: process-sense, which refers to
the process of uttering, in which case, it is referred to as speech acts. On the
other hand, a sentence may be defined as the ideal underlying structure behind
an utterance expressing a complete thought. It will necessarily involve a subject
and a predicate in English, for example. This definition may be seen as vague,
5
but for our purpose, it can be accepted as a working template. It becomes clear
that a sentence is not equated with an utterance. An utterance may coincide with
a sentence, but its range is greater because it can encompass a phrase or just a
word. In this chapter, our group is concerned with the meaning of the sentence
as defined above only.

2. Grammaticality, meaningfulness and acceptability

These three concepts are interrelated and should not be confused. They can
apply to sentences, and in fact most competent users of a language would be
able to know whether a sentence is grammatical, or acceptable, or meaningful,
or all of these. Perhaps of the three features mentioned here, acceptability
appears to be the most relevant.

2.1. Grammaticality
A grammatical sentence is one which is formed according to the rules of
grammar. Grammatical sentences are not necessarily meaningful or acceptable.
Consider:
“The farmer has killed the house.”
This sentence is well formed but hardly meaningful. It would be fair to say
that most of the sentences we produce are both grammatical and meaningful
such as:
“We must teach our children well”.
Others are ungrammatical and meaningless. And yet others, though fully
grammatical and perhaps meaningful, are, for a variety of reasons, unacceptable.

2.2. Meaningfulness
The meaningfulness of a sentence is conditioned by the how well-formed
that sentence is semantically. Following are some famous meaningless
sentences:
“Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.”
“Quadruplicity drinks procrastination.”
“Thursday is in bed with Friday.”
We might have to stretch our imagination very hard to understand what
they mean. And of course, they are not uninterpretable, if appropriately
contextualized. We might imagine a fairy-tale story, which is the perfect
circumstances required for the interpretation of these sentences. It follows from
this reasoning that the meaningfulness of a sentence is more a matter of logical
thinking than symply compatibility.

6
2.3. Acceptability
Unacceptable sentences are unutterable in all normal contexts other than
those involving metalinguistic reference to them. The reason may be taboo, in
certain English-speaking society, on the use of the verb “die”. Thus, the fully
grammatical and meaningful sentence:
“His father died last night.”
might be fully acceptable. But the same is not true of
“My father died last night”
Instead, “pass away” is a stronger candidate. J.Lyons (1995) remarks in
this connection that in some cultures, to address a social superior with a second-
person pronoun (you) may be unacceptable for a social inferior, whereas it
would be perfectly acceptable for a superior to address an inferior or an equal
with the pronoun in question. This is related to social etiquette. Acceptability
may have to do with what is called rationality and logical coherence. For
example, to the following sentence:
“He thought that it was possible because it was not impossible.”
the response might be: “it doesn’t make sense”. Thus it may be seen as
unacceptable from this point of view. This is an odd thing under normal
circumstances.
There are many sentences whose unacceptability is quite definitely a matter
of grammar rather than of semantics. Consider:
“I want my daughter to marry him.”
It is grammatically correct to say: “I want my daughter to marry him.”

3. The principle of compositionality

- Understanding a sentence requires understanding the parts and the way they
are put together.

- The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meanings of its parts and by

the way in which those parts are assembled.

- The compositional approach will have two aspects: an account of the

meanings of the basic elements of languages (words and morphemes), and an
account of how the meanings of complex expressions (phrases and sentences)
are built up from the meanings of their parts.

- On the basis of the principle of compositionality or functionality, it is possible

to speak out a number of meanings that reside in the sentence: structural, textual,

7
representational and interpersonal/ modality.

4. Variables in the function of sentence meaning

4.1. The structural meaning

The structural meaning of the sentence is the kind of meaning that results
from a particular arrangement of the parts of the sentence. Consider the
following fictitious example: “The mantte wernnted a yob”

It’s clear that we can know this example thanks to our knowledge of the
use of the definite article, indefinite article and the -ed suffix even though we do
not know what “mantte” or “ wernnt” or “yob” are. There is a very strong
chance that we will be able to extract the verb “werntte” or “ wernnt” from the
from “wernnted”.

4.2. The interpersonal meaning

According to Halliday, the term “interpersonal” embraces largely - what is
collectively expressed by a more common term “modality”. This is another
component of the meaning of the sentence, apart from the representational
meaning. Modality is a term that expresses the attitude and opinion of the
speaker toward the representational content of the sentence. However, it is
crucial to realize that technically “attitude” or “opinion” in this sense has little
to do with the emotional states that a person undergoes. In fact, the interpersonal
meaning has to do with the function of speech or “illocutionary force”. Then, the
meaning of a sentence is the function of proposition (P) and illocutionary force
(F).

There are 3 interpersonal functions of language.

Firstly, it is used to establish and maintain social relations. This function
can be manifested in various forms indicating functions.
E.g.
- Good night
- Goodbye
- Have a good time
- Thanks a million
- I’m so sorry
- Be good!...
Secondly, it is used to influence people’s behaviour and get things done.

8
This function may be called the instrumental function, which is influencing
people’s behaviour or getting things done.
E.g.
- Would you mind helping me open the door? ( Request)
- Why didn’t you come to my birthday party last night? ( Enquiry)
- Don’t touch the fire! It burns you. ( Warning)
- If you don’t repay me your debt, I’ll kill you. ( Threat )
Thirdly, it is used to express the speaker’s feelings, attitudes and opinions
towards, or assessment of, the representational content of the sentence via the
use of modal verbs and adverbs.
E.g.
- Her opinion may be right or wrong. I’m not sure.
- You must be so sad about that.
- Your answer is probably right in this case.
As for the issue of modality in English, it can be expressed by the process
called grammaticalization (in the form of mood) and lexicalization (by means of
lexical items like modal verbs and modal adverbs, or some other lexical verbs).
When modal meanings are expressed by words such as “really, certainly, must,
can…” we say that they are expressed lexically - lexicalization. If modality finds
its expression in the opposition of forms (grammatical categories), we will say
that it is manifested grammatically. This process is called grammaticalization.
E.g. *grammaticalization of modality
- It is scorching today.
→ The mood of this sentence: indicative
→ Speaker’s attitude/ functions: proposition as a fact
- Stand up!
→ The mood of this sentence: imperative
→ Speaker’s attitude/ functions: proposition as a command
- If I were you, I would apologize to her.
→ The mood of this sentence: subjunctive
→ Speaker’s attitude/ functions: proposition as non-fact
E.g. *lexicalization of modality
- He is certainly the best in his class.
- You must finish your homework by this afternoon.
- I suppose that it is necessary to consult him about that problem.

4.3. The textual meaning

The textual function (meaning) is to create texts. It is this function that

9
helps to give texts coherence and cohesion.

E.g. In the United States, people celebrate Mother’s Day and Father’s Day.
Mother’s Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Father’s Day is
celebrated throughout the United States on the third Sunday in June. On this
occasion, mother and father usually receive greeting cards and gifts from family
members. The best gift of all for an American Mom is a day of leisure. The
majority of American mothers have outside jobs as well as housework, so their
working days are often hard.

4.3.1. The representational meaning

The representational meaning is rather abstract in English semantics.

Therefore the learners need to pay much attention to its general characteristics as
follows to approach and study it easily.

- Functions of the representational meaning

The representational meaning can be defined in terms of experiential and

logical functions.

- The experiential function is to communicate idea

It is the main function by which a speaker expresses the content elements of

his utterance, by referring to people, objects, states of affairs, events, qualities,
places, actions and circumstances, all of which are parts of the world we live in.

E.g. The teacher gave me homework to do after each unit.

(actor_the teacher, action_gave/do, time_after each unit, recipient_me)

- The logical function relates ideas to each other on an equal or subordinate

basis

E.g. - I came back home while my mom was cooking. ( equal )

- I do believe that happiness is the key to having a peaceful life. ( subordinate )

Basic elements of the representational meaning

According to Halliday, the experiential subcomponent of the

representational meaning provides an account of the underlying content of a
sentence or an utterance. It handles within its scopes:
10
 1. Processes: actions, events, states, relations.

2. Participating entities (participants): persons, objects, abstractions.

3. Circumstances: time, places, reasons, conditions, results, etc. which are

associated with the process.

We all know that the nominal group represents the various types of
participants. The verbal groups denote the process. And other types of units like
the prepositional phrases of adverbial clauses realize the circumstance
component.

E.g. - I took the luggage out of the house.

- The participants realized by nominal groups: I/ luggage

- The process realized by the verb: took

- The circumstance realized by the prepositional phrase: out of the

house.

E.g. For textual meaning and representational meaning:

When Bill was in the sixth grade, his parents decided he needed
counseling. He was at war with his mother, an outgoing woman who
harbored the belief that he should do what she told him.

- Experiential:

+ Actors: Bill Gates, mother & father

+ Actions: decide, tell, do

+ State: is at war

+ Place: sixth grade

+ Qualities: outgoing

+ Objects: belief, counseling

- Logical: subordinate: when Bill Gates, his parents decided. He should do what
she told him.

11
- Interpersonal: Should, and factual (expressed by the mood)

- Textual: Bill Gates - he, his, parents

5. The processes and the participants

5.1. The process

5.1.1. Definition

Process is a powerful concept which represents the possible words as consisting

of goings-on: of doing, happening, feeling and being.

5.1.2. Classification

Processes can be subdivided into six different types:

+ Material processes: express our outer experiences.

+ Mental processes: express our inner experiences.
+ Relational processes: connect our experiences.
+ Behavior processes: describing physiological and psychological behavior
+ Verbal processes: (between mental and relational processes): represent
symbolic relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted
in the form of language.
+ Existential processes: (between the material and relational processes):
concerning with existence.

5.1.2.1. Material processes

* Definition

Material processes are those that express our outer experience. Or According to
Halliday (1994:110), Material processes are processes of ‘doing’.” They express
the notion that some entity ‘does’ something-which may be done ‘to’ some other
entity.

Eg: He is fishing ( process: Material) on the river => This clause uses
material process because the word “fish” is a process of doing something or a
physical action.

We spent (Process: Material) several more hours => This clause uses
material process because the word “ spent” is a process of abstract doing.

12
*Characteristic

- Material processes may involve one or two entities: an actor + a goal.

➢ If there is only one entity, it is the ACTOR.

The dog barked
Actor process

Rose fell down

Actor process

➢ If there are two entities, they are the ACTOR and the GOAL,

Eg: James broke the glass

+ The actor can do something to the goal

Her father fixed the car

Actor Process Goal

William sold his car

Actor Process: Material Goal

=> Actor is “the _Who” doing the action (the doer) ( Her father/ James)
=> Goal “is the _ What” impacted by the doing (affected participant) ( the car/
the glass)

+ The actor can create or bring about the goal

He built a new house

Actor process Goal

13
 The Artisan makes handicrafts
Actor process Goal

= >Actor is “the _Who” doing the action

=> Goal “is the _ What” brought to existence by the doing ( a new house/
handicrafts)

- Material processes are not necessarily concrete, physical events; they may be
abstract doings and happening, as in follow.

The Mayor Resigned

Actor process

The mayor Dissolved the committee

Actor Process: material Goal

We can ask about or “probe” material processes by using the verb “do”.
Material process relates to bodily, physically, and materially actions.. One
identification criteria for material processes is that they can be probed by asking
‘what did the actor do?’ and ‘what happened ?

E.g. - What did the Mayor do?

5.1.2.2. Mental processes

* Definition
Mental processes express our inner experiences. Or in another meaning,
Mental process is a process of sensing, feeling, thinking and seeing.

Mental processes involve participants of Senser and Phenomenon'.

+ Senser: the conscious being that feels, sees or thinks) and a being that
feels, sees or thinks. the one who feels (emotionally), thinks, and
perceives
+ ‘Phenomenon': the participant being sensed “sensed”, felt, thought, or
seen). that which is felt (emotionally), thought about, or perceived

14
For example:

The family enjoys the meal

the SENSER process The PHENOMENON.

=> The clause uses a mental process because the word “enjoy” is a process
of feeling which indicates affection.

We can’t understand the economic system

=> The clause uses a mental process because the word “understand” is a
process of thinking which indicates cognition.

I can see you => the clause uses mental process because the word “see” is a
process of perceiving which indicates perception.

Mental process relates to emotionally, intellectually, and sensorily actions..

They are probed by asking about mental reaction; about thoughts, feelings, and
perceptions. It makes more sense to ask ‘what do you think/feel/know about X?

*Characteristic

1. In a clause of mental process, there is always one participant who is human

or human-like. This is the SENSER, the one who senses, feels, thinks or
perceives.

On the contrary, in the material process, no participant is required to be

human, and the distinction between conscious and non-conscious beings simply
plays no part.

2. With regard to the other main element, namely the one that is felt, thought or
perceived, it may be a person, a thing or a fact.

E.g. - Lily saw her friend

- Lily saw her friend walking in the park.

3. The verb in a mental process clause is usually used in the present simple
tense. The mental process is usually in simple present/past tense, but not
usually in the progressive aspect.

15
 E.g. - She likes the skirt

- Do you know that country?

4. Mental processes can usually be realized in either direction with either

the senser or the phenomenon that is being sensed by the subject. Or in
other words, the Senser need not always come first.

Eg: "His curly underarm hair amazed me", => the underlined portion is not
Senser but Phenomenon.
The following is another example of it.

I like it It pleases me.

I fear it. It frightens me.

I wonder at it. It amazes me.

I don’t understand it. It puzzles me.

I enjoy it. It delights me.

I mind it. It upsets me.

I admire it It impresses me.

5. Mental processes are processes of feeling, thinking, and seeing. They are not
kind of doing, and cannot be probed or substituted by “do”.

E.g. What did Jane do? She ran away. (material)

What did John do with the gift? He sold it.

Susan knew the answer. (mental)

(not: What John did was know the answer.)

Lily liked the gift. (mental)

(not: what did Lily do with the gift).

*Classification

16
Mental processes can be categorized into three principle sub-types: Perception,
Affection, Cognition.

1. Perception is a verb of seeing, hearing, noticing, etc as the following

examples:

We saw a big dog

Senser process: mental perception Phenomenon

Simon heard it on the news

Senser process: Mental perception Phenomenon

2. Affection is a verb of feeling, liking, hating, etc as the following examples:

Mark likes delicious food

Senser process: mental phenomenon

affection

3. Cognition is verb of thinking, knowing, understanding, realizing, believing

etc as the example on the following:

I do not understand this stuff

Senser Process: Mental Phenomenon
Cognition

5.1.2.3. Relational processes

Relational processes are those that connect our experiences. They are
processes of being. The main characteristic of relational processes is that in a
relational clause, there are two parts to the "being": something is being said to
'be' something else. In other words, a relationship is being set up between two
entities.

E.g. Today is my birthday.

17
Classification of relational processes:

Relational processes are classified into three main types: intensive,

circumstantial, and possessive:

+ Intensive: “x is a”

E.g. Sophia is intelligent. (CARRIER- ATTRIBUTE)

Joe Biden is America’s President. ( IDENTIFIED - IDENTIFIER)

+ Circumstantial: "x is at a" (where “is at” stands for "is at, in, on, for, with,
about, along, etc.")

E.g. - It is in the garden. (CARRIER- ATTRIBUTE)

- Today is Mid-Autumn Festival. ( IDENTIFIED - IDENTIFIER)

+ Possessive: "x has a”.

- Each of these comes in two distinct modes:

Attributive: "a is an attribute of x".

Identifying: "a is the identity of x".

E.g. - Mary has a book. ( POSSESSOR/ OWNER - POSSESSION)

- The book is Mary’s. ( IDENTIFIED - IDENTIFIER)

5.1.2.4. Behavioral processes

Behavioral processes are those describing physiological and psychological

behavior like coughing, breathing, smiling, dreaming, and staring. They are
partly like the material and partly like the mental processes.

The participant who is behaving, labeled BEHAVER, is typically a

conscious being, like the Senser, but the Process is grammatically more like one
of doing.

*Classification of behavioral processes:

Behavioral processes are classified 5 main types:

- Processes of consciousness (near mental processes): represented as forms of

18
behavior: look. watch, listen, think, worry, dream.

E.g. We were watching the news. (Sentences containing the verb "watching").

- Verbal processes as behavior (near verbal processes): chatter, grumble, talk.

E.g. He grumbles all village Vu Dai. (Grumble is Verbal processes as behavior)

- Physiological processes manifesting states of consciousness: cry, laugh,

smile, frown, sigh, snarl, whine

E.g. The old man raised his face for a moment, then suddenly sighed.

=> The behavioral clauses are constructed employing the behavioral processes
in the form of “intransitive verbs” “sigh”

- Other physiological processes: breath, cough, faint, yam, sleep.

E.g. Sometimes it even stops me sleeping at night.

- Bodily postures and pastimes (near material processes): sing, dance, lie down,
sit (down/up).

E.g. Daisy and Gatsby danced. (Verb “danced” is unclearly identified as it is on

the borderline of material processes and behavioral processes. This kind of verb
can be labeled as Material-behavioral processes).

5.1.2.5. Verbal processes

* Definition:

Verbal processes are processes of saying. They represent symbolic

relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form
language.

* Characteristics:

- Verbal processes are Processes of saying (tell, insult, praise, slander, abuse,
flatter, promise, etc.)

- They involve four entities: a sayer, a verbiage (that is the thing that is said
about), a target, and a receiver.

- The SAYER can be anything that sends out a signal or message.

19
 E.g. My brother told me a funny story.

- The RECEIVER is the one to whom the saying is directed.

E.g. - Tell me about your hobbies.

- I told him it was empty.

- Describe your symptoms to the doctor.

- I tried to persuade her to come.

- The VERBIAGE is the function that corresponds to what is said. It may be the
content of what is said, as in:

E.g. - John asks her a question.

- Can you explain the whole story?

- The teacher explained the problem very clearly.

- The VERBIAGE may be the name of the saying, as in:

E.g. - The president made an announcement.

- The new students were speaking Chinese.

- Could you repeat what you said?

- The TARGET is the entity that is targeted by the process of saying.

E.g. - Please don’t blame me for missing the train.

- My parents usually praised my brother when he did well at school.

- Verbs that accept a Target include: praise, insult, abuse, slander, flatter, blame,
criticise, etc.

SAYER PROCESS RECEIVER VERBIAGE

My brother told me a funny story.

20
 said he’s sick.

5.1.2.6. Existential processes

* Definition:

Existential processes are those that are concerned with existence.

* Characteristics:

- They represent something that exists or happens.

- They are intermediate between material and relational processes.

- They involve two entities: the EXISTENT and the process.

E.g. - Ebola existed in Ethiopia.

- There is someone’s laptop on my desk.

- There is an increasing number of cars on the roads.

- Verbs that commonly occur in existential processes include: exist, remain,

arise, come about, happen, take place, follow, ensure, sit, stand, lie, hang, rise,
stretch, emerge, grow, erupt, flourish, prevail.

PROCESS EXISTENT CIRCUMSTANCE

There is someone’s laptop on my desk.

is an creasing number of on the road.

cars

EXISTENT PROCESS CIRCUMSTANCE

21
Ebola existed in Ethiopia.

5.2. The participants

5.2.1. Definition

The participants are those that are directly involved in the process
(expressed by the predicator): the one that does, behaves, senses, says, is or
exists, together with the complementary function where there is one the one that
is done to, sensed etc.

5.2.2. Classification

There are some basic types of participants :

+Actor: The creator of the process.

E.g. The girl opens the door. => Actor: the girl

+Goal: The target, to which an action is directed.

E.g. He throws the ball. => Goal: the ball

+Benefactive/ Beneficiary/ Recipient: The entity that benefits from the action
expressed by the verb.

E.g. I bought a present for my sister. => Benefactive/ Beneficiary/ Recipient:

my sister

+Owner and possession.

E.g. Lan has a book.

=> Possessor: Lan

Possession: book

+Senser: Just the participant that undergoes or experiences a process.

E.g. Did you taste the dish?

=> Senser: you

22
+Phenomenon: The participant or entity which is sensed, felt, thought or seen.

E.g. Did you taste the dish?

=> Phenomenon: the dish

+Behaver: The participant that behaves.

E.g. He laughed.

=> Behaver: He

+ Carrier and attribute: Carrier is the participant or entity that has the feature
expressed by attribute.

E.g. Lisa is beautiful.

=> Carrier: Lisa

Attribute: beautiful

+Identified and identifier: Identified is the participant or entity that is

identified by the identifier.

E.g. Ms Hoa is a teacher.

=> Identified: Ms Hong

Identifier: teacher

+ Existent: The participant or entity that exists.

E.g. There is a pen on the table.

=> Existent: a pen

+Sayer: The participant or entity that sends out a signal or message

E.g. They always praised Phuong.

=> Sayer: They

+Receiver: The participant to whom the saying is directed.

E.g. He never loves her.

23
 => Receiver: her

+ Verbiage: Which is said.

E.g. The girl told me that she had done her homework.

=> Verbiage: she had done her homework

+ Target: the entity that is targeted by the process of saying.

E.g. She always praises him.

=> Target: him

6. Basic types of processes and participants and the circumstances

6.1. Basic types of processes and participants

- Processes are the happenings or states of affairs represented in a clause. They

are realised by verb phrases (e.g. went, started crying, will be singing, drank).
- Participants are those elements which denote who or what is directly involved
in the process. They are typically realised by noun phrases (e.g. the man,
Margaret, my left foot, an interesting book).

Process Meaning Common Participants Example

Type Verbs

Material doing do, open, Actor → - - She ran into the room.
receive, etc Goal → + + Actor: She
Recipient + + Goal: the room

- - He gave me a present.
+ Actor: He
+ + Goal: a present
+ + Recipient: me

24
 Mental feeling, Like, think, Senser → - - Lam feels lonely in her
thinking, feel, know, Phenomenon house.
sensing understand, + + Senser: Lam
notice, +Phenomenon:her house
realize , etc

Relational ‘attributing’ be, have, Carrier -> - - These roses are beautiful.
possess Attribute + + Carrier: these roses
‘identifying’
+ + Attribute: beautiful
‘possessing’ Owner/ - I have an apple
Possessor-> + Owner: I
Possession/ + Possession: an apple
Possessed
+ Identified ->
Identifier - Tung is a lawyer
+Identified: Tung
+ +Indentifier : lawyer

Verbal ‘saying’ say, repeat, Sayer - - Nam told me that he passed

ththe final exam.
‘telling’ ask, praise, -> Receiver +Sayer: Nam
-> Verbiage +Verbiage: he passed the
final
-> Target
exam.
- - She always praised him.
b + Sayer: She
+ +Target: him

25
Behavioural ‘behaving’ smile, laugh, Behaver - They laughed at her jokes.
+ + Behaver: They
sigh, weep,
- She sighs again, looking
kiss, etc. bored.
+ + Behaver: She

Existential ‘existing’ be, live, exist, Existent - There is a bus station the
arise, follow, end
‘happening’ occur, come of this road.
about, etc. + Existent: a bus station

6.2. The circumstances

This component is related to the process. Circumstances contribute

additional, and frequently optional, information regarding the who, when,
where, how, for how long, and so on, of the process. They are typically realised
by adverb phrases and prepositional phrases (e.g. last Saturday, very quickly, on
my pillow, before the meeting).

They can occur in all types of processes. Most are realized by prepositional
phrases; however, they can be clauses as well. The main types of circumstances
are:

- Time

E.g. There is a meeting at 2:30 this afternoon.

- Place

E.g. We visited the White House.

- Condition

E.g. I'll pay you double if you get the work finished by Friday.

- Concession

26
 E.g. In spite of his injury, Ricardo will play in Saturday’s game.

- Result

E.g. My knee started hurting, so I stopped running.

- Manner

E.g. The head chef runs the hotel kitchen with strict discipline and efficiency.

- Attending circumstances

E.g. As everyone is here, let's start.

- Cause

E.g. Our departure was delayed because of bad weather

- Purpose

E.g. This pool is for the use of hotel guests only.

We can notice that this treatment is basically identical to traditional treatment

whereby adverbials are classified into adverbials of these kinds.

27
7. Exercise

Exercise 1: Identify the processes, participants and circumstances of the

following sentences

1. She sent a message with John to say that she couldn’t come.

+ Participant: she, John

+ Process: sent

2. I went to Paris last summer.

+ Participant: She

+ Process: went to

+ Time-circumstance: last summer

+ Place-circumstance: Paris

3. Do you want to be paid in cash or by cheque?

+ Participant: You

+ Process: paid

+ Manner- Circumstance: cash or by cheque

4. Everyone in the office is contributing money for his leaving present.

+ Participant: Everyone

+ Process: is contributing

+ Purpose-Circumstance: for his leaving present

Exercise 2. These sentences relate ideas to each other on an equal or

subordinate basis

1. I think we should taking a shower instead of a bath to save energy

(subordinate)
2. David is very clever, but he behaves like a child (equal)
3. I am writing a letter, and my brother is writing homework (equal)
28
 4. The boy who laughed happily was my brother (subordinate)

Exercise 3. Identify basic elements of the representational meaning

1. You must learn English at school

- The participants realized by nominal groups: I/ english

- The process realized by the verb: learn

- The circumstance realized by the prepositional phrase: at school

2. My father used to smoke 5 years ago

- The participant: my father
- The process: smoke
- The circumstance: 5 years ago.

3. The living room is tidied by my mother everyday

- The participant: the living room, my mother

- The process: is tidied
- The circumstance: everyday

4. Peter and Jone play badminton every Saturday with Maria and me.

- The participant: Peter and Jone, Maria and me.

- The process: play badminton
- The circumstance: every Saturday

Exercise 4.Specify the type of process involved in the following examples:

1. We fixed the motorcycle => Material process

2. I don’t like milk => Mental process
3. I wrote my book 2 years ago => Material process
4. They know the answer => Mental process
5. It is a beautifully clear day => Relational process
6. His hometown has small river =) Relational process
7. He is dancing around the fire => Behavioral process
8. We sit outside => Behavioural process
9. She tells me a story => Verbal process
10.He said quietly => Verbal process
11.There is no meat => Existential process
12.There was a lack of equality and fairness. => Existential process.

29
Exercise 5. Identify the processes, participants and circumstances of the
following sentences

1. My daughter is making an omelette.

2. Three days ago our officers decided to visit the suspect at her home.

3. Tragically the once happy couple must have started destroying their
seemingly solid relationship right from the start.

Circumstance Participant Process Participant Circumstance

1. My daughter is making an omelette.

2. Three days our officers decided to the suspect at het home.

ago (time visit (place
circumstance) circumstance)

3. Tragically the once must have their right from the

happy started seemingly start.
couple destroying solid
relationship

Exercise 6. Identify the processes, participants of the following sentences.

1. Lucy sent a report to me last night.

Participants: Lucy, me

Process: sent

2. Tomorrow, she will go to the theater with her friends.

Participants: she, her friends

Process: will go

30
3. That disease is more serious than we thought.

Participant: That disease

Process: is

4. He often goes to work by motorbike.

Participant: he

Process: goes

31
REFERENCE

1. The textbook “Understanding English Semantics”, Hanoi National University

Publishing House, 2004.

32