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EDITORIAL NOTE
RESEARCH PAPERS
Editorial Note
P. R. REDDY AND D. VENKAT REDDY
season. The river-linking idea is one that's been as the segmentation of the country in to smaller states
knocking around for a long time - only natural in a can pose river water distribution problems, leading to
country that can suffer from drought and flooding some additional bottlenecks. As such, the Central
simultaneously and repeatedly to such shattering effect. Government has to view at implementation of any river
But the many critics of the programme call it bad linking as national asset and ensure co-operation
science on a grand scale that will cause the irreversible between various stake holders. In the next sub section
destruction of lives and property, while bringing about we cover some specifics. This editorial is not aimed at
environmental catastrophe. They say there is no detailed exposition of the river linking project. It is
understanding or clarity about the likely impact of basically aimed at in bringing in to light some specific
interlinking on the air and water, biological diversity advantages and disadvantages due to river linking, so
and socio-economic fabric of the area. An that learned and young researchers can come out with
environmental protagonist, who works in the areas of new strategies to make this important project viable and
flood management and people's rights, describes the useful.
interlinking of rivers as a "mad project". He argues that
Reasons and motivations
the rivers in the region are already interlinked and
artificial intervention is going to give rise to other In India the rainfall over the country is primarily
problems as it runs counter to hydrological norms. "You orographic, associated with tropical depressions
can't play with the environment and win. We have originating in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
already seen what building of barrages has done in The summer monsoon accounts for more than 85 per
Uttarakhand," where deadly floods occurred in 2013. cent of the precipitation. The uncertainty of occurrence
"Do you think that a barrage can restrict a river in full of rainfall marked by prolonged dry spells and
flow? Have they forgotten what happens on the Kosi," fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious
the worried expert says. The Kosi symbolises problem for the country. Large parts of Haryana,
engineering led solutions to flooding that don't take into Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
account the knowledge that farmers have gained from Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are not
centuries of working in the land. So, while agriculturists only in deficit in rainfall but also subject to large
welcome low-intensity flooding that regenerates the soil variations, resulting in frequent droughts and causing
with the silt that the water carries, engineers build immense hardship to the population and enormous loss
embankments, barrages and dams in a bid to halt the to the nation. The water availability even for drinking
water in its tracks. Nature has altered the Kosi's course purposes becomes critical, particularly in the summer
over the centuries, and the people who live there have months as the rivers dry up and the ground water
tried to adjust to this. But since the days of the British recedes. Regional variations in the rainfall lead to
Raj, engineers have sought to intervene in a bid to try situations when some parts of the country do not have
and make life more settled for them. Unfortunately, it enough water even for raising a single crop. On the
hasn't worked. It is pointed out that the 2008 flash flood other hand excess rainfall occurring in some parts of the
on the Kosi happened as no proper assessment of the country creates havoc due to floods.
flood impact on the eastern and western canals, built
Irrigation using river water and ground water has been
between 1954 and 1960, was made .When magnitude of
the prime factor for raising the food grain production in
floods attain unprecedented proportions the manmade
our country from a mere 50 million tonnes in the 1950s
dams and canals collapse like a pack of cards leading to
to more than 200 million tonnes at present, leading us to
ctstrophe. Such devastation was also witnessed on the
attain self-sufficiency in food. Irrigated area has
Krishna river in 2009.The details given above scare
increased from 22 million hectares to 95 million
everyone including engineering experts. But, we need to
hectares during this period. The population of India,
find apt solutions to such setbacks, if we want a radical
which is around 1050 million at present, is expected to
change in our water management, which alone can
increase to 1500 to 1800 million in the year 2050 and
ensure better utilisation of available water.
that would require about 450 million tonnes of food
While we support any meaningful technological grains. For meeting this requirement, it would be
intervention to address water management and water necessary to increase irrigation potential to 160 million
related natural disasters we feel the national river hectares for all crops by 2050. India's maximum
linking mega project needs a well-planned strategy from irrigation potential that could be created through
planning stage till completion of the project, constantly conventional sources has been assessed to be about 140
taking mid-course corrections to ensure quality control . million hectares. For attaining a potential of 160 million
It is essential that small scale linking be taken up in hectares, other strategies shall have to be evolved.
earnest to have firsthand knowledge of probable Floods are a recurring feature, particularly in
setbacks due to linking mechanism. This is paramount Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers, in which almost 60 per
cent of the river flows of our country occur. Flood Coping with annual floods and droughts, both occurring
damages, which were Rs. 52 crores in 1953, have gone at the same time indifferent parts, has been a major
up to Rs. 5,846 crores in 1998 with annual average concern for India over the years. These concerns are
being Rs. 1,343 crores affecting the States of Assam, more acute today as the growing population and the
Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh along with untold resultant increase in water demand place a heavy burden
human sufferings. On the other hand, large areas in the on the unevenly distributed water resources, and also
States of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, cause huge economic losses to the financially
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu face recurring droughts. As vulnerable groups of the population. Additionally, there
much as 85 percentage of drought prone area falls in is a huge demand to enhance and diversify food
these States. One of the most effective ways to increase production. Designed to address these issues, the
the irrigation potential for increasing the food grain National River Linking Project proposes to transfer
production, mitigate floods and droughts and reduce water from the potentially water surplus Himalayan
regional imbalance in the availability of water is the rivers to the water-scarce river basins of western and
Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT) from the surplus peninsular India. The NRLP will build 30 river links
rivers to deficit areas. Brahmaputra and Ganga and approximately 3000 storages to connect 37
particularly their northern tributaries, Mahanadi, Himalayan and peninsular rivers to form a gigantic
Godavari and West Flowing Rivers originating from the south Asian water grid. Environmentalists questioned
Western Ghats are found to be surplus in water the ecological cost of large dams, while the NGOs and
resources. If we can build storage reservoirs on these civil society probed the social cost of people
rivers and connect them to other parts of the country, displacement. However, much of the arguments for and
regional imbalances could be reduced significantly and against the project have little analytical rigor. The
lot of benefits by way of additional irrigation, domestic concept of linking of rivers or inter-basin transfer of
and industrial water supply, hydropower generation, water is essentially based on the availability of surplus
navigational facilities etc. would accrue. of water in the donor river especially at the point of
diversion to the deficit river basin. The surplus or deficit
National River Linking Project in India
in a basin is determined on the basis of availability at
The National River Linking Project (NRLP) is designed 75% dependability, import, export, and existing and
to ease water shortages in western and future needs. A river basin is said to be reasonably in
southern India while mitigating the impacts of recurrent surplus of water, if the surplus water is available after
floods in the eastern parts of the Ganga basin. The meeting the irrigation needs of at least 60% of the
NRLP, if and when implemented, will be one of the cultivable area in the basin. Only this water from such a
biggest inter-basin water transfer projects in the world. basin can be diverted to deficit basins. In the
Some experts suggest transferring of water from high recipient/deficit river basin, it is proposed that, at least,
precipitation western flank of Sahyadris through tunnels 30% of the cultivable area is covered under irrigation.
to augment Godavari and Krishna rivers (This is not This is one of the most effective managements of
included in NRLP). Cost of the project was estimated at surface water resources, as according to protagonists, it
Rs. 5,60,000 crores.However,the true cost can be is an economically viable, technically feasible and
known only when the detailed project reports of the 30 environmentally sound and viewed as the future main
river link projects are drawn up. At Rs. 5,60,000 crore, stay for the sustainable development of any region
it's the mother of all projects. It will connect the rivers confronting water deficit. On this basis, The National
in the north with those of the south through a network of Water Development Authority (NWDA) after a
canals. Water from the Brahmaputra will flow into the thorough study indicated that Himalayan rivers,
Ganga, which in turn will be connected to the Mahanadi especially, Brahmaputra and Ganga have exceedingly
and Godavari. Godavari will be linked to Krishna, then surplus quantum of water and hence, proposed transfer
to Pennar and Cauvery. Similarly, Narmada will flow of water from these surplus basins to deficit basins in
into the Tapi and Yamuna into the Sabarmati. This peninsular region.
grand inter-basin transfer is slated to be completed by
There is an immense pressure to share river waters
2016. "It is a win-win situation for all - states with a
among the countries, states and regions. The political
problem of floods and drought," promises Suresh
and social issues are very important as they may decide
Prabhu, chairman of the task force for linking rivers.
the fate of this kind of projects of national importance.
Radha Singh, D-G, National Water Development
A pragmatic expert opined in 2004 that the linking of
Agency says: "The 30 feasibility studies conducted so
rivers is more problematic for socio-economic-cultural
far have indicated that the project is viable since the
relations of the society. However, we need to go ahead
canals will be based on gravity, and have storage
with the project due to various compulsions. In South-
facilities."
East Asia, the Himalayan river waters are of interest, as
the Himalayan region has some of the world’s most ecosystems. Restoration projects must be able to
underdeveloped/developing countries, Bangladesh, balance conflicting needs and interests. Flood
Nepal, India, Bhutan, Pakistan, Tibet, and China. management is one of the most powerful drivers of
Construction of dams across the Himalayan rivers developing strategies for floodplain restoration.
Brahmaputra and Ganga and their main tributaries in Appropriate restoration management of floodplains is
India and Nepal and interlinking of their canal system vital for the conservation of unique bio-diverse systems
and transfer of surplus flows of the eastern tributaries of and for sustainable agricultural productivity. By
the Ganga to the west in addition to linking of Ganga developing strategies that better incorporate floodplain
and Brahmaputra constitute implementation aspects of restoration in the context of the basin scale, it will
the main concept of inter-basin transfer of water become more feasible to develop the most effective
between the countries. While providing irrigation to restoration actions for a specific river type and location.
additional 22 million hectares, it generates pollution free Within this context we must not forget that successful
hydro-power and will provide flood control in the natural resource management is much more than
Ganga- Brahmaputra basin. Thus, Ganga-Brahmaputra developing good science; it requires working with
basin, and Nepal and Bangladesh would have advantage landowners, meeting deadlines, securing funding,
from the project. supervising staff, and cooperating with politicians.
Furthermore, the benefits of floodplain restoration must
Linking the restoration of rivers and riparian
be equally demonstrated for multiple purposes including
zones/wetlands
a range of ecosystem services. In view of its importance
Floodplains are heavily impacted by human intervention the NRLP should include, as an important component of
and often disconnected from the main river channel. the project, floodplain restoration. As such, while going
Restoring lateral hydraulic connectivity between into specifics of 30 Linkings the concerned should
wetlands, fringe habitats and riparian land with the explore the various interactions associated with
adjacent river channel is extremely important to floodplain dynamics. We can learn from European
maintain natural functioning of floodplain wetlands. initiative, through case studies, in exploring the various
However, there is no simple solution to restoring and approaches that have been taken across Europe to
rehabilitating rivers and their floodplains, particularly in forward the restoration of the fragile and important
terms of long-term sustainability. Floodplains are often ecosystems in the context of current European
the most fertile and productive part of the landscape, in environmental policy and directives.
terms of both agricultural production and natural
Bangladesh has unnecessary fears. At least the transfer the same time. When there's excess water in the
of water from Ganga to peninsular component does not Brahmaputra, there'll be excess water in Ganga and
affect the water status of Bangladesh. However, this has Mahanadi too. Interlinking can cause storages to
become a bone of contention for river-sharing between overflow and cause flooding.
the countries. It is time we sit together and resolve the
Aqua life
issue, instead of allowing it to remain as an irritant.
Benefits A number of leading environmentalists are of the
opinion that the project could be an ecological disaster.
Irrigation There would be a decrease in downstream flows
By linking of rivers vast amount of land areas which are resulting in reduction of fresh water inflows into the
not used for agriculture can be converted into fertile. seas seriously jeopardizing aquatic life. Even though
arresting the river flow into sea to meet inland needs
Flood prevention could be excused ( if the environmental degradation is
During heavy rainy seasons some areas can experience avoided while designing and executing the storage and
heavy floods while other areas might be distribution facilities), we need to keep in mind the
experiencing drought like situations. With network of probable influence of such an exercise in the long run
rivers this problem can be greatly avoided by on the coastal and ocean ecosystems.
channeling excess water to areas that are not Deforestation
experiencing a flood or are dry. This works similar to
canal system in Netherlands to channel excess water Creation of canals would need large areas of land
from sea. resulting in large scale deforestation in certain areas.
With new canals built, feasibility of new DAMS to Possibility of new dams comes with the threat of large
habitable or reserved land getting submerged under
generate hydroelectric power becomes a possibility. It
water.
expects to add 34,000 MW of hydro power to the
national grid (clean energy).This in turn will create Displacement of people
employment and boost crop output and farm income. As large strips of land might have to be converted to
Navigation canals, a considerable population living in these areas
must need to be rehabilitated to new areas. Such
Newly created network of canals opens up new routes rehabilitation is fraught with many problems, especially
and ways and routes of water navigation, which is when tribal segments are involved. Any
generally more efficient and cheaper compared to road misunderstanding or absence of a proper mechanism in
transport. rebuilding new dwellings can lead to catastrophic
Issues and Concerns results, and could be used by extremists in destabilising
peace and tranquillity.
Ecological issues
Global Resume
Major concern being the argument that rivers change
their course in 70–100 years and once they are linked, Even as India has been procrastinating, the rest of the
future change of course can create huge practical world has gone about inter-basin water transfer (IBT)
problems for the project projects at a brisk pace during the past 50 years or so.
Global and local opposition now withstanding, China
Environment has steadfastly stayed course on its own scheme of
Canals will pass through national parks and sanctuaries. transferring 48KM3 of water from Yangtze to the
The ministry of environment has not given permission Yellow River to improve water availability in dry plains
even for carrying out initial surveys. R K Pachauri of of North china. Elsewhere in the world many IBT
Tata Energy Research Institute says, "The government projects have faced a variety of problems and produced
needs to answer how many people will be displaced by some unwanted side effects; however, in overall terms,
dams and canals? What about the flora and fauna? How most have turned out to be beneficial. Even a wary
will the soil be affected?" global environmental review of IBTs - which advocates
using precautionary principle, concluded that: “In many
Excess water during monsoons parts of the world, water transfers have become the
Sunita Narain of the Centre for Science and lifeblood of developing and extant human settlements,
Environment says, "Monsoons happen all over India at
The Kinabatangan River-Malaysia Small farms in the area produce milk, potatoes and other
vegetables. Charcoal production, generally undertaken
It is the largest and longest river in the Malaysian state
by the poorest farmers and those members of the
of Sabah. It has a main channel length of about 560 km,
community without any land of their own, is an
a catchment area of about 16,800 km² and covers almost
important but unsustainable economic activity, resulting
23% of the total land area of Sabah. Mean annual
in progressive degradation of forest cover and resources.
rainfall in the catchment is between 2,500 mm and
3,000 mm. Flooding is common along the Lake Chad-Africa
Kinabatangan, with major flood events causing serious
As big as the Caspian Sea as recently as 8,500 years
damage to livelihoods and property in 1963, 1967, 1986
ago, Lake Chad is now Africa's fourth largest lake, with
and 1996. The Kinabatangan floodplain is the largest
a maximum extent of 25,000km². One of three major
remaining forested floodplain in Sabah and the lower
wetlands located within the Sudano-Sahelian zone (the
stretches of the Kinabatangan River contain some of the
others being the Niger River Inner Delta in Mali, and
few surviving freshwater swamp rainforests and oxbow
the Sudd Swamps in Sudan), Lake Chad is rather
lakes in South-East Asia. These evergreen swamp
shallow and has been particularly susceptible to the
rainforests are of global significance for biodiversity
increasing variability and irregularity of rainfall during
conservation.
the last 40 years. It has fluctuated greatly during this
Socio-economic importance period, shrinking by up to 80% in 1985, but reaching
19,000km² once more in 2001.The River Chari - along
The river, used for transport, trade and communication,
with its tributary, the Logone - provides 90% of the
has been the lifeblood of local people for centuries.
inflow to the lake, while the remaining 10% comes from
Forest products such as edible birds’ nests and bees'
the Komadougou-Yobe River system. Three-quarters of
wax, elephant ivory and hornbill casques were once
the water entering the lake north of N'djamena originate
traded. Nowadays there are about 20 palm oil mills in
from headwaters in the Central African Republic and, to
the Kinabatangan basin, which process the produce
a lesser extent, Cameroon.
from rapidly expanding oil palm plantations. The oil is
used in the production of margarine, soap, livestock Socio-economic importance
feed, lubricants, and many other industrial and
The Lake Chad basin supports more than 20 million
household products.
people. The local economy in the upper part of the
Large-scale commercial logging and small-scale catchment is based on fishing, agriculture and
farming began along the Kinabatangan in the early pastoralism. However, people living around the lake
1950s. This provided the people of Sabah with income lack access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation.
and employment. Several forest reserves were created in More than 150,000 fishermen live on the lake's shores
the 1970s, but these were quickly reallocated for and its islands. The current estimate of annual fish
agricultural use. The lower Kinabatangan, with its production from the lake is 60,000 to 70,000 tonnes.
unique biodiversity, is also increasingly recognized as a However, as a result of environmental changes since the
destination for ecotourism and local people are 1970s, including fluctuations in lake level, there have
becoming involved in this activity. been considerable changes in the fish fauna. These
include high mortality, the disappearance of some open-
La Cocha- South America
water species, and the appearance of species adapted to
La Cocha (which simply means 'lake') is a high Andean swamp conditions in areas where they were previously
lake located on the eastern slopes of the southern Andes unknown. The raising of cattle, sheep and camels - by
of Colombia, just north of the border with Ecuador. It local as well as nomadic herders - is also economically
forms part of the upper watershed of the Guamués important, together with cultivation of some traditional
River, an important tributary of the Putumayo and San crops. The most common system is lake-bottom
Miguel Rivers, themselves major tributaries of the cropping or receding moisture cultivation, which has
Amazon basin. The lake and the immediately been a response to the contraction of Lake Chad.
surrounding land lie between 2,700m and 2,800m above Villagers have shifted from relying entirely on fishing,
sea level and cover a total area of approximately to farming the emergent lake floor as flood water
39,000ha, comprising the largest wetland system in the recedes. A few large-scale irrigation schemes (polders)
Colombian Andes. The water-body itself is some 13km developed on some parts of the lake shore have proven
long and 6km wide. The basin includes wetlands, cloud totally unsuited to the hydrological, climatic and
forest and 'paramo' (high montane grassland). cultural conditions in the Lake Chad region, and can be
considered as complete failures. Though still quite
Socio-economic importance
marginal, the production of spiruline (blue algae) seems
to be gaining economic importance.
Abstract: There are various thermal and cold springs located in Dumka district of Jharkhand, India. These springs
are issuing through the Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) and Rajmahal trap. Surface temperatures of the
thermal springs range between 42° to 70°C and are near neutral to moderately alkaline(pH = 6.9 - 9.5) in nature.
Position of thermal water in Piper diagram suggests that the thermal springs are Na-Cl type and the chemistry of
thermal springs is compatible with the host rock of the area. Cold springs of the area are near neutral (pH = 7.4-7.5)
in nature and fall in Ca-HCO3 field in Piper diagram, indicating that the circulation of the cold springs is through
sedimentary formation. Estimated reservoir temperature based on chemical geothermometers ranges between 92° to
138°C; indicating that these thermal springs are suited for low enthalpy geothermal system.
Keywords: Dumka thermal springs, thermal water geochemistry, reservoir temperature.
Fig1: Regional geological setting and location of the study area (modified after [3, 4, 5, 6, and 7])
Present investigation is based on establishing the zone, fold axis, joint planes and alignment of these
geochemical evolution of Dumka district thermal thermal springs, it may be assumed that the emergence
springs and estimation of the reservoir temperature. of hot water and gases is controlled by intersecting
fractures trending N–S and NW–SE, as well as NE–SW.
2. Geology of the area:
3. Methodology and results:
The study area falls in the Chotanagpur Gneissic
Complex (CGC) of the eastern Indian Peninsular region Representative water samples were collected from
that, has been subjected to major tectonic activities at Dumka area (Fig. 1). All the water samples were
different cycles of plate movements with intervening collected in 2 sets. One set of water samples was
periods of isostatic readjustment during Precambrian [4] acidified with HNO 3 onsite and the other set was
to Cenozoic time [8, 9, 10, 6]. Major tectonic features of stored at a lower temperature for future analysis [12,
Jharkhand includes Gondwana faults that may have a 13]. Water samples from the study area include
Precambrian ancestry, faulting related to the samples from thermal springs, bore wells, and cold
distensional tectonics associated with Rajmahal springs. The pH and temperature measurements
Volcanism and the back thrust from the Himalayan were determined in the field itself using ORION pH
collision zone [11]. The most striking structural feature meter. Water samples were analyzed for major
of the area is a N–S trending weak sheared zone, cations and anions concentration. Cations and silica
marked by repeated silicification and brecciation, that were analyzed using ICP-AES. Sulphate
can be traceable over 1.4 km from Gohaliara to concentration was measured with the aid of UV-
Tantipara and further north (Fig. 1). The granite gneiss visible spectrophotometer, alkalinity by H 2 SO 4
is tectonically deformed giving rise to anticlinal and titration and chloride using ion selective electrod e
synclinal folds [1]. A large number of dolerite dykes method (Table 1). These analyses were done as per
transect the granites trending parallel to the regional the standard procedures [14].
fractures (Fig. 1). Considering the trends of silicified
Table 1: Data of water samples collected from Dumka area, analysis for the major ions (concentrations in mg/L)
*Sr No. pH °C Na K Ca Mg Cl HCO3 SO4 SiO2
1 9.2 62 90.9 1.3 1.2 0.01 55.1 80.0 48.8 72.5
2 7.5 64 93.2 1.2 1.1 0.01 58.5 85.0 45.4 71.5
3 7.3 42 96.0 2.4 3.0 0.30 47.9 145.0 37.6 95.4
4 7.5 62 99.5 1.6 1.2 0.01 62.9 60.0 78.9 70.5
5 7.8 25 10.9 1.7 15.3 5.20 6.1 90.0 1.6 15.5
6 6.9 42 118.9 3.5 2.4 0.50 82.4 140.0 26.3 88.5
7 9.5 70 102.2 2.1 1.3 0.01 97.5 45.0 41.4 98.6
8 9.3 68 99.4 1.4 1.5 0.01 95.0 35.0 45.6 101.2
9 7.8 26 43.2 1.5 31.7 6.30 30.5 200.0 4.3 74.2
10 7.1 27 44.7 1.6 21.3 2.90 50.0 115.0 3.7 66.0
11 7.4 25 20.9 3.3 40.1 15.10 7.7 225.0 5.7 45.6
12 7.5 27 19.5 0.9 21.5 7.50 4.7 130.0 9.6 31.1
*1-4: Bara thermal spring; 5: Bara river water; 6: Lau-Lau-Dha or Shetpur thermal spring; 7-8: Tantaloi Thermal
spring; 9-10: Tantaloi groundwater; 11: Jhawar pani cold spring; 12: Taptapani cold spring
4. Discussions: groundwater is 15 to 74 mg/L. The ground water is Na-
HCO3 and Ca-HCO3 type.
4.1. Hydrogeochemistry:
The thermal springs have wide range of surface
Analyzed water samples from the study area were
temperature from 42° to 70° C. Thermal waters of
plotted in Piper’s diagram (Fig. 2) to understand the
Dumka area are near neutral to moderately alkaline
hydrogeochemistry of the waters. Groundwater and
(pH= 6.9-9.5) in nature may be due to escape of CO2
surface water of Dumka area are near neutral to slightly
from the thermal water [2]. SiO2 content in thermal
alkaline (pH=7.1-7.8 at 25°) and SiO2 content in
springs is relatively higher than the cold springs (72-101
mg/L). In the cations, Na is predominant (90-118 mg/L)
while concentration of K and Ca is low (<4 mg/L). the chemistry of thermal springs is compatible with the
Thermal water contains very less amount of Mg (0.01- chemistry of the host rock through which they circulate.
0.3 mg/L). Thermal springs of the study area are Na-Cl
Cold springs of the area have surface temperature
type; granites have probably played an important role in
between 25° to 27°C and are near neutral in the nature
providing the chloride to granite hosted geothermal
(pH = 7.4-7.5). Cold springs fall in the Ca-HCO3 field
system [15, 16, 17, 18]. As seen from the Piper diagram,
which suggests that the circulation of the cold springs is
within the alluvium or sedimentary formations.
Fig2: Piper trilinear diagram (1944) showing the geochemical variation of different water type from Dumka area.
4.2. Anion variation: Therefore, these thermal waters are believed to be fast
ascending with mild or no mixing with the near-surface
Water samples from the Dumka area were plotted in Cl-
groundwater. Shifting of sample # 4 toward the SO4
SO4-HCO3 diagram [20], to select suitable samples for
field suggests mixing of volcanic gases with the thermal
estimation of reservoir temperature using cations
waters. Other thermal springs falling in the HCO3 field
geothermometers. From Fig. 3 it is seen that the thermal
suggest that there is mixing of the near surface
waters of Tantaloi area (sample # 7, 8) are falling in the
groundwater.
Cl field and the ratio of HCO3/Cl is less than unity.
Fig3: Cl-SO4-HCO3 diagram showing the position of water samples from Dumka area, symbols are similar as Fig2.
Fig4: Na-K-√Mg geothermometers ternary diagram of Giggenbach [20] showing the variation in Dumaka area
thermal springs.
5. Conclusions: host rock chemistry of the area. Cold springs of the area
are near neutral in nature and plot in the Ca-HCO3 field,
There are many thermal and cold springs located in the
which suggests the circulation of cold springs may be
Dumka district of Jharkhand, India. Surface temperature
through the alluvium or sedimentary formations. Anion
of these thermal springs are in the range of 42° to 70 °C
variation diagram suggests that only sample # 7 & 8 are
while the cold springs temperature ranges from 24° to
fast ascending thermal fluid which show no or mild
27 °C. Thermal springs of the area are near neutral to
mixing of near surface groundwater, whereas other
moderately alkaline in nature and are Na-Cl type as
thermal water falls in the HCO3 field indicating near
observed from the Piper diagram. Position of the
surface groundwater mixing. Based on chemical
thermal waters in Piper diagram also suggests that the
geothermometry, the average estimated reservoir
chemistry of the thermal water is compatible with the
temperature ranges between 92° to 138 °C; which [10] Desikachar, S.V., Himalayan orogeny and plate
suggests that Dumka geothermal field can be classified tectonics-a geological interpretation. Misc. Publ.,
as low enthalpy geothermal system. Geol. Surv. India. 34, 29–39, Part 1, 1974.
[11] Mahadevan, T.M., Geology of Bihar & Jharkhand.
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Geological Society of India Bangalore. 1-563,
Authors are extremely thankful to Prof. N.J. Pawar and 2002.
Prof. Elango Lakshmanan for their valuable comments [12] Arnorsson, S., Isotopic and chemical techniques in
and suggestions to improve the quality of the paper. We geothermal exploration, development and use.
thank Prof. D.V Reddy, Editor in Chief, IJEE for IAEA, 2000.
encouraging publishing this paper in IJEE. We are also [13] Marini, L., Geochemical techniques for the
very thankful to Department of Earth Science, IIT exploration and exploration of geothermal energy.
Bombay for providing the facilities to carry out this Universita degli Studi di Genova, Italia, 2010.
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Abstract: Water scarcity globally has lead to severe problems in water management. Understanding the rate of
evaporation, from surface water resources is essential for precise management of the water balance. However,
evaporation is difficult to measure experimentally due to its nature. Preparing reliable forecasts of evaporation has
become an essential element towards efficient water management. The objective of this paper is to predict daily pan
evaporation using different kernel functions of Support Vector Machines (SVM’s) based regression approach for the
meteorological data obtained for the region ‘Lake Abaya’ which is located in the Great Rift Valley, southern part of
Ethiopia. The meteorological parameters considered for study includes daily details of mean-temperature (T), wind
speed (W), sunshine hours (Sh), relative humidity (Rh), rainfall (P). Among the kernel functions used for study, the
polynomial kernel function proved its credibility by showing improved performance in training and testing periods.
The evidence for performance of polynomial kernel function was seen in terms of correlation coefficient (CC)
obtained for training and testing is respectively 0.940, 0.956 which is acceptable.
Keywords: Evaporation, Support vector machine, Kernel functions.
Previous works on data modeling suggests that ANN networks for statistical downscaling [7]. SVM method
and ANFIS techniques have good performances for the was also applied for a one-day prediction of rainfall and
test data set; Between ANN and ANFIS, ANFIS model runoff. The data input of the model was acquired by
is slightly better albeit the difference is small. [10]. singular spectrum analysis and included a large entrance
space [22]. SVM is also utilized for the classification of
Recently, the SVM method has find applications in
remote sensing data, which was later used for modeling
various areas of hydrology: SVM was succefully
between rainfall and runoff and comparing the method
implemented for predicting floods [19]. Literature also
with artificial neural networks, SVM achieved good
shows use of SVM method for identifying the structure
results for prediction. [23]. Some authors also examined
of a radial function in networks. One of the papers
the capabilities of SVM to devise optimum monitoring
includes the modeling between rainfall and river
networks for groundwater and concluded that SVM can
discharges using the SVRBFN [20]. SVM also proposed
be used as an optimum method for selecting the optimal
on prediction of daily runoff combining with Chaos
stability network [24]. In one of the paper on SVM, it is
Theory [21].
also seen authors categorized the span of river flow into
The SVM algorithms have been widely used in various three parts and used the SVM method to predict the
modeling works including evaporation, the topic under daily flow in these three regions. [25].
consideration of present work. The SVMs algorithm
The SVM tools have wide range of kernel functions
provides good estimation of evaporation. The work
with various parameters, which helps users to generate
conducted on modeling evaporation using SVM
appropriate classification or regression. Three well
algorithm shows better performance in comparison to
known kernels were employed to study the
Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) [27]. The findings of
performance.
the study conducted on estimating the pan evaporation
from reservoirs suggests the usefulness of support
vector machines algorithm technique [6]. SVMs
technique used for simulating evaporation, results with the complexity parameter (C) = 1, exponent (E) =
reveals better performance of SVM; the authors also 1, epsilon parameter - The epsilon parameter of the
tried Gamma Test (GT) for the first time in modeling epsilon insensitive loss function = 0.001 and normalized
one of the key hydrological components i.e evaporation data filter.
[26].
Support vector machines are classification or regression with the complexity parameter (C) = 1, exponent (E) =
methods, which have been derived from statistical 1, epsilon parameter - The epsilon parameter of the
learning theory [7]. SVM’s are good at producing epsilon insensitive loss function = 0.001 and normalized
accurate and robust classification results on a sound data filter.
theoretical basis, even when input data are non-
monotone and non-linearly separable [7]. So they can
help to evaluate more relevant information in a
convenient way. The accuracy of results does not with the complexity parameter (C) = 1, gamma value =
depend on the quality of human expertise judgment for 0.01, epsilon parameter = 0.001 and normalized data
the optimal choice of the linearization function of non- filter.
linear input data, since they linearize data on an implicit
Literature on parameter optimization suggests that with
basis by means of kernel transformation [7]. SVM’s
proposed choice of E, the value of complexity
operate locally, so they are able to reflect in their score
parameter C has only negligible effect on the
the features of single companies, comparing their input
generalization performance. If C is too large, then the
variables with the ones of companies in the training
classification accuracy rate is very high in the training
sample showing similar constellations of financial
stage, but very low in the testing stage. If C is too small,
ratios. Although SVM’s do not deliver a parametric
then the classification accuracy rate is unsatisfactory,
score function, its local linear approximation can offer
making the model useless. Parameter C has negligible
an important support for recognizing the mechanisms
influence on classification outcomes, because its value
linking different financial ratios with the final score of a
influences the partitioning outcome in the feature space.
company [7]. For these reasons SVM’s are regarded as a
An optimal choice of the loss function i.e. epsilon
useful tool for effectively complementing the
parameter (E) should match a particular type of noise
information gained from classical linear classification
density [28].
techniques.
For this study, polynomial kernel a value of C =1.0
Recent literatures showed that SVM’s provide a
showed better results.
promising alternative to conventional artificial neural
f x between a set
has the advantage that ther is no need of all the input
regression estimation with SVR, attempt is made to
data for describing the regression vector w and can be
F f f x w, x B : w R , R R
and a class of functions: [7].
is equal to 0 if the difference between the
predicted f xi and the measured value yi is less than
n n
(1)
Where w and B are coefficients that have to be Ɛ. The choice of Ɛ value is easier than the choice of Cc
R f x l y f x , x dP x, y
risk functional: given by function that minimizes Eq. (5) subject to Eq.
(6) as in the following expression [8];[11];[10]:
x i i x, xi B
(2) N
f (7)
Where ‘l’ is a loss function used to measure the i 1
l y f x
only compute the empirical risk function as: data are often assumed to have zero mean (this can be
Remp f x
n achieved by pre-processing), so the bias term is
1 dropped. The kernel function is to enable operations to
(3)
i 1
i i
N be performed in the input space rather than the
potentially high dimensional feature space. Hence an
This traditional empirical risk minimization is not inner product in the feature space has an equivalent
advisable without any means of structural control or kernel in input space. In general, the Kernel functions
regularization. Therefore a regularized risk function treated by the SVR are the functions with the
with the smallest steepness among the functions that polynomial, RBF, Gaussian Radial Basis, Exponential
Rreg f x CC l ( yi f xi w
37°53′E respectively with maximum depth 13.1 m and
1 2
(5) is at an elevation of 1285 m from mean sea level.
xi X 2
There are number of small islands in the lake with water covered by the lake is not too much significant. The
volume is about 8.2 cubic km. The geology of the lake mean annual rainfall is around 1000 mm with
is of 50% volcanic origin with equally sedimentary and temperature changes from 24 °c to 30 °c throughout the
crystalline strata. The quality of the lake is alkaline- year as no significant wind speed variation.
saline with dominant ions being bicarbonate, sodium
2.2. Modeling evaporation with SVM:
and chloride. It may be due to longer residence time,
low freshwater inputs with high evaporation rate. The Model selection and parameters selection decides the
lake is red due to high load of suspended sediment. performance of SVM models. However in general there
Mean monthly evaporation is around 150 mm. [29]. is no guidance for kernel function selection. It depends
upon the data input pattern. The parameters comprising
the data set include pan evaporation (E) as the output
attribute and five input attributes representing mean
temperature (T), wind speed (W), sunshine hours (Sh)
and relative humidity (Rh), rainfall (P) . Table 1
displays the statistical analysis of attributes considered
for the study.
For model building and validation a total of 300 data
points were used in the present study. Figure 2 shows
the variation of above listed attributes with respect to
time (meteorological parameters considered for 300
days in the year 2005) [29]. The influences of the
Fig1: The Abaya lake Rift Valley drainage region parameters on the class attribute i.e pan evaporation
decide the accuracy of prediction and discussion with
Lake Abaya does not always have an outflow, but in results is made in subsequent section of results and
some years it overflows into Lake Chamo which is few discussion of this paper.
km away to the south. The existing irrigation area
Table1: Statistical analysis of the weather data taken for 300 days (Year 2005).
S. Standard deviation Coefficient of variation
Attribute Xmax. Xmin.
No. Sd. Cv.
1 Mean temperature (°c) 28.60 14.10 1.84 0.07
2 Wind speed (m/s) 15.99 0.39 2.22 0.32
3 Sunshine hours (No’s) 11.4 0.0 2.81 0.36
4 Relative humidity (%) 99 23 13.06 0.23
5 Rainfall (mm) 102.4 0.0 2.91 9.69
6 Pan evaporation (mm) 8.0 4.0 1.27 0.19
(a) (b)
(b) (d)
(e) (f)
Fig2: (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) showing variation of attributes pan evaporation (E), temperature (T), wind speed (W),
sunshine hours (Sh) and relative humidity (Rh), and rainfall (P) with respect to time.
The Support Vector Machines is used to calculate Coefficient of correlation: It represents the linear
correlation coefficient and root mean square error dependence between the two variables under
(RMSE) on training and testing models. The data set consideration. It is a popular global error statistic for
was categorized as training and testing data with ratio of measuring the goodness of fit of the models and tends to
70% training and 30% testing. Trained performance was give higher weight for the large difference attributable
be re-evaluated upon test models. SMO-Reg i.e the to the square of the difference between observed and
support vector machine for regression classifier predicted inflows. It quantifies the efficiency of a model
employed to generate the model on input data set in in capturing the complex, dynamic and nonlinear nature
predicting the pan evaporation. To reach at a suitable of the physical process being modeled. C.C equals to 1
choice of these parameters, the correlation coefficients indicates a perfect fit.
and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) were compared
and the parameter combination providing smallest value
of RMSE and higher value of correlation coefficient
was selected for final results.
Root Mean Square Error: RMSE is a frequently used Training and Testing models: Out of 300 data points
measure of the differences between predicted and 210 were selected for training purposes and remaining
observed values. The root mean square error is specially reserved for testing models with above mentioned
suited to iterative algorithms and is a better measure for parameters.
high values. It offers a general picture of the errors The SVM kernel functions employed produces different
involved in prediction. The measures involving the classification or regression of data, which in turn help
error-square terms are also sensitive to extreme values users to analyze and interpret the most influential
[18]. parameters relating to class attribute i.e evaporation.
2.3. Results and discussion:
Among the five meteorological variables considered, it
is possible that some may influence lot on the output
parameter than others. However it is observed fact in the square errors. The results obtained were better as well as
nature that the climatic or meteorological factors in comparable to cross validation.
general act in concert. Therefore, it is relevant to take
The cross-validation is a method of estimating the
into account the combined influence of all the
accuracy of a classification or regression model in
meteorological parameters on evaporation. In this study
which the input data set is divided into several parts (a
a combination of temperature, wind speed, sunshine
number defined by the user), with each part in turn used
hour, relative humidity, and rainfall tried which
to test a model fitted to the remaining parts. Usually 10-
provides a maximum value of correlation coefficient
fold cross validation is followed.
with minimum values of root mean square error in
comparison to other inputs combinations. In total three SVM kernel functions were selected to
demonstrate their performance in predicting reliable and
In order to exhibit a fair comparison of the SVM’s
accurate results. Results are displayed in table 2.
approach well known kernel functions were tested in
terms of the correlation coefficient and root mean
Table2: Results of models
Out of the six meteorological variables considered, it is polynomial kernel of SVM both in training and testing
clear that some would play very prominent role in periods. The factors for such performance may be
deciding the prediction accuracy. However it is equally attributed to several user defined parameters
important to consider them as a unit to analyze their implemented in SVM. The SVM tools offers less
combined effect. Figure 3 and figure 4 distinguishes the computational time in displaying results. The results
performance of kernel accuracy in predicting pan encourages SVM’s based modeling technique in
evaporation. accurate estimation of the evaporation as well as help to
overcome drawbacks faced in approaches as proposed
Figure 5 highlights the correlation among prediction and
in previous studies. There is a wide scope for further
actual pan evaporation values tested with polynomial
kernel functions to explore in forecasting large time
kernel.
series data.
3. Acknowledgements:
The authors are grateful to Dr. Mekonen Ayana, dean,
school of post graduate studies, Arbaminch University,
Ethiopia for his valuable support and access to data for
the research work.
The author wishes to thank reviewers for their
constructive comments to improve the article and editor
in chief for continuous communication and support.
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Abstract: In order to assess the Fluoride contamination in the groundwater of Narsampet area of Warangal district
of Andhra Pradesh, the study was conducted in the months of January 2012, November 2012 and July 2013. The
Fluoride concentration along with EC, pH in groundwater samples was determined in various villages of Narsampet
area. It is observed that the pH of groundwater in all the three seasons was well within limits and groundwater was
alkaline in nature. Electrical conductivity of the groundwater at 25oC varies from 92.3 to 5220 µS/cm (average 2118
µS/cm) during Jan 2012 post monsoon, 515 to 5974 µ S/cm (average 1851 µS/cm) in the Nov 2012 post monsoon
and 392 to 9072 µ S/cm (average 2129 µS/ cm) during July 2013 pre-monsoon season and Fluoride concentration
in the groundwater varies from 0.2 to 8 mg/L in January 2012, 0.3 mg/L to 8.0 mg/L in November 2012 post
monsoon and 0.47 mg/L to 5.1 mg/L in July 2013 pre monsoon seasons. While 35.1% of groundwater shows excess
fluoride prescribed for drinking purpose in January 2012 post monsoon, 46.8% of the groundwater contains excess
fluoride in the November 2012 post monsoon and 37.5% of the ground water contains excess fluoride in July 2013
pre monsoon seasons.
Keywords: Fluoride, fluoride contamination, Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
The present study area is located in the central east part standard methods [21]. The pH and conductivity were
of Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh and forms a part measured with pH meter and (Systronic) conductivity
of the Survey of India toposheet 56 O/13 (Figure 1). meter (CM-180). Fluoride concentrations were
The area geographically lies between longitude 79° 32" measured with Orion ion analyzer. The analytical
– 79° 54" East and latitude 17° 33" – 17° 55" North. results are presented in the Tables 1, 1a, 2, 2a and 3,
The study area goes through a hot climate during 3a.
summer (April-May) with a temperature range 30-46°C
3. Results and discussion:
and in winter 12-29°C. The average annual rainfall is
1114 mm occurring during monsoon (June-September). 3.1. pH:
The area is located at a distance of 176 km from
The pH of the groundwater is varying between 7.33-
Hyderabad. The area is occupied by the Granitic rocks
8.55 and 7.45 - 8.62 for post and 7.36 - 8.51 for pre-
of Archaean age.
monsoon seasons respectively. Groundwater in both the
seasons is alkaline (pH more than 7) in nature. There is
no general trend in the pH distribution (Figure. 3a, 4b
and 5a). pH value in all the three seasons remained
constant. pH is well within permissible limit (6.5 to
8.5).
3.2. Ec:
Electrical conductivity of the groundwater varies from
92.3 to 5220 µS/cm at 25oC (average 2118 µS/cm) in
the post monsoon, (January 2012) (Figure 3b) and 515 to
5974 µS/cm (average 1851 µS/cm) during post monsoon
season, (November 2012) (Figure 4a). In pre-monsoon
(July 2013) (Figure 5b) the range of EC is 392 µS/cm to
9072 µS/cm (average 2129 µS/cm). The acceptable
limit of Ec in drinking water is less than 1500 µS/cm
[21]. 61.4% and 48.9% of samples in post monsoon and
60.71% of samples in pre monsoon show values
higher than the prescribed limit. The higher values of
electrical conductance are indicative of high ionic
concentrations in the groundwater.
3.3. Fluoride (F-):
Fluoride concentration in the groundwater varies from
Fig1: Location of the Study Area 0.2 mg/L to 8.0 mg/L and 0.3 mg/L to 8.0 mg/L in the
2. Materials and Methods: post monsoon seasons (January 2012 and November
2012) (Figure 3c and 4c) and 0.47 to 5.1 mg/L in pre-
The sampling locations were fixed by Global positioning monsoon season, July 2013 (Figure 5c). while 35.1 and
system (GPS). Groundwater samples were collected 46.8% of groundwater shows excess fluoride prescribed
from regularly used bore wells, hand pumps and open for drinking purpose in post monsoon (Jan 2012 and
wells location map of the groundwater samples is Nov 2013) 37.5% of the groundwater contains excess
presented in Figure 2. Fifty seven, forty seven and fifty fluoride in the pre monsoon (July 2013)). Highest
six samples are collected during post monsoon (January permissible limit is 1.5 mg/L [21]. The maximum
2012) and (November 2012), pre-monsoon season (July concentration of fluoride is found to be 8.0 mg/L in
2013) in Narsampet and Chennaraopet areas of January 2012 and November 2012. (Mukdumpuram,
Warangal district. The samples were collected in clean North West and Ayyappa swami temple, North central
two liter polythene bottles and analyzed for pH, part of the study area) (Figure 3c and 4c)
electrical conductivity (Ec) and fluoride (F-) as per
Fig2: Location of the groundwater samples collected in the study area in January 2012.
In January 2012 eight samples (Ayyappa swami temple, Dwarakapet, Marrinarasaiahpally) respectively. In post
Narsampet, Sarvapuram, Khanapur, Mukhudhumpuram, monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons fluoride
Gurjala 1, Gurjala 2, and Marrinarasaiahpally) were concentration was maximum in Ayappa swami temple,
having concentration 3 mg/L or more whereas in Narsampet 8 and 5 mg/L. 4 to14% of the water samples
November and July the number is five (Ayyappaswami during three seasons were below the prescribed
Temple, Narsampet Sarvapuram1, Sarvapura 2, concentration of 0.6 mg/L.
Dwarakapet) and four (Ayyappaswami Temple,
[4] Ozsvath, D. L., “Fluoride and environmental fluoride distribution”. Journal of Applied
health: a review”. Reviews in Environmental Geochemistry, 15(2), 238-249, 2013.
Science and Biotechnology, 8(1), 59–79, 2009. [14] Narsimha, A., and V. Sudarshan.
[5] Walna, B., Kurzyca, I., & Siepak, J., “ Variations in "Hydrogeochemistry of groundwater in Basara
the fluoride level in precipitation in a region of area, Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh, India."
human impact”. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 7, Journal of Applied Geochemistry 15.2: 224-237,
33–40, 2007. 2013.
[6] Deshkar, S.M., Deshmukh, A.N. and Vali, S.A. [15] Narsimha, A., Sudarshan, V., Srinivasulu, P.,
“Safe limit of fluoride content in drinking water in Vishnu, B., Kumar, M. R., & Kumar, S. N..
different climatic zones of India”. Indian Jour. “Groundwater Quality and its Suitability for
Envir. Health, v.2, pp.17-20, 1999. Drinking and Agricultural Purpose Around Chityal
[7] Susheela A.K, Fluorosis management programme Area, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India”.
in India. Curr Sci 77:1250–1256, 1999. Water Res. Dev, 2(3), 68-75, 2012.
[8] Ramamohana Rao N.V, Rajyalakshmi K, “Endemic [16] Shortt HE, McRobert G.R, Barnard T.W,
fluorosis in Andhra Pradesh: suggested measures Mannadinayer A.S., “Endemic fluorosis in Madras
for prevention and control. In: Proceedings of the Presidency”. Indian J Med Res 25:553–561, 1937.
Symposium on Fluorosis”. Indian Academic [17] Pandit C. G., Raghava Chary, Rao T. N. S. and
Geoscience, 1974. Krishna Moorthy V., “Endemic fluorosis in South
[9] Sudarshan, V and Rajeswara Reddy, B., “Pollution India”. Indian J. Med. Res., Vol. 28. Page 533,
of Fluoride in Groundwater and it's impact on 1940.
Environment and Socio-economic status of the [18] Tiwari, A. K., Dikshit, R. P., Tripathi, I. P., &
people-A case study in Sivannagudem area of Chaturvedi, S.K., “Fluoride content in drinking
Andhra Pradesh, India”. Indian Journal of water and ground water quality in rural areas of
Environmental Protection, Vol.11, No.3, pp.185- Tehsil Mau district, Chitrakoot”. Indian Journal of
192, 1991. Environmental Protection, 23(9), 1045–1050, 2003.
[10] Govardhan Das. S.V and Sudarshan, V., “Major ion [19] Nawlakhe, W. G., & Bulusu, K. R., “Water
geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater, treatment technologies for removal of excessive
Markapur area, Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh, fluoride”. In C. P. Gupta (Ed.), Appropriate
India”. Environmental Geochemistry, Vol. 6, No. methodologies for development and management of
1&2, pp. 13-20, 2003. ground water resources in developing
[11] Sunitha, V, Sudarshan, V. and Rajeswara Reddy, B. countries,Vol. 2, pp. 815–828, 1989.
“Hydro geochemistry of groundwater, Gooty area, [20] Gupta and Banerjee, “Fluoride accumulation in
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[12] V. Sudarshan and S. V. Govardhan das, “Nitrate report fluoride, 44(3)153–157, 2011.
and Fluoride Distribution in the Groundwater of [21] APHA, Standard Methods for Examination of
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district of Andhra Pradesh with special reference to
Abstract: The Palaeo- to Meso-Proterozoic North Singhbhum Mobile Belt (NSMB) refers to the assembly of
multiphase folded, low to medium grade meta-sedimentary and meta-igneous rocks of Proterozoic age (1.0–2.4 Ga),
lying between the Archean Singhbhum Craton in the south, and the Meso/Neo-Proterozoic (0.9–1.7 Ga)
Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) in the north. Gold occurrences of moderate concentration have been reported
from different parts of NSMB within the volcano-sedimentary and meta-sedimentary rocks like quartzite, schist,
phyllites etc. The auriferous mineralization is associated with sheared rocks that are traversed by veins of quartz and
quartz-calcite. Gold occurs mainly in association with sulfides like pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, etc. Arsenopyrite and pyrite are closely linked with gold occurrences in the area. The gold seems to occur
as occluded grains within quartzite and is quite pronounced when arsenopyrite is of finer in size. The mineralization
is structurally controlled and is associated with latter stages of deformation.
Keywords: NSMB; Gold mineralization, Singhbhum Craton, Archean, Proterozoic, Chandil Formation.
folding within the recrystallized rocks of the Singhbhum the bedding, defining the blunt hinged synformal
Group. In Chaibasa Formation of the Singhbhum closures and puckered nature of the S0. The large scale
Group, the F1 folds are few and small, and are folds in the bedding schistosity are considered the
characterized by reclined geometry, found at places as outcome of F2 in the Galudih near Ghatsila [24]. The F2
rootless hinges with mineral lineation (L1) due to fold in the northern belt is asymmetric and indicates that
intersection of S0/S1. The second phase of folding (F2) is rocks in the north have moved upwards relative to the
generally coaxial with F1 (Figures 3a, b) and gave rise to rocks of the south. In the southern part, the F2 fold is
E-W regional folds with a strong axial plane foliation upright in nature with regional foliation maintaining a
(S2) that is recognized as regional foliation in the vertical attitude.
terrain. Secondary foliation is developed at low angle to
(Chaibasa formation)
----------------------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------------------------
Singhbhum Granite;
2.9 Orthogneisses
Iron Ore Group
----------------------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------------------------
Older Metamorphic
3.8
Group Gneisses
Older Metamorphic
Group supracrustal rocks
Basement? Basement? Basement?
2.1.2. Structural control on gold mineralization in the introduction of quartz-carbonate veins that contain
area: native gold. Gold is occurring as free phase, mainly in
association with arsenopyrite. Quartz - carbonate veins
Au mineralization is structurally controlled and occurs
occur along shear planes in chlorite-quartz schist.
within the tuffaceous quartzose phyllite with
intercalated quartzite [30]. This lithounit is 2.1.3. Petrographic Characteristics of Host rocks:
characterized by strong foliation (S1) and stretching
Detailed petrographic studies of the rock types were
lineation. Stretching of quartz grains led to the
carried out for samples collected mostly from surface
formation of quartz ribbons. In quartzose part, very fine
exposures along the nala (small stream) sections and
polygonal quarts grains are present and quartz ribbons
also from the core samples. Thin and polished sections
are recrystallised.
were studied to identify the mineral assemblage and also
Petrographic studies show fine- to medium-sized to understand the control on gold mineralization.
aggregate of arsenopyrite grains that occur along the Approximately 100 representative samples were
schistosity. The arsenopyrite bands follow the quartz collected from the area. Representative thin sections
veins and fill the fractures of the schistose rock. At have been studied in detail to see the textural and
places, arsenopyrite occurs along with pyrite and both mineralogical variations along with the effects of
have experienced late fracturing together with the alteration, including hydrothermal alterations.
Fig3: Field photograph showing a) & b) hook shaped fold in cherty phyllite, c) Presence of three sets of foliation in
phyllite in Sindauri area, d) Two sets of foliation in Sindauri area, e) Two sets of perpendicular joint set in phyllite
in Sindauri area and f) Formation of quartz boudins in ferruginous quartzite, exposed along the shear zone in
Parasi area.
2.1.4. Ore Mineralogy and Textural Features: Sulfides: Pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite,.
In the study area, the sulfide and oxide ore minerals are
concentrated within the quartz veins that are traversing Oxides: Magnetite, ilmenite
through the host rocks, i.e., quartz-magnetite-biotite- Gangue Minerals: Quartz, biotite, sericite, tremolite,
sericite schist and amphibolites. Around 15 thin and actinolite, hornblende and epidote.
polished sections were studied for the detailed ore
Details of different types of ore minerals found in the
microscopic observations.
area are presented below.
The principal ore minerals and their associated gangue
Gold: Gold mineralization is structurally controlled by
minerals are as follows:
phyllite ± tuff with intercalated quartzite. The auriferous
Native Metal: Gold. mineralization is mostly found in sulfide minerals
(Figure 5). Arsenopyrite, pyrite and rarely pyrrhotite are Arsenopyrite: This is used as a pathfinder mineral for
in the descending order of abundance. gold exploration in the study area. It often contains
inclusions of chalcopyrite, sphalerite and pyrrhotite.
Gold mineralization within the area has been observed
Three different generations of arsenopyrite have been
preferably in association with sulfide mineralization,
observed. They occur as idiomorphic crystals with
i.e., pyrite and arsenopyrite. The auriferous
characteristic rhombohedra shape and, at places, show
mineralization is in the form of disseminated specks,
sign of mylonitic deformation. This arsenopyrite
stringers, fracture-fillings, streaks and veinlets. Effect of
exhibits deformational fabric and cataclastic texture
shearing is well evident by the presence of stretched
along the shear fracture within the shear zone.
mineral grains and the presence of mylonite and
Arsenopyrite grains are also fractured and are replaced
ultramylonite. Morphologically, the size of native gold
by fractured pyrite.
is variable and ranges from microns or as inclusions
within sulfides to large visible form, called as nuggets. Chalcopyrite: Chalcopyrite is present in lesser amount,
as compared to other sulfides like pyrite, pyrrhotite and
Pyrite: Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide phase with a
arsenopyrite. It occurs as disseminations, stringers and
size variation from 0.01 mm to 5 mm and occurs mostly
along fracture-filled thin veinlets, in association with
as euhedral to subhedral cubes and pyritohedrons of
pyrrhotite, pyrite and sphalerite.
different generations. Pyrite is stable over a wide range
of sulphur activity and because of its high thermal Galena: Galena is present in comparatively very lesser
stability (7420C at low pressure), it is stable up to the amount and occurs in association with pyrrhotite, pyrite,
highest grades of metamorphism. Pyrite grains within chalcopyrite and sphalerite. These grains commonly
the quartz veins are highly fractured and sheared. occur in irregular and anhedral to subhedral form, and
Within the chlorite schist and carbon phyllite, grains are are medium grained, with their size being of ~ 0.6 mm
perfectly euhedral and are not affected by any (Figure 4).
deformation. In some sections, typical euhedral and Magnetite: Magnetite occurs in association with pyrite
cubic grains of pyrite is also observed, which are and pyrrhotite. Its grains are commonly idiobalstic to
possibly of later generation (Figure 4). Pyrite has also subidioblastic (Figure 4c).
been found to occur within the quartz veinlets of Ilmenite: Ilmenite occurs in association with pyrite and
metabasics. Micro-scale fracturing in pyrite and chalcopyrite. Its grains are generally lath-shaped and
arsenopyrite suggests the effect of deformation. The fibrous, and occur as disseminations.
gold-bearing pyrite grains are pervasively fractured and
2.1.5. Wall Rock Alteration:
are of having irregular grain boundaries. Gold
inclusions of 2μm to 50μm size are seen within the Wall rock alteration is a common feature, associated
fractures of pyrite grains. with hydrothermal gold deposits present around the
world [31]. Rocks of Chandil formation show
Pyrrhotite: Pyrrhotite is associated with arsenopyrite,
characteristic mineralogical changes in proximity with
pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and also with galena. In
the mineralized zone. Petrographic studies revealed that
order of abundance, pyrrhotite is lesser than pyrite and
four major types of alterations have occurred in the area,
arsenopyrite. It occurs generally as irregular,
viz., sulfidization, chloritization, sericitization and
allotriomorphic deformed grains associated with
carbonatization, along with silicification and
chalcopyrite (Figures 4, 6, 7). They occur in quartz
biotitization.
veins and also in the altered wall rock zones, either in
the form of individual grains or inclusions within the Sulfidization:
arsenopyrite, pyrite and chalcopyrite. In mineralized
The common sulfide minerals observed in the area are
quartz veins, pyrrhotite is associated with sulfides like
pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite and
arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite,
sphalerite. Some of the pyrite and arsenopyrite grains
whereas in magnetite-quartz-biotite-sericite schist and
are shattered and crushed, suggesting deformation of
carbonaceous phyllite, they have been observed in
rocks due to shearing activity. Such zones have
association with pyrrhotite. Pyrrhotite, occurring within
undergone strong chemical and mineralogical changes
the quartz veins, is altered to pyrite at the peripheral
due to mobility of a number of mobile cations like Fe,
zones. These pyrites are texturally different from the
Mg, Ca, and Na. Intense alteration to sulfide is due to
first generation pyrite and lack the typical euhedral
the addition of sulfur +water in the system with low
shape (Figure 5). It also shows replacement texture
CO2. Ferromagnesian silicates get enriched with sulfur
along with galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite (Figure 4, 6, 7).
and have resulted in the deposition of sulfides.
Fig4: Photomicrographs of thin and polished sections (under XPL) of rocks sample showing a) pyrite, chalcopyrite
and ilmenite grains, and replacement texture between chalcopyrite and pyrite in schistose quartzite; b) pyrite,
chalcopyrite and galena grains, and replacement texture among them in schistose quartzite; c) pyrite, chalcopyrite
and magnetite grains, and replacement texture among chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite in schistose quartzite; d)
galena and pyrrhotite grains, and replacement texture between galena and pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite; e)
replacement texture between chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite; f) 2 nd generation pyrrhotite mineralization along the fault
plane in quartzite.
Fig5: Photomicrographs of thin polished sections (under XPL) of rocks sample showing a) occurrence of pyrrhotite
along the limbs of quartz vein in schistose quartzite; b) occurrence of chalcopyrite along a fold in schistose
quartzite; c) micro faulting in quartz vein in schistose quartzite; d) & e) ductile deformation in quartz vein in
schistose quartzite; f) micro-faulting in quartz vein.
Fig6: Photomicrographs of thin polished sections (under XPL) of rocks sample showing a) & b) occurrence of
pyrrhotite along a quartz vein in schistose quartzite; c) & d) En echelon texture in pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite;
e) pyrrhotite showing twining, separating coarse grained quartz from fine grained quartz; and f) alignment of
pyrrhotite grains along F2 plane.
Fig7: Photomicrographs of thin polished sections (under XPL) of core sample showing a) deformed pyrrhotite in
schistose quartzite; b) disseminated pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite; c) en echelon texture in pyrrhotite in schistose
quartzite; d) replacement texture between chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite; e) occurrence of
pyrrhotite along with pyrite and little amount of chalcopyrite; and f) pyrrhotite, replaced by chalcopyrite.
Fig8: Gold grains along the grain boundaries of quartz (observed under XPL)
Chloritization: rearrangement of K, Al and SiO2). This process involves
the introduction of K and H2O into the rocks and
This is a prevalent alteration process, observed in
removal of mobile cations like Fe, Ca and Mg. The
almost all the types of gold deposits and is characterized
appearance of white mica can be as per the following
by the dominance of chlorite. Chloritization is the most
reactions:
common type of alteration in the area. In field, greenish
appearance makes it readily distinguishable from other Mg-chlorite + Ankerite/Cal + CO2 + K → Ankerite/
alteration zones. Mineral assemblage in this zone Cal + Sericite; Qtz + H2O/Chloite + K → Sericite +
contains Quartz + H2O
Chlorite + hornblende + actinolite + calcite + sericite Carbonatization:
+ quartz
This process is marked by the formation of secondary
Chlorite is a secondary mineral formed by hydrothermal carbonates in the host rock. The secondary carbonates
alteration of hornblende and actinolite of the host rock. incorporate calcite, ankerite and dolomite. Calcite and
The common reaction is expressed as: (Fe, Mg) silicate dolomite have been detected away from the quartz
+ H20 + CO2 + K → Chlorite + Calcite + Quartz + veins, while ankerite is found closer to the quartz veins.
Sericite. Proportion of quartz and muscovite is higher compared
to the zone of chloritization. The interaction between
Sericitization:
fluid and mafic rocks has resulted in the formation of
This is a common alteration process in epigenetic gold quartz-carbonate association, which can be expressed as
deposits and named after the prevalent white mica, i.e., a general equation: (Fe, Mg,) silicate + CO 2 → Calcite /
sericite. The general mineral assemblage in this zone is ankerite + Quartz + H2O. It is apparent from the
sericite + muscovite + quartz + chlorite + calcite + reaction, that the fluid is relatively carbonaceous during
albite. Sericite may have been formed due to hydration the growth of the zone. Carbonatization is of rare
of feldspars or by alteration of other silicates (i.e., occurrence in the area.
Mineral Stage-I Stage-II Stage-III
Quartz
Sericite
Ilmenite
Magnetite
Carbonate
Pyrrhotite
Pyrite
Arsenopyrite
Sphalerite
Chalcopyrite
Galena
Gold
Fig9: Paragenetic sequence of gold and associated sulfide & oxide ore minerals, and gangue minerals, established
based on their textural relationships in the study rocks.
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Abstract: An Expert System is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert.
Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge, like an expert, and not by
following the procedure of a developer as is the case in conventional programming. The first expert systems were
created in the 1970s and then proliferated in the 1980s. In this paper, an effort has been made to sum up some of the
useful expert systems and their working principles for effective use in mining operations.
Keywords: expert system, optimization, logic blocks.
3. Representation of fuzzy knowledge: Experts’ different capacities and then these databases are used to
knowledge can be ambiguous and imprecise. select proper configuration.
Expert knowledge can be assigned a reliability
factor b (0 < b <1). There are three ways to
determine the value of b. They are: mathematical
method, expert judgment method and similarity
comparison method.
The IS and CS consist of a set of programs which
controls and coordinates the whole system (Wu, 1991).
IS acts as the key of the expert system. It solves the
problem according to certain inference and control
strategies using the knowledge base. They work like
this: the user provides inputs and the related facts are
stored in the knowledge base through CS and IS. Based
on the initial inference results, the relevant optimization
technique module is invoked through IS, and then the
final optimal recommendation is made.
Optimization techniques:
One can get a set of initial solutions such as Ai (i= ¼ 1,
2, 3, ¼, n) on using expert systems like CMEOC. But
the user only wants an optimum solution, so it is Fig5: Hydraulic excavator–truck selection expert
necessary to find an optimal solution on the basis of system structure (Kirmanli and Ercelebi, 2009)
initial solutions. IS uses the solutions obtained from the
inference process as the intermediate solution and In this system ‘IF’ and ‘THEN’ format have been used
passes that to the intermediate scheme database M1, to construct Production Rules, and a new rule can be
M2, ¼, Mn. Then IS invokes the relevant optimization added whenever it is needed.
techniques to make the final recommendation. Methods which are formed with more than one rule are
widely used in expert systems to reduce complexity and
6. An expert for hydraulic excavator and truck working time.
selection in surface mining: This type of expert system has two main databases
This system was developed by Kirmanli and Ercelebi, in (Kirmanli and Ercelebi, 2009):
2009. The main purpose of this expert system is to 1. The hydraulic excavator database.
choose the most appropriate configuration of hydraulic 2. Truck database.
excavator and truck so that unit production cost is With the aid of the output module, the results are
minimized and technical constraints such as geological, displayed on the screen and can either be printed or
geotechnical and mining constraints are satisfied. This saved in a file.
ES consist of four modules (fig. 5) (Kirmanli and
Ercelebi, 2009): 6.1. Equipment selection criteria:
1. User interface. This criteria is important for the selection of hydraulic
2. Rules database. excavators and trucks. It is divided in to six classes:
3. Methods database. 1. Diggability.
4. Output module. 2. Production criteria
This type of ES is developed within Kappa PC shell. It 3. Mine parameters
also supports object-orientated technology for the MS 4. Geological and geotechnical factors
Windows environment (C. Kirmanli and S.G. Ercelebi, 5. Equipment criteria
2009). 6. Unit production cost.
It acts as a very useful tool to practitioners by saving Diggability: The main parameters of the dig-ability
time and cost. This type of expert system overcomes the classification system are:
difficulties of selecting the proper equipment for surface 1. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS).
mining operations, which is very important, and results 2. Seismic velocity.
in tremendous savings. First of all, equipment databases 3. Degree of weathering.
are made for hydraulic excavators and trucks with 4. The characteristics of joint sets.
5. Thickness of formation.
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, element approach, International Journal of Earth
Volume 109,pp. 727-737 Sciences & Enggineering, 3:11-23.
[3] Hong Zhang and Guanghui Zhao, CMEOC—An [9] V. R. Sastry and K. Ram Chandar, 2008.
expert system in the coal mining industry, Journal Assessment of blast performance based on energy
of China University of Mining and Technology, distribution: Proc. 42nd American Rock Mechanics
Xuzhou 221008, People’s Republic of China vol. Association Conference, San Francisco, USA, 29th
16, pp. 73-77 June-02nd July- 2008.
[4] Huang Xin, An integrated decision support system [10] V. R. Sastry, V. R and K. Ram Chandar, 2010.
for Backfill design, Thesis, 1994. Stability analysis of highwall- case study of an
[5] K. Sarkar, V. Vishal and T N Singh, 2012, an opencast coal mining project. Mining Engineers
empericla correlation of index geomechanical Journal, Vol-12, No.4, Nov-2010, 18-24.
properties with the compressional wave velocity, [11] K. Ram Chandar, T.N Singh and P. Ravi Kiran, P.,
Geotc. Geol. Engg., 469-479. 2001. A computational approach for prediction of
[6] S. Vongpaisal, G. Li, R. Pakalnis & T. Brady, New rock fragmentation, Mining Engineers Journal,
development of expert system module for a July-2001, 16-25.
decision-making on mine stope stability in [12] K. Ram Chandar, K. 2002. Computer aided design
underground blastholemining operations, of hydraulic stowing. Coal Mining Technology &
International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Management, March-2002, 1-8.
Environment,pp.41-51 [13] K. Ram Chandar and T. N Singh, 2002. Computer
[7] R. Trivedi, V. Vishal, S. P. Pradhan, T. N. Singh, J. aided roof load estimation for bord & pillar
C. Jhanwar, 2012, Slope stability analysis in workings, Mineral Industry: Issues on Economics,
limestone mines, International Journal of Earth Environment and Technology-2002, 65-74.
Sciences and Engineering, 5(4): 759-766. [14] Zhang Y. 1988. An expert system for strip mining
[8] V. Vishal, S. P. Pradhan and T N Singh, 2010, under the buildings, Journal of China University of
Instability Assessment of Mine slope- A finite Mining and Technology, vol.4, pp. 44–50.
Abstract: Wireline log and limited core samples data were integrated to used in order to reconstruct paleo
environment of deposition of Miocene sequence in the well Bakhrabad-09, Marichakandi structure, Bengal Basin.
The main aim of this study was to interpret the depositional environment of the Miocene sedimentary sequence
using electrofacies analysis. Miocene sequence was subdivided into two sequences that consist of 7 first-order
cycles and 33 second-order cycles in the study area. The identified electrofacies were bell, funnel and egg/bow,
linear and cylindrical shaped etc. in nature. The environment of the Upper Bhuban sequence-2 (UBS-2) inferred to
be deposited (2955 to 2280 m) under lower deltaic plain to marginal marine setting while the Boka Bil sequence-1
(BBS-1) presumed to be deposited (2280 to 799 m) under fluvio-deltaic setting to shallow marine environment. The
study revealed that both deltaic progressive and retrogressive phases occurred more frequently during the deposition
of both sequences (UBS2-BBS1) but whole nature of eletrofacies shows coarsening upward deltaic progradation.
Keywords: Miocene sequence, Depositional environment, Electrofacies analysis and Deltaic progradation.
Fig1: Location map showing the study well Bakhrabad-09 in the Marichakandi structure.
2. Geology of the structure: part of the Chittagong-Tripura folded belt which lies on
the north western part of the Bakhrabad. Titas Structure
The Bengal Basin of Bangladesh is a remnant ocean
is present in the north and Kamta Structure lies in the
basin in the world [8]. The Greater Bakhrabad structure
west. Morichakandi Structure is a symmetrical anticline
lies on the southern fringes of Bengal Basin. Greater
with SE-NNE [12]. The structure perhaps started
Bakhrabad structure is an elongated close anticline and
intensifying during Early Miocene and its apex
is about 67 km long and 6 km wide [2]. Morichakandi
development took place probably Late Miocene
Structure is a sub-structure of the greater Bakhrabad,
sedimentation and finished in Pliocene time. The sub-
which lies on the north western part of the Bakhrabad. It
surface stratigraphy of the study area was established on
is located in the crestal region of Bakhrabad anticline
the basis of drilling data, log data, seismic data and also
complex. The structure is the larger than that of other
correlation with neighboring established well [12].
Bakhrabad and Belabo structures forming the greater
Stratigraphy of the structure is presented in the table 1.
Bakhrabad anticlinal complex. Geologically,
Morichakandi Structure is situated in the western most
Table1: Stratigraphic succession of the study area (After BOGMC, [12])
Age Group Formation/Sequence (m) Lithological description/Characteristics
Dominantly loose sand, fine to medium grained sand and
Recent Alluvium (61 m)
clay
Dupi
Dupi Tila (110 m) Mainly sandstone with interrelation of shale
Pliocene Tila
Mostly grey quartz sand, medium to fine-grained with some
Tipam Tipam Sandstone (628 m)
sticky clay and intermediate of silt.
Mainly dark grey thick clay and interbedded with sandstone
Boka Bil sequence-1 (1481 and alternate sand and silt. Medium to fine-grained, sub-
m) angular and calcareous cementing material show cross
bedding structure of sandstone.
Miocene Surma
Predominantly light grey sandstone, medium to very fine-
Upper Bhuban sequence-2 grained, sub-angular to rounded, calcareous cement,
(675 m) interbedded with shale with siltstone, slightly calcareous
and argillaceous cementing material.
dominating sequence where GR log value suggested condition. The linear shaped is identified at the depth
that more or less uniform sequence and the depositional range of 799-934 m in the study well (Figure 3e).
environment such as aggrading fluvial channel and
4.1.5 Funnel shaped electrofacies: Funnel shaped
distributary channel and tidal sand flat. The cylindrical
eletrofacies reflect a coarsening upward sequence where
shaped and serrated cylindrical shaped are shown at
GR log value and shale content decrease upward and
various depths (Figure 3d).
sand content increase at upper part. The hydrodynamic
4.1.4 Linear shaped electrofacies: Linear shaped condition increases upward at the time of deposition as
electrofacies are generally steady shape and shale in the case of prograding delta, alluvial fan and
dominating sequence suggests uniform depositional regressive shallow marine bar environment. The funnel
sequence either of coarse grained or fine grained related shape and serrated funnel shaped are identified in the
to deposition of inter-distributary bay to shallow marine Miocene sequence at different depths in the study area
(Figure 3f).
Fig3: Typical Gamma Ray (GR) log shapes of the Miocene sequence in the well Bakhrabad-09.
In depth interval from 2955 to 799 m, a detailed study 4.2.1 First-order Cycle-1 (BHC-1): First order cycle is
from the well base to upper part is done on the basis of identified within the depth range of 2955-2665 m
Gamma Roy (GR) log shapes or motifs and trends. having a thickness of 290 m, shows fining upward (Fu)
Miocene sedimentary sequence is characterized by first- sequences with few fluctuations and decrease in the
order and second-order cycles based electrofacies grain size towards top of the sequences (Figure 4). Silty
analysis and core sample consisting of two sequences sandstone lithofacies and shaley lithofacies having
(BBS 1 and UBS 2) are described below: relative proportion of 35% and 65% respectively. Shale
dominating electrofacies increases upward of the cycle
4.2. Interpretation of the Upper Bhuban Sequence-2
indicating decrease of hydrodynamic condition. The
(UBS-2):
first-order cycle-1 consists of 2 coarsening upward (Cu)
The Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2) of Miocene sequences at bottom part, 4 Fu sequences at top most
sequence is present in the depth interval from 2955 to part and 1 homogeneous sequence at middle part of the
2280 m. This sequence is divided into 2 first-order cycle have been identified in this sequence. Serrated
cycles and 12 second-order cycles which were identified bell, linear and serrated funnel shaped electrofacies
based on the relationship of GR log shapes, grain sizes suggests different sub-environments i.e retrograding
and change in log motifs. distributary channel, shallow marine, interdistributary
Fig4: Gamma Ray (GR) log responses, first-order cycles, log shapes and possible environments of deposition of the
Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 in the well Bakhrabad-09.
Fig5: Core sample photograph show lithofacies of the study area: a) flaser bedded facies; b) wavy bedded facies; c)
lenticular bedded facies. Sand shows dark grey color and shale shows light grey color (After BAPEX, [2]).
4.3. Interpretation of the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS- Identified linear, funnel and serrated bell shaped
1): electrofacies suggests tidal floodplain complex,
prograding channel, tidal channel and inter-distributary
The Boka Bil Sequence-1 is the uppermost part in the
bay sub-environments. This cycle represents at least
depth range of 2280 to 799 m. This sequence comprises
three phases of progradation, three phases of
5 first-order cycles/para-sequence sets and 21 second-
retrograding distributary channel and one phase of inter-
order cycles/para-sequences were identified as follows:
fluvial deposit. The overall deposition occurred under
4.3.1 First-order Cycle-1 (BBC-1): This cycle is marine regression conditions.
identified within the depth ranges of 2280-1975 m
4.3.4 First-order Cycle-4 (BBC-4): This First-order
having thickness of 305 m, shows fining upward
cycle present within the depth range of 1304-934 m
sequences with few fluctuations towards the bottom part
(470 m), shows coarsening upward sequences (Figure
(Figure 6). Sandstone and silty shaly facies cover about
6). Sandstone and shale facies constitute about 60%
40% and 60% respectively. Lower to middle part of the
about 40% respectively. Sandstone facies indicating
cycle (2286-2099 m) indicates relatively higher
coarsening upward sequence suggests higher energy
hydrodynamic condition which gradually decreases
condition whereas shaley facies suggests gradual
towards the upper part. 2 Cu upward sequences
decrease of the hydrodynamic condition. This cycle
identified at the lower and middle part and 3 Fu upward
contains 3 Cu sequences and linear, bell and serrated
sequences at the top part. Serrated funnel, serrated bell,
funnel shaped electorfacies represents inter-distributary
asymmetric cylindrical and linear shaped electrofacies
bay, retrograding channel and prograding channel
suggests prograding delta, retrograding distributary
floodplain complex. Lower part of the cycle indicates
channel and inter-distributary bay etc. The overall
retrograding deltaic phase but upper part of the cycle
deposition occurred under deltaic distributary channel
indicates prograding deltaic phase of deposition.
and inter-distributary bay conditions.
4.3.5 First-order Cycle-5 (BBC-5): The cycle is
4.3.2 First-order Cycle-2 (BBC-2): This cycle is
identified within the depth range of 934-799 m (135 m),
present within the depth range of 1995-1689 m (306 m)
shows decreasing GR value indicating fining upward
and shows almost fining upward sequences (Figure 6).
sequences towards top (Figure 6). Shale facies
This set covers sandstone, silty shale and shale facies at
constitutes about 100% indicating calm and quite
about 50%, 30% and 20% respectively. Cylindrical,
energy condition. Linear shaped electrofacies represents
serrated funnel, and bell shaped electrofacies indicates
shallow marine conditions, regarded as "Upper Marine
retrograding distributary channel during the deposition
Shale" is interpreted as the last phase of marine
of this cycle.
transgression [29].
4.3.3 First-order Cycle-3 (BBC-3): The cycle covers
The core in the lower part of the sequence-1 (BBS-1)
the depth range of 1689-1304 m (385 m), shows
consists of light to dark grey sandstone with thick
decreasing GR value representing coarsening upward
stratified shale and characterized by flaser bedding.
sequences which indicate increase in grain size towards
Middle part of the sequence is wevy bedded, consists of
top (Figure 6). Sandstone, silty shale and shale facies
ripple cross-laminated sandstone, very fine to fine
constitute about 45%, 20% and 35% respectively.
grained, calcareous with coal fragments and sparse
bioturbation (Figure 5a and 5b). Upper part of the contains 3 phases of retrograding distributary channel, 2
sequence is lenticular bedded, consists of dark grey thin phases of aggrading channel and 2 phases of prograding
laminated shale with silty sandstone (Figure 5c). Core channel with tidal channel, tidalflat, inter-distributary
sample study suggests that two marine regressions and bay to shallow marine regime have been identified in in
two transgressions of deposition occurred repeatedly this sequence(Figure 6).
within this sequence. The Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-1)
Fig6: Gamma Ray (GR) log responses, first-order cycles, log shapes and possible environments of deposition of the
Boka Bil Sequence-1 in the well Bakhrabad-09.
4.4. Interpretation of depositional environment: range of 2265-2955 m consists of 3 Fu upward and 2 Cu
upward sequences with funnel, serrated bell, cylindrical
On the basis of core study and electrofacies, 7 first-
and serrated linear shaped electrofacies suggests a phase
order cycles and 33 second-order cycles were identified
of marine transgression and then slightly deltaic
in the study area. All the sequences are either Fu or Cu
progradation during the deposition of the cycle. The
sequences with cylindrical, bell, funnel, linear and
depth range of 2280-2665 m consist of 4 Cu upward
egg/bow shaped etc. in nature. 2 first-order cycles and
sequences at the bottom part and middle part and 3 Fu
12 second-order cycles were identified in the Upper
upward sequences at the top part of the cycle suggests a
Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2). The sequence with depth
phase of deltaic progradation and then retrogressive
deltaic phase during the deposition of the cycle. Marichakandi structure of Miocene sequence might
Serrated funnel shaped electrofacies represents siltstone have been deposited under lower deltaic plain to
to sandstone facies indicating prograding deltaic marginal-marine and fluvio-deltaic setting in response
environment but bell shaped electrofacies shows silty to marine regression and transgression, basin subsidence
shale to shaley facies suggests retrograding deltaic and increase of sedimentation of different sub-
environment. So, the Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS- environments. Overall nature of the log trend shown
2) assumed to be deposited in lower deltaic setting to that lower delta plain was deposited at base and deltaic
marginal marine condition during basin subsidence, progradation with marine regressive phase occurred at
high rate of sediment supply and autocyclic migration of upper part of the Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (BHS-2).
different sub-environments of deposition. The general nature of the log shape indicated that
deltaic retrogressive phase was deposited at the lower
5 first-order cycles and 21 second-order cycles were
part and then deltaic progradation phase deposited at
identified in the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-1). The
middle part and finally marine transgression phase
depth interval of 1975-2280 m show Fu sequence with
occurred at top part of the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-
serrated bell, funnel, and cylindrical shaped eletrofacies
1). It reveals that deltaic prograding sequences are
suggests retrograding channel and tidal channel,
sandstone dominating reservoir rock whereas deltaic
prograding-aggrading channel sub-environments of
retrograding sequences are shale dominating rock within
deposition. The depth ranges of 1689-1975 m show Fu
both sequences. The study suggests that multiple
sequence with serrated funnel shaped electrofacies and
episodes of marine transgression and regression regime
wavy bedded facies indicate tidal sand flat and also bell
occurred during deposition of the Miocene sequence.
shaped electrofacies and flaser bedded facies show
retrograding distributary channel. The sequence with 6. Acknowledgements:
depth ranges of 1304-1689 m consist of Cu upward with
The authors sincerely thank the reviewers especially Dr.
funnel, bell and serrated linear shaped electrofacies
AN Reddy Chief Geologist (Retd), Oil and Natural Gas
suggests prograding, retrograding and inter-tidal
Corporation, Channei, India for his critically reviewing
mudflat sub-environments. The Cu upward sequence
this manuscript and suggestions to improve the quality
represents by linear, bell, and funnel shaped
of the paper. We wish to thanks Prof. D. Venkat Reddy
electrofacies indicating interfluvial, retrograding
Editor in Chief of International Journal of Earth Science
channel and prograding channel sub-environments from
& Engineering for his valuable comments to revise this
depth interval of 934-1304 m. Finally, the depth ranges
paper. We would like to grateful to the Chairman of
from 799-934 m was “Upper Marine Shale” shows
Bangladesh Oil, Gas and Mineral Corporation
linear shaped electrofacies with thick shaley facies
(Petrobangla) and the Managing Director, BAPEX for
suggests shallow marine conditions. Also made similar
their kind permission to access data for well log and lab
observation made by Mondol et el. [8] in Shahbazapur
support & facilities for core sample analysis. Also
structure of Bengal Basin. The Boka Bil sequence-1
thanks are due to Prof. Sultan-ul-Islam; University of
(BBS-1) supposed to be deposited under fluvio-deltaic
Rajshahi made valuable comments and suggestion while
setting to shallow marine conditions in response to a
conducting this research work.
marine transgression and regression phase during the
deposition of the sequences. It was interpreted that some 7. Reference:
cyclic phases of marine transgression with regression
[1] O. Serra and H. T. Abbot, The contribution of
were occurred during the deposition of the Miocene
logging data to sedimentology and stratigraphy,
sequence in the study. BAPEX [2] also confirmed
55th Annual Fall Meeting of AIME (SPE 9270),
similar result by seismic interpretation of the
Dallas, Texas, 1980.
Marichakandi structure in the well Bakhrabad-09.
[2] BAPEX, Interpretation Report on the greater
5. Conclusions: Bakhrabad Structure, Dhaka, 1989.
[3] D. N. Sultana and M. M. Alam, “Facies analysis of
The well Bakhrabad-09 drilled in Marichakandi
the Neogene Surma Group succession in the sub-
structure contains well developed sedimentary
surface of the Sylhet Trough, Bengal Basin,
sequences from the Miocene to recent age. The Upper
Bangladesh” Bangladesh Geoscience Journal, v. 6,
Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2) identified 2 first-order
p. 53-74, 2000.
cycles with sandstone lithofacies, and bell, funnel and
[4] F. Deeba, D. Hossain and A. Q. M. R. Rahman,
egg/bow shaped electrofacies indicate marine regression
“Geology and hydrocarbon potentiality of Beani
with deltaic progradation phase. The top most part of
Bazar Structure.in Surma Basin Bangladesh using
the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-1) identified 5 first-
geophysical and well data” Bangladesh
order cycles with linear shaped electrofacies and shale
Geoseciences Journal, v. 7, 2001.
lithofacies suggests marine transgression. The
Abstract: The youngest, geodynamically restless, loftiest and most spectacular active mountain belt of continent –
continent collisional tectonics of planet Earth is the Himalaya which creates a structural archive to explore
geological history since Precambrian to Recent. Of the three notable sectors of Himalaya, the western and central
sectors are best studied by scientific communities while eastern sector is still in infancy and needs proper attention,
care, caution and consideration. In the present communication Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS) along
Bhalukpong – Tawang – Zimithang geotransect of western Arunachal Himalaya is dealt with from structural
approaches. Two notable conglomerates are mapped around Nagmandir and Shergaon areas of West Kameng
district of Arunachal Pradesh and strain history is worked out. The former separates Bomdila gneiss from Tenga
Formation while the latter separates Dirang Formation from Tenga Formation. The present study is related to
Shergaon conglomerate and the data sets generated from pebbles of conglomerate are populated with mean k =
0.2696 indicating flattening field under simple shear mechanism. Four phases of deformation (D 1 to D4) is
established in LHS and their interferences are discussed. Top to the S to SW and rarely SE sense of tectonic
transport is suggested which coincides with the regional kinematics of the stack of thrusted sheets of Arunachal
Himalaya.
Key words: Leseer Himalaya, Shergaon conglomerate, Strain analysis, Western Arunachal Himalaya.
grey carbonaceous shale, bands of marble/dolomites are the imprints of deformational phases and associated
the main lithoassembleges of the LHSS. A distinct metamorphic signatures.
polymictic conglomerate zone comprising deformed
An anticlinal fold structure of isoclinal geometry is
pebbles of quartzite, phyllite, quartz – sericite schist and
observed near Bhalukpong at the lower structural level
quartz clasts of Tenga / Dedza Formation is observed in
which marks the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) separating
the Rupa – Shergaon section which marks an
Siwalik from alluvium[9] (Yin et al., 2006). The footwall
unconformity with the underlying Tenga Formation and
side of the conventional MBT (traceable at 27005’20”N:
overlain by Dirang Formation. A similar conglomeratic
92035’18”E) is occupied by Eocene marine and volcanic
zone is also traced near Nagmandir between Tenga
strata bound sequences[10] (Kumar, 1997). The MBT
Formation and Bomdila gneiss and it may probably be
constitutes a zone, forming lower and upper MBT 1 and
the continuation of the Shergaon conglomerate. The
MBT2 respectively and the latter separates Permian
absence of any gneissic pebbles in the conglomerate
sequences from overlying Proterozoic Bomdila Group
indicates that the overlying Bomdila gneiss is younger
comprises of Dedza Formation, Tenga Formation and
than the LHSS. Higher Himalayan sequence (HHS) is
Dirang Formation and they are intruded by large scale
the northernmost exposed part of the Indian plate and is
Bomdila granite gneiss. Carbonaceous phyllite, phyllite
separated from LHS by MCT. LHS is characterized by
and dolomitic limestone are the main components of the
greenschist to lower to middle amphibolite facies
Dedza Formation; Tenga Formation is constituted by
metamorphism while HHS portrays metamorphic
quartzite, mafic meta volcanics and phyllites. The
signature upto amphibolite facies. LHS is separated
Dirang Formation consists of garnet-kyanite-staurolite
from sub Himalayan Siwalik molasses type sediments
bearing metapelite, quartzite, phyllite, metavolcanics
by MBT. Thus MFT, MBT, MCT constitute imbricate
including amphibolites, quartz – actinolite schist and
thrust system on the southern part of the Himalayan
they form footwall of the MCT zone. Low grade
orogen under contractional tectonism whereas STDS
metamorphism of the basal Lesser Himalayan Sequence
(not observed in the present area) registered extensional
is structurally overlain by megacrystic granitic gneiss
tectonic mechanism to the north.
(Bomdila gneiss) and an undoubted tectonic contact is
Thus, all the tectonic slices are considered to be the noted by earlier researchers. It has a linkage with
counterpart of the north facing Himalayan passive Cenozoic thrusting upliftment mechanism and
continental margin commonly named as Tethyan represents a tectonic counterpart of Palaeo to
Himalaya which develop from Middle Proterozoic to Mesoproterozoic basement rocks of Indian
Cretaceous time[3,4] (Colchen et al., 1982; Brookfield, subcontinent.
1993).
The Dirang Formation is structurally overlain by garnet-
Structural analysis of the crystalline rock between kyanite-sillimanite bearing metapelitic rocks,
Dirang and Tawang sector (HHS) have been worked out leucogranite, garnetiferous amphibolite, calc-silicate
by[5] Srivastava et al., (2011). Similarly[6,7,8] Goswami rocks, sillimanite bearing quartzofeldspathic gneiss and
et al. (2009), Saha (2013), Bhattacharjee and Nandy migmatites together forming “SeLa Group” on the
(2008) also have discussed the structural history of the hanging wall side of the MCT zone. Around 4 km from
rocks of West Kameng and Tawang districts, but LHS is Dirang on way to Tawang, the MCT is observed
least understood and therefore, an attempt is made in (27022’42”N: 92013’54”E). Presence of hot spring along
this communication to discuss the deformational history the interface between SeLa Group and Dirang
of the Lesser Himalayan Sequences (LHS) along with Formation is another signature indicating the presence
the strain history of the Shergaon conglomerates. of a thrust namely MCT (= Dirang Thrust). [8,6]
Bhattacharjee & Nandy (2008), Goswami et al. (2009)
2. Regional Geology:
have the opinion that the MCT marks as a 5-7 km
The Bhalukpong – Tawang – Zimithang sector of ductile zone rather than a single line similar to that of
Western Arunachal Himalaya witnessed different MCT zone of Bhagirathi valley[11] (Metcalfe, 1993).
lithocomponents from Proterozoic to Pleistocene period Beyond Tawang towards Zimithang, a huge close
and a series of tectonic contacts and thrusts from south outcrop named as Lumla Formation is observed and has
to north i.e. from lower to higher structural levels are been referred to as tectonic window[12,9,8] (Tripathy et
delineated. Pleistocene/ alluvium zone represents al., 1979; Yin et al., 2006; Bhattacharjee & Nandy,
southern end of the lithounits thrusted over by Siwalik, 2008) and equated with the rocks of Dirang Formation.
Gondwana, Lesser Himalaya and finally Higher The southern tectonic contact of Lumla Formation with
Himalayan belt marks the northern end of the SeLa Group is marked at 27033’14”N: 91045’29”E
geotransect. Most of the lithounits are highly deformed, while the northern contact with Zimithang granite is
intensively sheared and metamorphosed and registered marked at 27037’48”N: 91043’16”E, 35.5 km from
Lumla towards Zimithang. Zimithang granite is a huge
batholithic body of deformed to partly undeformed is traceable towards east and SE of Zimithang – Tak –
coarse grained leucocratic to mesocratic granite, Tsang Gompa road. The Zimithang granite is thrusted
International boundary between India and Tibet is over the Lumla Formation and this thrust is considered
passing through this granite massif at a few kilometers as upper limit of the Lumla Thrust or may be referred to
north of Zimithang and hence tracing of its northern as “Zimithang Thurst” (ZT) [2] (Sarma et al., 2011)
limit is beyond our scope. Formation of Shonga-tser equivalent to Kaktang thrust of Bhutan[13] (Gansser,
Lake (popularly known as Madhuri lake) at 1983).
27043’40”N: 91049’42”E is an imprint of
A lithotectonic map is presented in figure 1.
Neoproterozoic activity near International Boundary
between India and Tibat. Its contact with the Sela Group
top-to-south vergence geometry and acts as the orientation NW-SE (Fig. 2d). F2 and F1 folds maintain
hinterland of the foreland Siwalik sedimentation. coaxiality in some cases. F2 plunges 400 to 600 towards
W or SW. Southeastern limb of F 2 is mostly short and
Deformational history of the Lesser Himalayan
steep while northwestern limb is gentle and long.
Sequences of West Kameng and Tawang districts of
Overturning character of F2 is marked in many places
Western Arunachal Pradesh has been discussed by a
showing top to S or SE vergence (Fig. 2e). The
number of authors[16,10,9,8,6,5,17,7] (Bhusan et al., 1991;
superposition of third phase deformation is documented
Kumar, 1997; Yin et al., 2006; Bhattacharjee and
by metasedimentaries and metavolcanics of LHSS (Fig.
Nandy, 2008; Goswami et al., 2009; Srivastava et al.,
2f). The generalised axial orientation of F3 fold is NW-
2011; Sarma et al., in press; Saha, 2013).
[8] SE showing plunge towards NW at moderate ≈ 450
Bhattacherjee and Nandy (2008) have suggested two
angle (Fig. 2f). The behaviour of F3 is moderately
phases of deformation in the Lesser Himalayan
closed, open to warp type and the fold pattern and
Sedimentary sequences and one phase of deformation in
geometry indicates with top-to-SW vergence as against
Lesser Himalayan Crystalline (Bomdila gneiss).
[6] the S – SE vergence of F2. Stretching lineation is
Goswami et al. (2009) also have suggested three
correlatable to D3 deformation indicating NW to NNW
phases of deformation (D1 to D3) and two groups of
slip direction. Mild curvature of the axial orientation of
planar structures (S1 and S2). [5] Srivastava et al. (2011)
F3 trending roughly N – S, minor kink fold in
have delineated four phases of folding F1, F2, F3, and F4
incompetent rock units, small scale faults and fractures
where F1 and F2 are coaxial.
observed in multiple folds are classified as F4 (Fig. 2d).
The present study deals with the structural analyses on
mesoscopic scale of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence of
western Arunachal Himalaya and strain analysis of
Shergaon conglomerate. The lithounits of western
Arunachal Himalaya exhibit structural trend parallel to
the general trend of the major thrusts (i.e. NE-SW) with
a steep to moderate dip towards NW. Both brittle and
ductile deformational effects are seen in these lithounits.
The LHSS (consisting of Dirang and Lumla
Formations) composed of phyllites, carb-phyllites,
metapelites, quartz-mica schist, micaceous quartzite,
quartzite, limestone, phyllonite and mylonites with
metavolcanics like actinolite-chlorite schist and
amphibolites. Generalised strike and trend of the Dirang
metasedimentaries are NE-SW with an average dip 400- Fig2a: Tight appressed F1 fold in Dirang Formation of
600 towards NW. The LHSS display structural identities LHSS with thickened hinge and relatively thin limbs
of four different phases of deformation resulting planar, plunging NE, axial plane is near horizontal, location:
linear and fold fabrics and typical interference patterns south of Dirang.
are imprinted on them. On the regional scale, pervasive
planar fabric is designated as CS2 shear foliation, a
planar fabric developed during Himalayan orogeny (=
S2 of [6] Goswami et al., 2009). Pre Himalayan
signatures are still preserved in metasedimentaries and
they act as relict F1 fold associated with axial planar
foliation S1 (Fig. 2a). S1 strikes NE – SW showing
generalized NW dip and moderate angle. F1 is close,
appressed, isoclinals type and the contemporaneous
foliation transects S0 at high angle at the hinge zone of
F1 (Figs. 2a, 2b). Such fabrics are readjusted and
restructured during Himalayan orogeny resulting
pervasive shear foliation irrespective of lithounits and
further affected by successive deformational phases and
their interferences (Figs. 2c, 2e). In amphibolite, rarely Fig2b: Tight isoclinal fold marked by quartzite layer
S1 is observed in the hinge zone of minor F2 folds and from Dirang Formation near contact zone between
intersect CS2 at high angle. Crenulations and folds on Bomdila gneiss and Dirang Formation. The axial plane
minor scale are observed with a generalised axial is near vertical and axis is near horizontal.
Fig2d: Highly deformed phyllite of LHSS, south of Fig2g: Nagmandir conglomerate separating LHSS from
Nagmandir area showing kinking (F3) with near LHC.
horizontal axial plane trending N-S. Minor crenulations
show low angle plunge due NW.
mineral lineation (L2) plunges at low to moderate angle muscovite and sometimes elongate skeletal garnet or
due NE and /or SW. garnet aggregates (Fig. 2k). Three generations of micas
(M1 to M3 are identified: (a) small flakes occurring as
Discrete subsidiary shear bands of non-pervasive nature
inclusion in garnet or feldspar porphyroblasts (M 1), (b)
which wraps round augens of varied dimension marks
as big flakes of mus2 and biot2 defining pervasive
the registration of D3 deformation in BG (Fig. 2k). The
foliation (CS2) which often wrap round different
orientation of the slip planes of fragmented augens with
porphyroblast or sometimes truncates (M2). They define
dextral motion, minor faulting in the matrix and also in
folding of later generation (F3 and F4) and (c) as broad
the mafic enclaves follow the structural weak locals of
and short flakes superposed on CS2 at different angle
D3 deformational episodes (Fig. 2l). Interference
mostly along strain zones of F3 and F4 folding (M3).
between F2 and F3 marks the interference pattern 1
Thus M1 is interpreted as D1, M2 as Syn D2 and M3 as
(dome and basin structure) in associated LHSS but they
syn to post D3 stages of folding.
are infrequently traceable in Bomdila gneiss rather
interference patterns- 2 and 3 - are seen where intensity
of strain is maximum and the pervasive shear bands
mark the flowage of disharmonic nature.
Emplacement of the vein rocks along N-S orientation
probably follows the structural locales of D4 phase.
Kink band, minor faulting, N-S trending quartz,
tourmaline, feldspar veins and brittle fractures are seen.
Emplacement of dolerite and basaltic dykes is although
hardly correlatable with a definite deformational phase
but can be categorically placed under post Himalayan
orogenic cycle, free from metamorphism and follow D 2,
D3 and D4 structural locals in the NE-SW, NW-SE and
N-S directions. The latter two directions truncate
regional orientation of the different lithocomponents of
the Himalayan Metamorphic Belt in the context of Fig2m: CS2 is folded by F3 fold; S3 is axial planar to F3.
subducted Indian plate configuration.
3.1. Microscopic Structures:
The rocks of the LHSS have undergone repeated
deformation cum metamorphic transformation during
Himalayan orogeny. Intensive structural readjustments
during Himalayan orogenic movement have either
erased away most of the Pre Himalayan Indian plate
related microscopic /mesoscopic structural evidences
except some small scale isoclinal to tight
appressed folds and rarely preserved planar fabrics in
the hinge zone of F2 folds of coaxial nature with F1
where dominant shear foliation (CS2) maintain cross cut
relationship. Such fabrics are rarely preserved in the
mafic enclaves within Bomdila gneiss. Synhimalayan
ductile phase results CS2 all throughout the rock units Fig2n: Interference of F2 and F3 in alternate metapelite
(LHSS and LHC) and is axial planar to F2 showing and quartzite
structural trend roughly NE-SW with moderate plunge Actinolite hornblende also marks similar behaviour. In
either NE or SW direction (Fig. 2j). In metapelite both LHC, the protolithic feldspar phenocrysts suffer tectonic
M and Q-domains are observed and they folded by F3 attenuation and form augen defining CS2 with mostly
and wrap round garnet porphyroblast showing both σ right lateral sense of rotation. Such asymmetric
and δ type of rotation. Garnet bears the identities of vergence marked by rotational movement of the strain
straight trails of inclusion, sygmoidal rotation and also markers and associated folding is a clear indicative of
intertectonic stage bearing Se fabric as Si within garnet non – coaxial deformation under simple shear
(Fig. 2l). In garnetiferous phyllite of Dirang / Lumla movement picture. CS2 is highly crenulated showing
Formation continuous cleavage (CS2) is marked by extension crenulation cleavage, zonal crenulation
flattened quartz, parallel alignment of biotite and cleavage and fracture planes (without growth of new
minerals) (Figs. 2m,n). Interference of F2 and F3 is well isotropic anti clustered distributions of strain markers
defined in metapelites of the Dirang and Lumla that was deformed homogeneously[21,22] (Fry, 1979;
Formation of LHSS. Intragranular kinking and Hanna and Fry 1979). But often it is observed that the
microfaulting of extensional habit in feldspar augens are strain markers are affected by heterogeneous
also seen. Shearing and grain granulation leads to deformation and the original pre deformational centres
anastomosing foliation and mortar texture. Metapelites of the markers are difficult to define. Therefore,
and metabasites from foreland part of the MCT zone calculated centroids will underestimate finite strain in
show high degree of shearing and intensive quartz Fry plots and as such more is the heterogeneity more is
veining from both Dirang and Lumla areas. Similar the error. Out of different methods available for strain
observations are also observed along the Lumal – analysis, only four methods are adopted for the present
Bhutan road. study namely (1) Flinn plots [23] (Flinn 1962), (2)
Ramsay and Wood plot [18,24] (Ramsay 1967; Ramsay
and Wood 1973), (3) Rf / plots[18,19,25] (Ramsay 1967;
4. Strain Analysis:
Strain in rocks can be calculated with the help of strain Dunnet 1969; Dunnet and Siddan 1971), (4) Fry method
[26,22]
markers such as ooids, spherulites, radiolarian shells, (Fry 1978, 1979; Hanna and Fry 1979). These
foraminifera, pebbles of conglomerates, brecciated plots are prepared using the software ‘Sixstrain’
mass, augens, ribbon quartz, amygdoles etc. In this developed by [27] P.P.Roday (2003).
communication, deformed pebbles of conglomerate
Section wise pebbles are drawn on transparent overlays
observable at mesoscopic scale were considered as
and field photographs were taken in the field. The
strain marker to quantify finite strain (Fig. 2h). It is
conglomerate is so friable that it is hardly possible to cut
difficult to ascertain whether initially the pebbles of
conglomerate were spherical or elliptical but the present the sample in required orientation. Even it was not
disposition of pebbles act as kinematic indicators. For possible to collect oriented samples with respect to
lithological layering or dominant CS2 foliation of Syn
comperative study and correlation purpose, strained
Himalayan deformation. However, photomicrographs
quartz from associated rock components are also
are made use of in preparing strain diagrams. The
considered side by side. They exhibit significant
stretching and rotation when they undergo deformation. lengths of the long (X), intermediate (Y) and short (Z)
The conglomerates near Shergaon (hereafter will be axes of the deformed pebbles are measured with the
help of transparent overlays and enlarged photographs
referred to as Shergaon conglomerate) are highly
with scale. Axial ratios (Rf) of XZ and YZ sections and
deformed, stretched, fragmented, rarely faulted and
orientation of major axes with respect to the reference
rotated as against the Nagmandir conglomerate which is
spread sheet based approach to Rf/ strain analysis was
less deformed (Figs. 2g, 2h). line () is also calculated. Recently, excel supported
The generalized strike of the conglomeratic horizon is formulated by [28] Chew (2003) which is more easier
NE-SW and the long axes of the pebbles are generally method in calculating symmetry of Rf/ plot and initial
parallel to the SC foliation cum interfaces of the orientation of the strain markers.
underlying lithosetting (Fig. 2h). In the field, pebbles
are measured on the XZ plane as well as YZ plane and
their long and short axes are calculated. The average
size varies from 0.77 – 12 cm in length (X) and 0.36 – 4
cm in breadth (Z). In one road section, YZ section of the
conglomerate horizon is exposed wherefrom
photographs and a few measurements are taken. [18]
Ramsay (1967) described Rf/ technique for measuring
strain from any deformed strain markers and
subsequently it was modified by [19] Dunnet (1969) and
[20]
Lisle (1977). It is not possible to ascertain the
original size of the strain markers before deformation
even if the shape parameter is known. Hence, some
sorts of assumptions are made to proceed for their
calculations. Similar is the case of initial orientation of
such markers. As manual calculations with some
amount of assumptions is relatively time consuming,
therefore, computer based software are used in the
present presentation. Initially, it was thought of that the
strain estimation could be made by Fry method from
datasets are populated in the flattening field hints Arunachal Himalaya, India. Journal of Asian Earth
moderate to high shear strain. Science 36 390-406.
[7] Saha, D. (2013). Lesser Himalayan sequences in
Based on vergence pattern of small scale folds of
Eastern Himalaya and their deformation:
different generations and scales, the sense of asymmetry
Implications for Palaeoproterozoic tectonic activity
is worked out and it is observed that Pre Himalayan and
along the northern margin of India. Geoscience
Syn Himalyan structural fabrics are showing top to the
Frontiers, doi: 10. 1016/j.gsf.2013.01.004.
SE to SW through S sense of shear. On the regional
[8] Bhattacharjee, S. and Nandy, S. (2008). Geology of
scale, slip vector may be considered as top to the south
the Western Arunachal Himalaya in parts of
sense of tectonic transport. This kinematic direction
Tawang and West Kameng districts, Arunachal
coincides with the regional kinematic directions of
Pradesh. Journal of Geological Society of India 72
MFT, MBT and MCT [32] (Yin et al., 2010).
199-207.
Thus, it is concluded that the rocks of the western [9] Yin, A., Dubey, C.S., Kelty, T.K., Gehrels, G.E.,
Arunachal Himalaya in the Bhalukpong – Tawang Chow, C.Y., Grove, M. and Lovera, O. (2006).
sector which represents part of the Indian continental Structural evolution of the Arunachal Himalaya and
crust display compressional - collisional tectonism implications for asymmetric development of the
between Indian and Eurasian plates in a near horizontal Himalayan orogen. Current Science 90 195-206.
tectonic setup followed by stack of intensive thrusting [10] Kumar, G. (1997). Geology of Arunachal Pradesh.
where rotational axes coincides with the x-direction of Journal of Geological Society of India 217.
maximum extension. [11] Metcalfe, R.P. (1993). Pressure,temperature and
time constraints on metamorphism across the Main
7. Acknowledgements:
Central Thrust zone and High Himalayan Slab in
The authors are thankful to the Department of Science the Garhwal Himalaya. Himalayan Tectonics,
and Technology (DST), Government of India for Geological Society of London Special Publication
providing financial assistance in the form of the project 74.
(ESS/16/242/2005/Kameng(06)). The authors would [12] Tripathi, C., Jain, L.S. and Basu Roy, S. (1979). A
also like to acknowledge the Department of Geological note on the find sulphide mineralisation in Lumla
Sciences, Gauhati University, Guwahati and Geological area, Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. Indian
Survey of India for providing facility to carry out the Minerals 33(2) 55.
work. [13] Gansser, A. (1983). Geology of the Bhutan
Himalaya, Basle. Denkenschrift der
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La Palaeogeographie des orogenes, l’example de mineralisation near Shergaon, West Kameng
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margin from Precambrian to Cretaceous. P. and Mazumdar, Nandita (2012). Structure,
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and Singh, C.K. (2011). Structural analyses of the India. Journal of Geological Society Of India
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(2009). Petrology of a non-classical Barrovian analysis using elliptical particles. Tectonophysics
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Abstract: Natural disaster like landslides mostly seen in a fragile mountain hill slopes like Himalayas in North
India, Western ghats in Kerala and Karnataka, The Nilgiris, Annamalai hills, Megamalai in Tamil Nadu, etc.
Anthropogenic activities like improper planning, networking, deforestation and agricultural activities are one of the
important factors in hilly regions and aggravated the slope instability. Normally, wherever, slides are occurs the
slope is converted to gentle slope and it is stable in condition. In this condition, due to external factors like rainfall,
manmade activities are further stressed and causing recurrence of slope instability in an already slide slopes. In this
regard, to assess the stability condition of slide area, which seen in recent past near human settlement are taken to
detailed study.
The present study area, in Lovedale, The Nilgiris one of the connecting roads from NH 67 to Lovedale village have
been obtained considering stress condition due to heavy urban development’s (mainly resorts) in this ghat section.
In Ooty municipality, 25 slides are occurred in 2009 rainfall, out of 25 slides five slides are present in this ghat
section and one of the slide points near Lovedale Club was selected in detailed study. Due to this slide, the club
building is damaged and middle slope NMR railway was also blocked by debris. The field investigation noticed that
3 tensional cracks present in the upper slope near club building. It is clearly documented through photographs. The
slope was divided into three zones as upper, middle and lower slope and slope stability analysis was carried out. To
fulfilling the study, nine surface soil samples and three core samples were collected in upper, middle and lower
slopes and found out ‘c’ and ‘’ values using Direct Shear Test. The factor of safety was calculated by using Limit
Equilibrium method. As per the analysis, factor of safety was calculated in three static conditions as dry, partial
saturated and complete saturated condition. The results indicated that upper slopes FOS is 0.98, 0.84, 0.70 as dry,
partial and complete saturated conditions, middle slope is 1.37, 1.09, 0.80 and lower slopes is 1.32, 1.05, 0.77 for
same conditions respectively. The results are verified with CFC method. The slide area is very critical in condition
whenever heavy precipitation is present and the slope may be failed. The results are informed to local administrative
agencies and recommended to prevent the slope using any one of the slope production measures.
The socio-political climate in Kashmir and other places reddish brown soil. It is extended up to 4 to 5 m, which
is not conducive for a peaceful holidaying. porous in nature. As per the land use/land cover
Most of the hill stations in Himalayan ranges have categories, the upper most slope is barren rocky and
witnessed substantial degradation of environment. resorts, club and settlements are located and then
The climate conditions of other hill stations vary to a followed by tea plantation and agricultural land.
great extent and extreme climate and snowfall witnessed
3. Methods used:
frequently in Himalayan hill station.
For this study, two methods are chose for calculating
The Nilgiris hill is facing two major problems – Natural
stability of the slope as limit equilibrium method under
and Anthropogenic activities. Urbanization is due to
static condition to calculate factor of safety given by
mainly construction of Resorts, Tourist flux and
Coates (1970) and Circular Failure Chart (CFC method)
intensive agricultural activities. These are all
method proposed by Hoke and Bray (1981). In the case
anthropogenic activities induced soil erosions and slope
of homogeneous soil, the shape of the critical failure
instability. The natural forces mainly rain fall
surface is assumed to be circular or that of a logarithmic
sublimated to above said problems.
spiral; the Limiting equilibrium method is widely used
Mr. D. Ram Raj from DNA agency in Chennai has in design of excavation and road cutting in ghat
published news on November 11th 2009(Anon, 2009). sections. The accuracy of an equilibrium analysis of
He quoted that heavy rain triggered a series of slope stability depends on the accuracy with which the
landslides in Ooty, Conoor, and Kothagiri regions of the strength properties and geometric condition of the soil
Niligiris. Most of the people were killed after the (Duncan and Wright, 1980). There have been many
landslides slammed to their houses. After 1978, this is studies carried out on slope stability analysis, using
the biggest rain-related disaster in the district. It rained limit equilibrium, Bishop (1955), Jambu (1957),
continuously since November 8, resulting in huge Fredlund (1984), for geotechnical study, to calculate
damage to life and property. Ms. Shika recorded; factor of safety has also been applied to slope staility
landslips and heavy rain claimed more than 29 more analysis by Hoke and Bray (1981). As a new approach
lives in the hill strict, taking the total to 43 in last two to using slope stability analysis, software has been
days. Landslides claimed the lives of nine people in applied and find out the factor of safety by Singh and
Ooty town, two persons died in the present study area Monjezi (2002), and Pourkhosravani and Kalantari
and it is recorded 170mm rain in 24 hours. (2011), Pan,et al.,(2012), Pietruszczak and Haghighat,
(2013).
In Ooty municipality, 2009 rain fall about 25 locations
as landslides were occurred in different scales. The 4. Slope stability assessment of Lovedale Club slide
present study has taken in Lovedale village to NH 67 area:
road. It is shown in Figure 1. Out of 25 landslides, 5
Lovedale – NH 67 ghat section is about 2,194m length.
slides are occurred in this ghat section. The middle slide
The Lovedale club is present almost middle of the ghat
has adjacent to the Lovedale club and taken for detailed
section. The slope is dividing into three zones for the
study.
convinent study. Above this Lovedale-NH road is upper
2. Study Area: slope, ghat section to NMR railway track is middle and
below the track is a lower slope. The slope is facing to
The ghat section is connecting NH 67 - Lovedale
Achchinakal village; the average slope is 45o with slope
village. It is starting 76o 43’07” E to 11o 23’ 22” N in
direction towards SE. The stability analysis of this
NH junction and 76o 42’ 22” E to 11o 22’ 59” N in
failed slope is carried out under dry, partial and fully
Lovedale village. The GPS co-ordinates of these five
saturated condition in limit equilibrium method and five
slides are furnished in Table 1. The middle slide is
different conditions in CFC method.
chosen for detailed study and it is about 750m from the
NH junction. The slope present in the ghat section is A systematic study is carried out and assesses the
slopping in SE direction slope. The total length of the stability condition of failed slope and general slope.
slope is about 984m and elevation difference from top Ground investigation was carried out and general profile
to bottom of the slope is about 360m. The middle slope of this slope was done (Figure 2) using DGPS from
Nilgiris Mountain Railways, Mettupalaiyam to Ooty ridge to bottom of the slope. Wherever the very steep
railway track is present and lower most end one more slope is present, it is consists of loose overburden
road ghat section is present after that the slope is end having shallow thickness; it is create talus failure and
with a stream. Geologically the whole area is covered most potential for existing slope. A geotechnical study,
by charnockitic rock. These rocks are exposed in upper nine surface samples and three core cutter samples for
most/top of the hill and some out crops also seen in the each slope were collected; two surface and one core
hill slopes. The predominant soil present in this slope is sample were collected in the slide body at different
(friction angle) and the intercept which the straight line Fig3: Schematic condition of a Talus Failure indicating
makes with the vertical axis is the extent of cohesion (c) the stresses acting on debris mass. Note: Slope surface
and Slope angle are considered parallel in the analysis
corresponding c and values are shown in Table 6. The
calculated. The normal load, shear strength value and
(Anbagalan et al. 2007)
stability condition of the given slope is estimated by 4.2. Circular Failure Chart Method:
calculating FOS following limit equilibrium method
under static condition (Coates, 1970) for dry, partial The Circular Failure Chart was produce by means of a
(50%), and complete saturation (100%) condition and Hewlett-Packard 9100B calculator with graph plotting
Circular Failure Chart method, FOS is calculated for facilities. This software was programmed to seek out the
dry, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% saturation condition. most critical combination of failure surface on tension
cracks for each of a range of slope geometrics and
4.1. Limit Equilibrium Method: groundwater conditions provision was made for the
The talus slide stability was calculated by Coates (1970) tension crack to be located either in upper slope or of
and the equation of FOS is given below: and Figure 3 face of the concerned slopes. The CFC method was
shows schematic condition under which the below proposed by Hoek and Bray in 1981. This is a rapid
equation is established. method for stability analysis and even beginners may
Step 3 – Follow the radial line from the value found step (1.10). It is continuously decrease with increase the
2 to it’s inter section with the curve which water saturation condition. In fully saturated condition,
corresponding to the slope angle. the Factor of safety was less than one (0.925). The limit
Step 4 – Find corresponding value of Tan/F or c/HF. equilibrium method analysis indicated that the Factor of
Step 5 – Calculate the factor of safety. safety was 0.70, 0.61 and 0.52 in dry, partial and
completely saturated condition respectively in average
The present study area, two tension cracks are noticed
slope. In natural slope condition, the Factor of safety
near the Lovedale Club building and another one just 50
was 0.73, 0.59 and 0.45 for dry, partial and saturated
to 100m away from the previous crack (Plate I). The
condition respectively. Under such condition, the toe of
upper slope was fully satisfied the CFC condition. The the slides slope should be suitably prevented by
parameter has taken for this analysis is given in Table 9. retaining wall or gabion wall.
According to the ground condition, the FOS is
calculated for five different groundwater conditions and 7. Reference:
the results are tabulated (Table 10).
[1] Amin Pourkhosravani and Behzad Kalantari,
5. Results and Discussion: 2011, a Review of Current Methods for Slope
Stability Evaluation, EJGE, Vol.16, pp 1245 –
The Ooty town is situated in intermountain valley of 1254.
Nilgiris mountain. The soil thickness is marginally high
[2] Anon 2006, 26th November 2006, Thinakaran
in this area. Wherever road sections are present, it is
paper, Tiruchy edition.
long distance linear structure. It is constructed fast and
[3] Anon 2009, 16th October 2009, The Hindu paper,
in progress of construction inadequately incorporates
Tiruchy edition.
geological and geo-technical parameters. Normally in [4] Anon 2007, 25th October 2007, The Hindu paper,
this slope sections medium to large scale slips are occur Tiruchy edition.
very close to human settlement. In this study clearly
[5] Anon, 2009, www.dnaindia.com.
show a present status of Lovedale slide area. The slope
[6] Bishop, A. W., 1955. The use of the slip circle in
was failed in November 2009 heavy precipitation. The
the stability analysis of slopes, Geotechnique, v.5,
whole slope including the failed slope has been taken up pp.7-17.
for detailed slope stability analysis. The analysis has [7] Chakraborty, D, Anbalagan, R and Kohli, A, 2008,
been carried out in liquid equilibrium method static
An engineering geological appraisal of slope
condition and Circular Failure Chart method in different
stability condition at D.S.B. College site on
saturated conditions. Table 8 and Table 10 clearly seen
Ayarpata hills in Nainital, Uttarakhand, Landslide
that Factor of safety value decrease with increase
Management – Present Scenario & Future
saturation conditions. The Figure 6a, b, and c show that Directions, CBRI, Roorkee, Proceeding of CBRI
FOS vs condition respectively. The results show that in Diamond Jubilee Conference, Feb 10 – 12, pp 157
dry condition, the slope is critically stable while
– 166.
increasing the saturated condition it becomes unstable.
[8] Coates, D.F., 1970. Rock Mechanical Principle.
The both methods results clearly indicated that the
Department of Energy, Mines and Resources,
upper slope more unstable than the middle and lower
Monograph 874, Canada, Chapter 6.
slope. The results are given in Table 8. [9] Duncan, J.M., and Wright, S.G., 1980. The
6. Conclusion: accuracy of Equillibrium method of slope stability
analysis, Engineering Geology, 16, 5-17.
In Lovedale Club slide area, geo-technical study results
[10] Fredlund, D.G, 1984, Analytical Methods for Slope
indicated that moisture content of the soil is higher
Stability Analysis, Proceeding of the Fourth
(0.07) than middle (0.05) and lower slope (0.06), it is International Symposium on Landslide, State-of-
clearly indicate the soil ready to prone to slide. In the-Art, Sep. 16 – 21, Toronto, Canada, pp 229 –
porosity values is less (0.29) than middle (0.35) and
250.
lower (0.38) area, it is shows that in monsoon season
[11] Hoek, E and Bray, J.W. 1981, Rock Slope
upper slope got easily saturated compare to middle and
Engineering (Revised Third Edition), E & FN
lower zones. The Unit weight is higher (17.71) than
SPON Publishers.
middle (16.02) and lower slopes (15.40), it is seen that [12] Janbu, N, 1957, Earth pressures and bearing
whenever the upper slope got saturated and unit weight capacity calculations by generalized procedure of
is high, it is very easily prone to slip. The Factor of
slices, Proceeding in International conference of
safety was calculated by using limit equilibrium and
soil Mech. Foundation Engg. 4th London, 2: 207 –
CFC methods. As per the slope stability analysis by
212.
Circular failure chart method, the slide zone is critically
[13] Pietruszczak, s and Haghighat, E, 2013,
stable in dry condition. The Factor of safety is just one Assessment of slope stability in cohesive soil due to
rainfall – International journal of numerical and based on GIS technology, Vol 594-597, pp 2356-
analytical model in Geomatics, vol 37, No.18, pp 2360.
3278-3292. [15] Singh, T. N., and Monjezi, M, 2002, Slope
[14] Pan,x, Yang, L, ZLang, S, Wei ,P and Sun, M, Instabvility in jointed Rock mass – A Numerical
2012, Three – dimensional slope stability methods Approac, Mining Engineering Journal, Vol.1 (10),
pp 12 – 13.
Fig6b:
Fig6a:
Fig6c:
Table2: Surface soil samples GPS Co-ordinates
Sl.No. Sample location Northing Easting Elevation in m
1. Upper S1 11o 23’ 11” N 76o 43’ 00” E 2272.6
2. Upper S2 11o 23’ 12” N 76o 42’ 59” E 2271.1
3. Middle S1 11o 23’ 11” N 76o 42’ 59” E 2261.46
4. Middle S2 11o 23’ 11” N 76o 42’ 58” E 2258.71
5. Middle S3 11o 23’ 09” N 76o 42’ 59” E 2232.2
6. Lower S1 11o 23’ 06” N 76o 43’ 59” E 2175.7
7. Lower S2 11o 23’ 06” N 76o 43’ 00” E 2170.87
8. Lower S3 11o 23’ 05” N 76o 43’ 00” E 2167.43
9. Lower S4 11o 22’ 59” N 76o 43’ 04” E 2090.34
Table3: Unit Weight of core samples
Upper Middle Lower Average
Mass of the core cutter W1 (g) 920 950 1022 964
Mass of the core cutter + soil
2780 2644 2654 2693
W2 (g)
Unit weight (kN/M^3) = (W2 -
18.60 17.14 16.32 17.35
W1/ V
Dry unit weight (kN/M^3) D
17.71 16.02 15.40 16.38
= /1 + W)
Table4: Moisture content in core samples
Upper Middle Lower Average
Weight of can. W1 (g) 920 950 1022 964
Weight of Can. + wed soil W2 (g) 2780 2644 2654 2693
Weight of Can. + wed soil W3 (g) 2692 2552 2560 2601
Water/Moisture content
0.07 0.05 0.06 0.06
W (%) = [(W2 - W3)/( W3 – W1)] x 100
Table5: Detailed Geotechnical results of core samples
Upper Middle Lower
Specific gravity G 2.67 2.69 2.67
Unit weight (kg/m3) 18.6 17.14 16.32
Void ratio e 0.41 0.54 0.60
Porosity n 0.29 0.35 0.38
Normal load Normal stress in Shear load in Shear load Cohesion of soil Angle of internal
Location
in kg/cm2 KN/m2 Kn in KN/m2 in KN/m2 friction in degree
0.5 49.05 0.09 25
1.0 98.1 0.1584 44
Upper S1 1.5 147.15 0.396 110 20 31
2.0 196.2 0.5148 143
2.5 245.25 0.612 170
0.5 49.05 0.1728 48
1.0 98.1 0.378 105
Upper S2 1.5 147.15 0.468 130 50 30
2.0 196.2 0.5868 163
2.5 245.25 0.7668 213
0.5 49.05 0.2232 62
1.0 98.1 0.2592 72
Middle S1 1.5 147.15 0.4932 137 20 38.5
2.0 196.2 0.6696 186
2.5 245.25 0.7488 208
0.5 49.05 0.1944 54
1.0 98.1 0.3672 102
Middle S2 1.5 147.15 0.4536 126 20 39.5
2.0 196.2 0.6192 172
2.5 245.25 0.828 230
0.5 49.05 0.252 70
1.0 98.1 0.4032 112
Middle S3 1.5 147.15 0.5328 148 35 36.19
2.0 196.2 0.6696 186
2.5 245.25 0.972 270
0.5 49.05 0.288 80
1.0 98.1 0.4032 112
Lower S1 1.5 147.15 0.504 140 40 34.98
2.0 196.2 0.6408 178
2.5 245.25 0.792 220
0.5 49.05 0.216 60
1.0 98.1 0.3528 98
Lower S2 1.5 147.15 0.5328 148 30 37.3
2.0 196.2 0.6408 178
2.5 245.25 0.828 230
0.5 49.05 0.1512 42
1.0 98.1 0.3744 104
Lower S3 1.5 147.15 0.4752 132 10 38.37
2.0 196.2 0.5616 156
2.5 245.25 0.7344 204
0.5 49.05 0.2664 74
1.0 98.1 0.4032 112
Lower S4 1.5 147.15 0.648 180 12 48
2.0 196.2 0.7848 218
2.5 245.25 0.9468 263
Abstract: Landslides of October 2009 at Karwar caused the death of 19 people, destroyed 5 houses completely and
damaged several other houses, national highway and the Karwar port. These are considered the most severe ones
among recent landslides. Around the same time in 21 locations, landslides occurred. A study of geomorphologic,
geologic, hydrographic, and land use/ land cover pattern of 1500 sq Km around Karwar area based on the satellite
data to understand the causes of the landslides was conducted. Temporal and spatial distribution of the landslides
suggest the role of active tectonics that have been triggered by human interference such as deforestation, fragile
slopes modification, blocked natural drainage, unscientific quarrying, and land use practices due to many project-
related activities such as Sea Bird at Karwar, Kadra dam project, Kaiga Nuclear power projects, Konkan railway
etc. The study indicates that in the areas of tectonically active and environmentally fragile mountain regions like the
Western Ghat, before planning any project, knowledge of the hydro-geomorphologic, geophysical,
geoenvironmental and tectonic history of the region is critical.
Keywords: Landslides, Western Ghat, Tropical region, Active Tectonics, Anthropogenic activity.
1. Introduction:
Conventional approach of land slide study involves
Land Slides are common hazards in mountainous investigations of geotechnical properties of the soil such
regions especially of high rainfall areas of tropical as internal friction, cohesion, thickness of the soil cover
regions where weathering is deep (Sajinkumar et al., etc. When large areas with diverse types of slides and
2011) like in the Western Ghats. Direct relation between material are involved as in the case of Karwar,
effect of weathering and slope failure resulting in land geotechnical approach becomes impracticable (Sambhu
slide at the foot of the scarp are well known (Pasto and et al., 1997). In large areas causative factors vary, so
Silvano, 1998, Gupte et al., 2013). Although, slope geological and geomorphological approach are more
failures are not uncommon in hilly regions in tropical useful (Sambhu et al., 1997; Pitchai Muthu and
countries, the severity of the landslides that occurred in Muralidharan, 2005). Therefore, in this paper an attempt
October, 2009 at Karwar, Karnataka, are considered the has been made to understand the causes for the slide
worst in recent times. These landslides caused the death based on multiple approaches like geomorphological
of 19 people, destroyed 5 houses completely, damaged and geological studies, followed by field observation
several others and caused huge loss of property to the and geotechnical approach. All the field and satellite
National High way, Karwar fishery port etc. Many derived data have been processed in Geographical
project-related activities like deforestation, blockage of Information System (GIS) platform, and causes for the
natural drainages due to the activities of Sea Bird landslide have been inferred.
project, quarrying, Kadra dam project, Kaiga Nuclear
1.1. Study Area:
power projects, Konkan railway etc are believed to have
triggered the slide, and aroused much interest among the The study area is located in the tropical belt at the foot
scientists and public. In this paper an attempt has been of the Western Ghat at Karwar (Latitude 14042’14”N to
made to understand the causes for the slide based on 14054’46”N and Longitude 74005’14”E to 74020’57”E).
field observation and satellite data interpretation.
Fig1: Location map of the study area shown in Satellite image of Karwar area. Also note major lineaments in the
area, stream ponding and obtuse bend at Bargadde near Karwar.
The study area covers about 1500 sq Km around (Fig.2). The people reported that, there was not even
Karwar, which is a hilly coastal tract. It receives annual time for them to come out of their houses; five houses
rainfall of ~300 cm of which 85 % falls between June along with many coconut trees were completely
and September. destroyed and buried under the thick soil cover of the
slide materials. One house moved laterally ~100m
Karwar is a small town, but with many Industrial
from its original place and collapsed. It is estimated
activities like Kadra hydroelectric power project (35
that at Kadwad, from an Overburden area of
Km. from Karwar), Kaiga nuclear power Project (43
~190mX100mX50m soil was dislodged causing death
Km. from Karwar), Sea Bird project at Karwar and
of 19 people apart from huge loss of property. Along
Karwar Port etc. The Konkan railway line crosses
the highway, slide consisting of boulders, debris, rock
Karwar through a tunnel (Fig.1). A large number of
fragments and weathered materials that fanned out to
quarries are being operated around Karwar especially
a wider area at the location were observed (Fig.3).
close to the Highway between Karwar and Ankola.
Before the tragedy occurred, it had rained for 3
1.1.1. The Disaster: consecutive days cumulating in heavy precipitation of
43.3cm. Historical records of landslides and multidate
Landslide calamity at Karwar took place on 2nd
images suggest that landslides have occurred
October 2009 between 4 and 4.20 pm in 21 locations.
repeatedly in some locations which are in proximity
Two slides near Kadwad, one near Karwar town, one
to the major lineaments in the area (Fig.4).
at Karwar fishery port and 17 along the national
highway between Karwar and Belekeri (Fig.1) (Table 2. Regional Geology and Geomorphology:
1). The slides at Karwar port and Kadwad were soil
Geologically, the coastal belt near Karwar and the
slides; near Karwar town it was rock fall and along
Western Ghats are dominated by Archaean granites,
the Highway a mix of soil, weathered debris and
laterised variably. This area underwent deep chemical
boulders. At Kadwad as people reported, hill slide
weathering resulting in thick mantle of lateritic soil
occurred suddenly from 268 m above msl, to 15 m,
cover which is a common feature in tropical countries.
and it moved laterally ~150m in just 3 to 4 minutes
Tertiary and modern sands are found along the narrow
coastal strips. A number of lineaments have been evidences for higher palaeo sea-levels while islands,
detected in the satellite images based on various image cliffed shorelines without beaches and drowned river
processing techniques followed by geomorphic features mouths indicate shoreline submergence. The Western
(Fig.1). Ghat forms a wall like scarp on the east and a narrow
coastal plain on the west. A cross profile from west to
east shows a sudden rise especially near Karwar (Fig.
6). This wall-like rise and origin of the Western Ghat
has been explained by many geologists as due to
faulting (Subramanya, 1998). Apart from these, the
headlands jutting into the sea with faulted scarp-like
formation on one side perpendicular to the coast (see for
ex Fig.7, near Honnavar,~85km south of Karwar, not
shown in the map) are indicative of tectonically
controlled geomorphic features. A Tributary of the
River Kali has anomalies in its flow path from NW to
SE, initially flowing against the main direction of flow
and joins the Kali with a sand deposit near Bargadde at
the confluence point (Fig.1a). It developed a
meandering path despite its gradient in that stretch.
Also, palaeo river features can be seen in the satellite
images. In the mouth of the Kali and the Gangavali
(Fig.8a and b) deposition of the sand resulting in a
bar/spit formation is observed which indicates
aggradations process. There are many Island-like
features in the estuary which corroborate the process of
aggradations. The river shows abrupt turning in the
direction of the fault in a tributary of the Kali near
Karwar, along with upstream pounding and downstream
incision with respect to the lineament (Fig.1). River
bending, formation of islands and swampy condition in
swift flow region of the Western Ghat to coastal belt are
believed to be the manifestation of the active tectonics
(Marple and Talwani, 1993). Near Belikeri, pebble beds
and terraces are observed. These geomorphic features
suggest uplift of the downstream block. Development of
these geomorphic features in Quaternary sedimentary
environment (spits, island within estuary entrenching
and pebble beds in the coastal belt) can be cited as the
evidence of neotectonism (c.f.Holbrook and Schumm,
1999), which imply that the area is seismically active.
Fig2: a) Photograph of the Kadawad site after land
slide. b) Schematic sketch of landslide at Kadwad,
Karwar.
Drainage is dendritic and drainage density is high, but
higher order streams are structurally controlled. Plot of
drainage order number verses number of drainages in
each order indicate first order streams are more in
length than the normal (Fig.5). Lower order streams are
the youngest component of the drainage network and
their preferred orientations are related to recent active
tectonic phase (Centamore et al., 1996). Development of
more number of first order streams imply that the region
is being in active tectonic region and upliftment. Fig3: Photograph showing Landslide along the
Highway, near Karwar consisting of rock boulders,
Raised old beaches at several locations along with wave weathered rocks and soil etc.
cut platforms are observed in this area which provides
Fig4: Landsat-ETM image of the Karwar area showing lineaments, and locations of recent landslides; Google earth
images showing location of landslides. Arrow indicates direction of movement of earth material. Note that earth
material moved away from the landslides.
2.1. Seismicity:
Earlier workers (Raval, 1995) reported negative gravity
anomaly of the order of 70 and 120 Mg. in general for
the region across the Western Dharwar craton that
covers the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Low level of
strain accumulation (10< neon strain/year) has been
reported for the whole of South India (Paul el al., 1995).
This implies that there is relaxation of accumulated
strain. The principle stress analysis of stress values of
N. 40°W (Gowd et al., 1996) by Valdiya (2001)
indicated strike slip movement between 12-16° in
Dharwar craton and North Westerly compression.
Therefore it is probable that these fault systems have
facilitated the stress relaxation. Distribution of historical
Fig5: Plot of drainage order v/s number of drainages seismic data is suggesting that this region lies in the
in each order of the study area high seismic intensity area (Fig.9). Therefore, some of
the faults could be seismogenic and tectonically active.
Fig6: Topographic profiles of land forms Across Karwar and Belekeri region (see Figure. 1 for the transect
details). Note that cross-profiles cross lineaments and along the slope landslide has occurred.
Table1: Locations of some important landslides at Karwar and soil mass dislodged
Sl. No. Name of the location No. of slides Mass dislodged in m3 Type of material
1 Kadwad (Zariwad) 1 9,50,000 Soil
2. Kadwad 1 4,00,000 Soil
3 Karwar port 5 90,000 Soil
4 Near Karwar town 1 Not estimated Rock fall
Mix of soil and
5 High way 3 ~35,000
boulder
Table2: Selected physical properties of the soil from slide area, Kadwad, Karwar
Density Specific Cohesion Safe Bearing Capacity
Samples Friction
KN/m3 Gravity (Kg/cm3) (KN/m3)
Highway 14.45 2.31 0.300 110 180
Karwar port 13.73 2.26 0.510 130 143
Kadwad 16.87 2.35 0.413 10.70 160
Fig8: Spit across the Gangavali river near Ankola (a) (The river is 24 km south of Karwar, not shown in the map)
and submerged bar in front of the Kali river mouth (b) indicating the aggradation processes.
Percolation of the water increases the pore pressure, and High-way between Binaga and Karwar, a barrier wall-
removes soluble constituents from the soil (Jenny, constructions to prevent water entry into the project area
1980). It reduces the cohesive forces which are have modified the normal route of the drainage in the
triggering factors of landslides. area. All this human interference may have played a role
in triggering the natural forces. Especially, vibration
2.3. Anthropogenic activities:
caused due to movement of train (Fig. 1) and blasting
Many studies have demonstrated that anthropogenic for quarry work may have aggravated the sliding. Water
activities, in particular deforestation leads to drastic percolating along the fracture/shear/fault zones which
increase in probability of landslides (c.f. Derose et al., lubricates the sliding contacts may have facilitated the
2006). Due to deforestation, soil cohesion decreases, landslides.
which results in higher rate of mass movement and
Geotechnical properties such as cohesive force, bulk
sediment delivery leading to slope failure in hilly areas.
density and shear parameters provide information on the
In the study area due to many projects, large scale
soil characteristics and hence slide prone areas
change in land-use /land cover pattern have been
(Anbazhagan et al., 2010). The materials involved in the
observed. Extensive quarrying, the Konkan railway
slide, especially at Kadwad and Karwar port are mostly
tunnels, Sea Bird Projects, Dam construction and
soils that have very low bulk density, cohesion and
Reservoir formation and the resulting urbanization are
shear values (Table 2) signifying dominance of clay
all believed to contribute to the land use pattern
fraction. Low density implies high porosity while, on
changes. Superimposition of the Normalized Difference
percolation, water acting as lubricating effect reduces
Vegetation Index map of 1990 and 2000 generated
the frictional forces further down, favoring sliding. Here
based on Land sat TM and ETM+ suggest significant
the nature of the slide initially from top, and later
forest cover loss during the above period (Fig.10). Few
horizontal movement and displacement of the collapsed
of the landslides have occurred in this deforested area.
house suggest complex sliding mechanism. Both at
Comparison of the drainage as seen in the Toposheet
Kadwad and Karwar port, ground is flat immediately
(surveyed during 1976 and 1979) and the present, shows
after the slop. Movement of overburden material
that natural drainages have been modified (Fig.11)
towards valley/dip side is determined by the geometry
Construction for railway track at Kadwad, near Karwar
of the floor, and this may prove to be one of the
has blocked the natural drainage, and along the National
important contributors to instability (Kasmer et al., movement parallel to the base of the dump floor. This
2006). As the material in the zone vicinity of toe is results in complex failure consisting of a circular sliding
subjected to high level of stresses, reduction of material surface passing through the dump material at the upper
shear strength in the zone takes place. This part of the dump and a planar surface along the interface
consequently forms a weak zone of crushed material between overburden material and dump floor (Gupte et
which is a favorable situation for planar failure (Gupte al., 2013). Thus, two different modes of failure have
et al., 2013). On the other hand, from the top, circular taken place resulting in compound failure.
failure may initiate. The toe undergoes translational
Fig9: Seismic zonation map of the study area prepared based on the historical data for the region (Valdiya 2001).
Due to thick weathered soil, thick forest, water catastrophy like Earth-quakes and landslides. The
resources (both rain fall and drainages) and integration of the geophysical data and
mountainous topography, tropical Ghat regions are geomorphological features along with the spatial
environmentally fragile. To harness water resources and association of the present and past landslides suggest
related project in the mountainous topography compels that they are tectonically controlled. Occurrence of
many infrastructure developmental activities along the landslides along the steep slopes that has suffered
coast and foot of the mountains in tropical belt. As these deforestation; high rain fall and soil mass involved
mountains are tectonically active apart from indicate that landslides are triggered by anthropogenic
environmentally fragile, the area is vulnerable to natural activity.
Fig10: Normalized Difference vegetation Index (NDVI) map prepared from Thematic Mapper image of 1990 (a)
and Enhanced Thematic Mapper image 2000(b) of Landsat series, showing change in vegetation pattern and areas
of deforestation around Karwar area
[11] A. Pasto, and S. Silvano, (1998), Rainfall as a [15] K. S. Sajinkumar, S. Anbazhagan, A. P. Pradeep
trigger of shallow mass movements. A case study in Kumar, A.P. and Rani, V.R. (2011), Weathering
the dolomites, Italy. Environ. Geol., 35, pp.184- and landslide occurrences in parts of Western
189. Ghats, Kerala, Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 78, no.3,
[12] J. Paul, F. Blume, S. Jade, V. Kumar, P. S. Swathi, pp.249-257.
M.B., Ananda and V.K. Gaur, Ronald Burgmann, [16] V. Sambhu, Panikkar and V. Subramanyan, (1997)
Roger Bilham, Namboodri, B. and Dave Mencin Landslide hazard analysis of the area around
(1995) Microstrain stability of Peninsular India, Dehradun and Mussoorie, Uttar Pradesh, Current
1964-1994, Proc. of the Indian Academy of Science, v.73, no.12, pp.1117-1123.
Science,( Ear. Planet. Sci.), 104, pp.131-146. [17] K. R. Subramanya, (1998) Tectono-magmatic
[13] R. Pitchai Muthu and C. Muralidharan, (2005) evolution of the west coast of India, Gond. Res.,
Causes and Mechanism of Amboori Landslide of v.1, pp.319–327.
9th November, 2001, Thiruvananthapuram District, [18] K. S. Valdiya, (2001) River response to continuing
Kerala, Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 66(2), pp.203-208. movements and the scarp development in central
[14] U. Raval (1995), on certain large-scale gravity field Sahyadri and adjoining coastal belt, Jour. Geol.
patterns over the Indian subcontinent, Proc. Sem. Soc. India, v.57 pp.13-30.
Space Application in Ear. Syst. Sci., Indian
Geophy. Uni. Hyderabad, pp.153-168.
Abstract: Remote Sensing bathymetry which scans the sea floor reflects dominant geomorphological features.
Understanding depositional processes in a deep water environment can be viewed as an important tool for any
exploration. Eastern continental margin of India represents a pericratonic passive margin characterized by various
en-echelon faults running parallel to coast line. This study aims to classify the eastern offshore of India into various
types based on basin configuration. Major geomorphic attributes like slope, azimuth, and flow accumulations are
used to provide the preliminary highlights of quantitative analytical techniques using ArcGIS software with 3D and
spatial analyst tool. Using the GEBCO global bathymetry data, the qualitative classification is adopted along eastern
offshore India margin based on their morphology. Quantifying dimension and spatial variability on regional scale
shall throw light in understanding the basin geology & tectonic process.
Keywords: GIS – Geographic Information System, GEBCO - General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans.
The bathymetry data has been processed using GIS predominance of the healed slope or slope
system in built algorithm and using hydrology spatial accommodation. This results in more bypass of
tool various attribute maps have been extracted. The sediments on the upper part and more deposition
study was performed in two stages using ArcGIS towards the basinal side. (Prather 2003).A schematic
software. diagram showing the various types of accommodation is
Stage-I : Preliminary stage of the study included presented in Fig-1.
preparation of bathymetry maps as well as various
Total space available for deposition is measured by
attribute maps like dip, slope, azimuth, flow direction,
fitting a 3D convex hull from the shelf slope break to
stream orders. Few of these maps are described in this
the toe of the slope. Ponded accommodation is
paper.
interpreted where there are three way closing lows.
Stage –II: The second stage includes trend surface
Healed slope accommodation is the difference between
analysis for further classification.
the total slope and the ponded slope accommodation.
Regional Geology: The ponded fill represents sheets and channel levee
deposits (Prather 1998).Once the mini basin is filled,
The eastern continental margin of India (ECMI)
sediment spills downslope to the lower mini basin.
represents a passive margin set up. A number of
Above the ponded deposits the downslope basins ate
sedimentary basins on onshore as well as offshore are
characterized by muddy flows or pelagic deposits
being described by various authors. These sedimentary
whereas the up slope basin may contain channels
basins are characterized by different tectonic setup as
(Prather 1998).
well as sediment depocenters. Recent discoveries of
giant gas fields in the Krishan- Godavari deepwater off Analysis & Interpretation:
India’s east coast have put the country on the world’s
The regional bathymetry map prepared for the whole of
“deepwater map.” Exploration has focused on adjacent
east coast of India (Fig-2) shows a well-developed
deepwater basins in Bengal-Mahanadi in the north,
present day shelf and slope system and a vast deep
Cauvery in the south, and the Andaman backarc basins
water area. Shelf in the east coast of India is narrower
(Bastia, 2006).
with respect to the shelf on western continental margin
Basin Screening Parameters: of India. A number of present day deep water
channels/canyons can be interpreted from the fig. 2.
The important geomorphic parameters considered here
These are related to the prominent river systems active
in this study are:
in the east coast of India.
Graded Slopes: In general, graded slopes are gentler
with almost no varying topography while above grade Slope attribute calculated on the data set is presented in
slopes are characterized by presence of step like features Fig-3. This clearly shows the shelf and slope definitions.
or irregular topographic lows. Generally these slopes are This map can be used to predict the deep water
divided based on the types of accommodation available deposition as well as the bypass zone. Another attribute
on them. map “flow accumulation” is given in fig. 3. This
represents the stream pattern active in the deep water
Ponded accommodation: This accommodation occurs
based on the available data set. It can be seen that the
within three dimensionally closed topographic lows
almost all the streams are west flowing and well
(Prather, 2000). These are the characteristics of salt
corroborates with the present day river systems. In some
dominated basins. Even in the shale withdrawal basins
areas few converging streams were found, which refers
these are available. So these types of accommodation
to the presence of topographic lows and the diverging
results in deposition in a confined basin.
patterns to the topographic highs. This map describes
Healed slope accommodation: This occurs in the space the overall mass transport from the shelf to the basin
above the stepped equilibrium profile. These deposits floor.
actually wedge out towards the basinal part. Steffens et
Ponded accommodation in the east coast of India was
al (2003), defined healed slope accommodation in 3D as
identified by isolating the three way enclosing lows.
the space between top of ponded accommodation and
Fig-4 depicts the isolated three dimensional topographic
below a 3D convex hull fit to the rugose seafloor
lows identified. As seen from the fig. the northern part
topography. The same principle is being used in this
of the area is having sparse ponded accommodation
study.
zones. This area envelopes part of Bengal and Mahanadi
Slope accommodation: This is the space between the basin and is having huge sediment thickness provided
highest stable graded-slope angle and the top of healed by the mighty Ganges, Brahmaputra and Mahanadi
slope accommodation. In case of the graded slope, no rivers. A profile through the area shows presence of a
ponded accommodation occurs hence there is more number of present day cuts. Investigation of the map
suggests these to be the active canyons. These can act as [3] Bastia R. (2006.a). An overview of Indian
conduit for the sediment transport to the deeper water. Sedimentary Basins with Special Focus on
Emerging East Coast Deep Water Frontiers. The
The basin’s characteristic feature is its enechelon horst
Leading Edge, July 2006,p 818-829.
and graben system which is filled with a thick pile of
[4] Bastia R. (2006.b). Geologic settings and petroleum
sediments of Permian-to-Recent age (Gupta, S.K,
systems of India’s east coast offshore basins:
2006).A number of profiles across the east coast of
concepts and applications. Dehradun, Technology
India are presented in Fig-5 to demonstrate the different
Publications, 2007, xvi, p 39, ISBN 81-901767-8-1.
basin configuration interpreted from bathymetry data.
[5] Dewangan, P., Ramprasad, T., Ramana, M. V.,
Integrating all the above attributes and studies a
Mazumdar, A., Desa, M., Badasab, F. (2008). Shale
summary map showing the probable depositional zones
Tectonics in the Continental Slope and Rise
off eastern offshore of India is shown in Fig- 6.
Regions of Krishna-Godavari Basin, Bay of
Conclusion: Bengal: Implication in Gas-Hydrate Exploration.
American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2008,
This study explores the potential of screening the deep
abstract OS33A-1313.
water basins into different categories based on basin
[6] Gupta S.K. (2006). Basin architecture and
configuration using remote sensing data & GIS
petroleum system of Krishna Godavari Basin, east
technology. The approach facilitates the use of freely
coast of India. The Leading Edge, July 2006,p 830-
available bathymetry data which are not of very high
837.
resolution. A more detailed study of the high resolution
[7] Steffens, G. S., Biegert, E. K., & Sumner, H. S.
bathymetry data with seismic signatures will help in a
Bird, D. (2003). Quantitative bathymetric analyses
better understanding of the depositional pattern &
of selected deepwater siliciclastic margins:
tectonics of this basin. This basin screening
receiving basin configurations for deep water fan
methodology can be used for any basin in the globe.
systems. Journal of Marine and Petroleum Geology,
1. Reference: 20, p547-561.
[8] L. De Santis, A. Caburlotto, D. Accettella, A. Cova,
[1] Mutti, E., & Normark, W. R. (1991). An integrated
M. Presti, F. Loreto. Submarine geomorphology
approach to the study of turbidite systems. In P.
and depositional processes along the George V
Weimer, & M. I. Link (Eds.), Seismic facies and
Land continental slope and upper rise (East
sedimentary processes of submarine fans and
Antarctica). Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol.
turbidite systems (p.75–106). New York: Springer.
9, 03979, 2007, European Geosciences Union 2007.
[2] Prather, B. E. (2003). Controls on reservoir
[9] Weibel, R and Heller, M. Digital Terrain Modeling
distribution, architecture and stratigraphic trapping
in Maguire. J, Good child, M.F and Rhind, D.W
in slope settings. Marine and Petroleum Geology,
(eds.) Geographical Information Systems:
20(6–8), 527–543.
Principles and Applications, 1991.P.269-297,
Longman, London.
Figures:
Fig1: A schematic diagram showing the various types of accommodations used in the study along a dip profile.
Fig2: Topographic map showing present day bathymetry off the eastern offshore of India. Prominent petroliferous
basins are marked on the map. Lines marked represent the location of various profiles presented in the paper.
Fig3: Slope attribute and flow accumulation calculated on present day bathymetry data. The slope map can be used
in defining shelf, slope and basin part. Red color presents higher rate of change of slope while grey shows lowest
rate of change of slope .Flow accumulation shows the shallow as well as deep water channels forms responsible for
present day sediment dispersal pattern.
Fig4: Three dimensionally enclosed topographic lows are plotted on a bathymetry map of India. These represent the
area of ponded accommodation.
Fig5: Various profiles across east coast of India showing different accommodation zones identified. Sediment
deposition varies from one mini basin to another. Abbreviations used: P-Ponded accommodation, HS-healed-slope
accommodation, A-total accommodation. Positions of these profiles are presented in figure2.Vertical and horizontal
scales are in “meters”. Vertical scale is for elevation and horizontal scale shows distance.
Fig6: Various type of probable slope deposits are marked on the east coast of India based on studies of the different
attributes and the trend surface analysis made on them.
Abstract: An archipelago island system of Andaman is consisting of several hundreds of islands. The coastal
environs of these islands are rich in bio-diversity. Most of the islands rimed with fringing corals and healthy
mangroves observed near the creeks/streams in the coastal zones. The Sumatra Earthquake occurred on December
26, 2004 recorded a 9.3 Mw not only generated devastating tsunami, but also created lot of tectonic disturbances in
the Andaman region. As result of this, northwestern parts of the land got uplifted above a meter from the earlier
position. This resulted in the lot of spatial disturbances in the coastal environment. The shallow depth corals were
exposed and degraded permanently. Moreover, the mangroves in the up streams were also degraded. A case study
from the Interview Island in the northern Andaman was selected to assess the changes. The study was carried out
using the Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Linear Imaging Self
Scanning Sensor (LISS)-III data were used to infer the spatial changes in the coral and mangrove environments. The
assessment was carried out using the Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. The results of the study reveal that the
total coral reef area of 17. 82 km2 degraded. The mangrove also showed the same tendency of degradation of total
4.48 km2 area. The techniques and the data were used in the study were given useful insight. The results help in
understanding the spatial extent and the distribution of the damage caused due to this natural calamity on the coral
and mangrove environment.
Key words: Coastal Zone, Remote Sensing, GIS, earthquake, fringing reef, mortality.
1. Introduction: The mangrove and coral reef are the important natural
resources need the immense attention towards the
Coastal resources are crucial factor to support life of
sustainable conservation. The remote sensing is one
coastal community. It is very essential that the
such powerful tool to map these resources in order to
sustainable use of coastal resources to meet the present
assess the spatio-temporal changes. Besides, the
and future needs. The important coastal natural
Geographic Information System (GIS) facilitates to
resources which are very much useful are Mangroves,
extract the vital information out of the spatial datasets.
Coral Reefs, useful Seaweeds, Wetlands, Minerals,
There are several such works were carried out on
Hydrocarbon and other organisms (Walters et al. 1998;
mangroves (Srinivasa Kumar et al. 2011; Blasco et al.
Jin et al. 2002). The majority of human population
1998; Giri et al. 2007; Kathireshan and Rajendran 2005;
(more than 60%) lives along the coastal zones and most
Danielsen 2005) and coral reefs (Bahuguna et al. 2008;
of communities and industries are depending on local
Mahendra et al. 2008; Mahendra et al. 2010; Rajendran
resources for their livelihood. Mangrove and coral
et al. 2008) monitoring using the geospatial techniques.
ecosystems are extremely important coastal resources.
However, the work on the exact quantification in terms
They are coastal ecosystems providing shelter for
of space and time was not brought out in this area.
diverse habitats from different species and serves as a
Hence present study aims at the demonstrating the
source of food, medicines, and forestry products. In
technology to decipher the spatio-temporal changes in
addition to these mangrove and coral ecosystem, they
the coral and mangrove cover due to 2004 Sumatra
also indirectly support to economic activity through
earthquake and tsunami in the Interview Island
nutrient recycling, water purification, and flood control.
Andaman. This study has brought out the accurate
Coral Reefs and mangroves buffer along the specific
changes those caused in the island due to 2004 tectonic
coastlines act as a natural barrier for coast to protect
disturbances with the aid of the satellite data from
from storm surges, Tsunamis, cyclones, floods, sea level
Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) and Indian
rise, wave action and coastal erosion.
Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) P6 Linear Imaging Self- Table1: Satellite data used for the study
scanning Sensor (LISS) III.
Date Spatial
Satellite Sensor
2. Study Area: Acquisition Resolution
The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands are an IRS-P6
LISS-
example of archipelagoes system which covers about (Post Feb 06, 2006 23.5 m
III
350 islands (Bahuguna et al. 2008). Interview Island lies Tsunami)
in the northwestern part of Andaman Islands (Figure 1) Landsat
ETM Apr 10, 2010 30 m
in the Bay of Bengal. The geographical constraints of (Recent)
the Interview Island are 12.76 N to 13.00N latitudes and Landsat
92.64 E to 92.73 E longitudes. The island covers a total (Pre ETM Feb 07, 2000 30 m
geographic area of about 88 km2. The habitation in the Tsunami)
island is nil except government and security officials. 4. Methodology:
Andaman falls under tropical climatic condition
experiencing a temperature within the range of 23°C to The spatiotemporal assessment of mangrove and coral
31°C. There are no severe climate conditions in the reefs involves three main steps viz: pre-processing;
region except for tropical storms and rains in late processing and post processing. The pre-processing
summers and monsoons. consists of the geo-correction, area selection, radiance
conversion and re-sampling. The Landsat ETM Ortho-
rectified data acquired in 2000 and 2010 are
downloaded from www.landsat.org website.
Resourcesat-1 (IRS P6) LISS-III data of 2006 was
obtained from the NRSC. IRS P6 LISS-III digital data
of July 22, 2006 was geo-referenced for polynomial
order 2 using Landsat ETM data as the reference. A
subset of a mangrove and coral reef area were extracted
from all the images in order to minimize the
classification inaccuracies. The appropriate band
selection (Selvam et al. 2003; Brian and Timothy, 1996;
Green et al. 1998; Chauhan and Dwivedi, 2007;
Srinivasa Kumar et al. 2011) and the radiance
conversion techniques (Lunetta, 1999; Chauhan and
Dwivedi, 2007; Singh, 1989) were applied on the
images before the classification. Then the LISS-III data
of spatial resolution 23.5 m has been resample to 30 m
in order to be spatially comparable with ETM. The
above two steps are making the multi-temporal and
multi-resolution satellite data comparable spectrally and
spatially respectively.
The processing of remote sensing consists of
classification and finalization of the classes using
contextual editing. Iterative Self Organizing Data
Analysis Technique (ISODATA) clustering was
performed on individual images to segment them into
possible classes each depending upon the spectral
Fig1: Map showing the study area signatures in green, red and infra-red bands. Using
3. Data Used: contextual editing the mangrove cover pertaining to the
periods 2000, 2006 and 2010 were separated from other
The present study was carried out based on the available classes.
remote sensing data given in the Table 1with the aid of
the in-situ observations. The Landsat ETM data Similarly another step performed in order to classify
acquired on February 07, 2000 used as the pre-tsunami eco-morphological classes of coral reefs during 2000
and IRS-P6 LISS-III data acquired on the February 06, and 2006. The final classes of the coral eco-morphology
2006 was used as the post-tsunami information. The were obtained by contextual editing with the aid of the
Landsat ETM data acquired on April 10, 2010 to assess ground truth information.
the recent changes in the mangrove cover.
In order to carryout post-processing using GIS analysis The catastrophic impact on the shallow corals resulted
composites of the mangrove and coral eco-morphology in the mass coral mortality due to the land uplift resulted
composites were converted to Environmental Systems in the shallow corals to expose above water
Research Institute (ESRI) shape files by raster to vector permanently. The change in coral eco-morphology
conversion techniques. These shape files were analyzed (Figure 2B) was carried out using pre-earthquake (data
using GIS package ESRI Arc Map to assess the acquired on 2000) and post-earthquake (data acquired
spatiotemporal changes in the coral and mangrove on 2006). The results (Figure 3B) reveal that total 17
environs. km2 area of corals were degraded and recorded as
exposed coral reefs in 2006. It was the part of the
5. Results and Discussions:
healthy coral environment earlier (2000).
The current study focused on the assessment of the
spatiotemporal changes in the coral reef and mangrove
of interview Island before and after 2004 Sumatra
earthquake. This earthquake has caused lot of tectonic
disturbances in the region resulted in the land up lift
(Toiba et al. 2006 and Rajendran et al. 2008) up to a
meter and half. The earthquake caused devastating
tsunami taking the life of several people and resources,
which has not left its impact on even mangrove and
corals. This impact is catastrophic on the corals and
whereas not that catastrophic when compared to coral.
However, mangroves were recorded the spatial decline
on relatively gradual time scale (Figure 2A). The
mangrove change study was continued till 2010 to get
clear scenario. The results of the spatiotemporal changes
in the mangrove reveal net spatial decline of mangrove
cover was 4.48km2 in the Interview Island (Figure 3A).
The rate of decrease in the mangrove cover was
0.3km2/y during 2000 to 2006. But, it was decreased by
0.67km2/y during 2006 to 2010 in a span of 4 years.
mangroves degraded at the proximal end in the land [6] Giri, C., Bruce, P., Zhiliang, Z., Ashbindu, S. and
subsided coasts due to the increase in the saline Tieszen, L.L. (2007) Monitoring mangrove forest
condition might result in growth of young/new dynamics of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and
mangroves at distal end. India using multi-temporal satellite data from 1973
to 2000. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci Vol. 73, pp. 91-100.
6. Conclusions:
[7] Green, E.P., Clark, C.D., Mumby, P.J., Edwards,
The present study aims at demonstrating the geospatial A.J. and Ellis, A.C. (1998) Remote sensing
techniques such as remote sensing and GIS to quantify techniques for mangrove mapping. Int. J. Remote
the impacts of natural disasters on the spatiotemporal Sens Vol.19, No.5, pp.935-956.
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and techniques used in the study are able to quantify WWW.http://www.incois.gov.in/Incois/coralwarnin
spatial changes at enhanced accuracy. Such studies are g.jsp, Accessed on 10 May 2011.
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important eco-systems. Further the study gives input to study on the cost of coastal zone resources (in
the eco-system modeling to understand diversity index Chinese with English abstract). Marine
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7. Aknowledgements:
Shelf Sci Vol.65, pp.601-606.
The authors would like to thank Dr. Shailesh Nayak, [11] Krishnan P, Dam Roy S, Grinson George,
Secretary, MoES for encouragement. Authors are Srivastava RC, Anand A, Murugesan S,
thankful to Director, INCOIS for facility and support. Kaliyamoorthy M, Vikas N, Soundararajan R
Thanks to CARI Andaman for support during in-situ (2011) Elevated sea surface temperature during
campaign. Thanks to Global Observatory for Ecosystem May 2010 induces mass bleaching of corals in the
Services (GOES), Michigan State University for the Andaman. Current Science, 100 (1): 111-117.
Landsat data. This is INCOIS contribution number. [12] Lunetta, R.S. (1999) Remote Sensing Change
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Abstract: This study highlights the impact of adding uncertainty or fuzziness when selecting the most suitable sites
for tiger relocation in the Sariska Wildlife Reserve using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) within multi-criteria
based Geographic Information System (GIS). Fuzzy AHP that incorporates a Wide Trapezoidal level of uncertainty
is found to generate more variability in map outputs compared to lesser levels of uncertainty. The relative difference
between crisp (CAHP) and fuzzy (FAHP) AHP averages 2.7%, although with certain types of uncertainty it can
reach up to 5%. ANOVA also shows better results for increased levels of uncertainty compared to lesser ones. The
method adopted in the study can effectively handle the uncertainty issue, and it can act as a useful tool for wildlife
habitat evaluation and management.
Keywords: Tiger habitat, GIS, AHP, uncertainty, multi-criteria.
consideration the uncertainty associated with the (C.I.). If C.R. < 0.10 or C.R. ≥ 0.10 a reasonable level
judgements of the decision makers’ (Yang and Chen, of consistency in the pairwise comparisons is indicated
2004). (Han and Tsay, 1998; Malczewski, 1999).
It is hardly surprising, therefore, how Saaty’s AHP A fuzzy set comprises of four parameters of the fuzzy
process has been modified and fuzzified to formulate number α, , γ and δ where 0<α≤ ≤γ≤δ. That is, a
and control uncertainty and ambiguities. Specifically, range of values is assigned instead of a single numeric
researchers such as Buckley (1985) devised an value because the decision-maker feels insecure if they
innovative approach of the trapezoidal membership fix a definite value to a particular factor. Fuzzification
function in AHP, and Chang (1996) formulated a of AHP by the geometric mean method is accepted and
modified case of a triangular membership function applied easily (Buckley, 1985; Sinha et al., 2011a), and
which makes it easier for decision makers to understand it uses a triangular membership function, ij = ij. To
the final importance, and the underlying uncertainty of increase the level of uncertainty, the distribution of the
parameters with defined uncertainty in the form of fuzzy fuzzy number is extended at ij ≠ ij.
numbers from which weights can be determined. Saaty
Hence, the difference between CAHP and different
and Tran (2007) have countered all this by pointing out
uncertainty levels of FAHP can be analyzed, and here,
that uncertainty already persists in AHP and this ensures
ij− ij with a value of 1 and 2 generated FAHP narrow
that the ratios in the method are not absolute or crisp
and wide trapezoidal ratios respectively. The resulting
numbers but are, in fact, fuzzy numbers, and so
fuzzy number (wi) has to be defuzzified in order to
fuzzifying AHP does not ensure better results. In fact, it
obtain a singular crisp value (Sinha et al., 2011a), here
could even make the analysis worse. Unfortunately,
we have used a simple centroid method that uses the
however, most comparisons between Crisp AHP
centre of gravity concept (Opricovic and Tzeng, 2003;
(CAHP) and Fuzzy AHP (FAHP) have been mostly
Chang and Wang, 2009) to do so.
done in this sort of theoretical way, with very limited
practical applications of the methods to a genuine, GIS- Finally, there is an urgent need for improved
based decision making problem. conservation strategies to preserve endangered wild
tigers - given that they are globally declining and being
Hence the goal of this paper is to practically evaluate
eradicated. In fact, during 2005 the Sariska Wildlife
the differences between CAHP and FAHP methods by
Reserve (SWR) in India was devoid of tigers due to
applying them to one particular real-world problem that
extensive poaching (Wildlife Institute of India Report,
is plagued by uncertainty within its parameters - tiger
2008; Project Tiger Report, 2009). So this study aims at
relocation and habitat suitability in the Sariska Wildlife
a geospatial solution using comparative analysis
Reserve (SWR), Rajasthan, India. Here uncertainty is
between CAHP and FAHP when they are applied to
due to the dynamism of landscapes resulting from
GIS-MCDA methods for finding the most suitable sites
changes in nature, human activities and socioeconomic
for tiger habitat and future relocation.
conditions (Sharma et al., 2012b).
2.2. Study area and dataset:
2. Methodology:
SWR is located among the Aravalli hill ranges in the
2.1. Theory background:
Alwar district of Rajasthan, India and it covers an area
AHP uses a Pairwise Comparison Method (PCM) to of nearly 1183 km2, which is taken as the study area. It
obtain weights for the evaluation criteria (Boroushaki extends from 27º13' to 27º31'N latitude and from 76º15'
and Malczewski, 2008), and this paper considers two to 76 º 33’ E longitudes (Figure 1). IRS P-6 LISS III
different approaches to it - the Lambda Max (λmax) satellite data for 2006, which have a spatial resolution of
technique (Saaty, 1980) and the geometric mean method 23.5 m, were used for the study, along with other
(Buckley, 1985). Every comparison matrix has a set of ancillary and secondary data including the Survey of
eigenvalues and for every eigenvalue there is a India toposheets. The reason for choosing this particular
corresponding eigenvector, and in Saaty’s lambda max area is that tigers were completely exterminated there
technique, a vector of weights is defined as the during 2004-2005 despite the locality being highly
normalized eigenvector corresponding to the largest suitable for their habitats. A few tigers have been
eigenvalue, λmax. The latter is then used for calculating relocated since, and identification of the suitable areas
the consistency ratio (C.R.) and Consistency Index for the tigers is the main challenge.
SWR
Rajasthan
INDIA
Fig1: Location of study area. SWR is located in the state of Rajasthan (yellow), India.
2.3. Evaluating criteria in integrated GIS-MCDA: The most significant habitat-selection parameters
used in this study were:
The impact of human intrusion upon habitat
1. land use / land cover (forest type and density,
suitability is substantial for all faunal species in
waterbodies, settlements, road),
general and for the tigers of Sariska in particular
2. terrain slope and
(Sinha et al., 2011b; 2012). Accordingly, map
3. anthropogenic activities.
overlay techniques incorporating rules and criteria
were used for habitat evaluation in the Chilla Each parameter was represented as a thematic layer
Sanctuary of Rajaji Wildlife Reserve, India in GIS, from which an output map was derived to
Fig2: Methodology for deriving tiger habitat-suitability maps, using GIS-MCDA and AHP.
The study’s methodology is shown in Figure 2. It Note that prey availability was not regarded as a
took various input parameters determined from both significant factor (Sinha et al., 2011a) because in
remote sensing and ancillary data before Sariska, prey is available in plenty - as revealed by high
amalgamating them with information from field levels of prey density. Moreover, the area is large and
surveys. The field surveys were carried out to gather rich enough to support other predators without much
information related to tiger habitat use, forest type and struggle and competition. Note also that every criterion
vegetation density. The satellite image was initially represented as a map in the GIS database can be
classified using the supervised classification technique combined with MCDA (Malczewski, 1999; Baban and
within the Maximum Likelihood operation found in the Wan-Yusof, 2003). Knowledge-based AHP was used as
ERDAS Imagine (version 9.1) software. Also, the the primary method for assigning appropriate weights to
thematic maps showing forest type, forest density, the parameters, and the result was the matrix shown in
roads, settlements, water bodies and slopes were Table 1. Comparison values were based on personal
generated in the ArcGIS (version 9.3) software while experience, expert advice and an understanding of the
taking into account both visual and digital (spectral decision making problem. The multi-criteria approach
indices) interpretations. was then integrated with different uncertainty levels of
AHP (Triangular, Narrow Trapezoidal and Wide
Trapezoidal).
Table1:Pair-wise comparison matrix for parameters selected.
PARAMETERS Vegn. type Vegn. density Settlement Water hole Drainage Road Slope
Vegn. type 1 3 3 3 3 5 7
Vegn. density 1/3 1 1/3 1/3 1/3 3 5
Settlement 1/3 3 1 1/3 1/3 3 5
Water hole 1/3 3 3 1 1 3 7
Drainage 1/3 3 3 1 1 3 7
Road 1/5 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 3
Slope 1/7 1/5 1/5 1/7 1/7 1/3 1
i [ ij]1 / n , i
documented in Table 2.
n n
3. Results:
j1 i 1
i [ ij]1 / n , i
3.1. Comparison of uncertainty levels:
n n
A weighted overlay model in GIS-MCDA was used to
j1 i 1
produce a suitability map for tiger habitat with different
i [ ij]1 / n , i
uncertainty levels. The model considered both the
n n
weights and relative importance factors, as required in
j1 i 1
index modeling, in order to calculate the pixel number
i [ ij]1 / n , i
for each suitability or priority class, as shown in Table
n n 3, and these were then subjected to a Chi-Square test. In
Chi-Square testing we used the null hypothesis (H0) that
j1 i 1
wi =[( i / ), ( i /
), ( / )]... (Eq.1)
the level of uncertainty does not affect the difference
between the fuzzified map and the non-fuzzified map,
), ( i / I
and the standard formula was used (Dowdy et al., 2004).
of uncertainty, as obtained from the CAHP and the
three FAHP methods, were considered. Chi-Square E i
was then used to statistically check the effect of
fuzzification on the resulting maps in terms of the Where, O and E are the observed and expected number
degree of uncertainty. Weights for each factor were of pixels respectively.
Table2: Weights assigned to factors by the knowledge-based and different AHP methods.
AHP
Knowledge- AHP FAHP FAHP Narrow FAHP Wide
Parameters Geometric
based λmax Triangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
Mean
Vegn. type 0.25 0.331555 0.334036 0.32725 0.32798 0.31507
Vegn. density 0.10 0.09202 0.084322 0.08696 0.08682 0.09076
Settlement 0.15 0.121896 0.115415 0.11763 0.11755 0.12052
Waterholes 0.15 0.18736 0.193919 0.20067 0.20414 0.20159
Drainage 0.10 0.18736 0.193919 0.18733 0.18343 0.18947
Road 0.15 0.054118 0.05324 0.05513 0.05502 0.05789
Slope 0.10 0.02569 0.025149 0.02501 0.02504 0.02468
Note that the suitability map from AHP showed no narrow trapezoidal. In these cases, the observed and
pixels in class 1, so it was omitted from the chi-square expected values are similar and hence, the Null
test because the value ‘0’ should be kept out of the Hypothesis is accepted. By contrast, the value is
analysis. Table 4 provides the results from the Chi- exceedingly higher than the critical value in fuzzy AHP
square analysis of different uncertainty levels of the Wide Trapezoidal, implying the rejection of the Null
fuzzy AHP and the CAHP Lambda max method. It Hypothesis, simultaneously accepting the Alternative
indicates that two of the calculated values are smaller Hypothesis. This shows a prominent relationship of the
than the critical value of 7.815 at α = 0.05 and DF = 3 degree of uncertainty with the difference in the maps of
used in the study - fuzzy AHP triangular and fuzzy AHP spatial extent of every priority classes.
Table3: Number of pixels in each suitability class as derived from map outputs
Method No. of pixels in each suitability class
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Total
CAHP λmax 0 12457 31758 24783 1974 70972
FAHP Triangular 0 12326 32018 24622 2006 70972
FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal 0 12537 31943 24580 1912 70972
FAHP Wide Trapezoidal 0 11065 33244 24847 1816 70972
Such results show that the methods applied have method. Results show slightly more than 5% deviation
significant impacts upon the outputs. The analysis in the uncertainty levels.
shows greater extent of similarity between CAHP and
Table4: Results of Chi-Square test
FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal method. On the other hand,
the FAHP Triangular method is more similar to FAHP FAHP FAHP
Narrow Trapezoidal method than compared to FAHP FAHP
Method Narrow Wide
Wide Trapezoidal method. This reveals possible Triangular
Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
differences in the resulting maps arising due to the χ2
difference in the uncertainty levels in AHP methods. 5.070879 5.201557 237.8918
value
3.2. Differences in fuzzy uncertainty: Table 5 shows the relative differences in the weights
Differences between the weights obtained from each of assigned by all the methods expressed in percentages
the fuzzified and non-fuzzy methods were calculated in and it reveals a marked difference among the different
wi'-wi 100
percentage terms using Eq. 3 fuzzy methods. Any increase in the levels of uncertainty
gives rise to greater difference in the map outputs and
the differences are prominent. These results were further
Difference = ….. (Eq.3) confirmed using ANOVA which generated significance
wi of 0.118 at the significance level of 0.05, for the FAHP
Where wi' and wi are respectively the defuzzified weight Wide Trapezoidal method in comparison to the
number i calculated through fuzzy AHP and the weight remaining methods adopted in the study. By contrast,
number i calculated using the non-fuzzy AHP λmax CAHP, FAHP Triangular and FAHP Narrow
Trapezoidal methods resulted in the values of 0.164,
0.139 and 0.136 respectively. The analysis also showed uncertainty levels, in the context of spatial dimensions
the relative differences among the different uncertainty (pixel numbers in map outputs) are proved from the
levels. Hence the statistical differences among the above methods.
Table5: Relative difference (percent) among different AHP methods from map outputs
FAHP Wide
FAHP Triangular FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal
Trapezoidal
CAHP 1.4% 1.3% 2.7%
FAHP Triangular 1.4% 2.3%
FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal 2.6%
Fig3: Tiger habitat suitability maps derived from fuzzy AHP Wide Trapezoidal (left), crisp AHP (middle) and
knowledge-based estimates (right) methods with differences in the output encircled.
3.3. Habitat evaluation: cartographic index modeling. The habitat model (HM)
for tigers is shown in Eq. 4.
The weights obtained from AHP methods were used to
model the tiger habitat suitability via weighted sum
HM (wi x fi)
n more than 5% is noticed over the uncertainty levels. The
deviation of somewhat more than 5% is observed over
i 1 ….. (Eq.4) the entire uncertainty levels using the AHP methods
adopted in the study. Also, there appear to be relative
where, f is the factor considered in the habitat suitability differences between CAHP and FAHP method which is
model, w is the respective weight assigned to each documented to approximately 2.7%.
factor through AHP methods as mentioned in Table 2,
and n is the number of factors considered - i = 1, 2 …n. In summary, variations in uncertainty levels result in
Figure 3 shows the output map that represents the best different outputs that are visible in the spatial
probable result, as obtained from FAHP Wide dimension. The efficacy of the methods will vary
Trapezoidal method in MCDA for site suitability of depending on the nature and extent of the targeted,
tiger habitats. The figure also highlights the differences spatial, real-world decision making problem; otherwise
in area obtained as a result of the fuzzy and non-fuzzy this might end up giving incorrect and unjustified
methods, thereby showing the effect of fuzzification in results. Decision makers prefer greater degrees of
GIS-based real world conditions. uncertainty in real world applications, and we have
shown that the results vary depending upon the degree
Extensive ground truth in conjunction with expert of uncertainty level used. As already mentioned that
opinion was undertaken for the authentication of these AHP has inherent fuzziness and so it is also observed in
results. The map shows highly suitable areas marked in Table 2 that the weights obtained from different crisp
red, very suitable in light blue and moderately suitable AHP methods (λmax and Geometric Mean) are different
in dark blue. revealing differences between the methods. However,
4. Discussion and conclusions: FAHP has greater utility in handling complex multi-
attribute decision making problems as interval
Our study provides an insight of the effectivness of judgments are preferable to single numeric values in
spatial fuzzy modeling for habitat suitability to restore a real-world scenarios.
highly endangered population in the locality through
geospatial MCDA techniques. We have shown that In complex situations, many decisions are made in an
geospatial data integrated with expert knowledge and environment where decision making process is
implemented within a criteria-based GIS approach can uncertain or indecisive and so fuzzy numbers should be
be used for site suitability studies for wildlife habitat used in those cases for evaluation. That is, in spite of its
evaluation and conservation with regard to the complex calculations, fuzzy AHP should be used in
environmental conditions suitable for a species. The such conditions. Fuzzy logic can tackle the uncertainty
importance of the factors accounting for the analysis can and imprecision involved in expert knowledge
be determined by the weights generated through AHP effectively. In our opinion, therefore, it would be safer
integrated with GIS and overlay analysis. and more realistic if a range of values were assigned by
FAHP for a particular factor in real-world
We concluded that Sariska is an appropriate habitat for circumstances. We cannot be very confident when
tigers and hence a suitable place for their relocation. assigning a definite numeric value for any factor as they
For tiger habitat suitability in this case, and other real- might be influenced by a number of other variables.
world situations as well, the weights assigned by Our study also supports the wisdom of applying greater
increased uncertainty, in terms of fuzzy AHP methods, fuzziness or uncertainty in factual realistic situations, as
are found to be extremely effective wherever a number confirmed by the ANOVA used in our study.
of variables are considered together. The resultant
outputs in the form of maps showed the effects of As for the problem considered, tigers are regarded as an
uncertainty levels in AHP. A prominent correlation endangered umbrella species. Exceptional care has to be
exists between the degree of uncertainty and spatial taken for their conservation as they are now confined to
difference between the maps in GIS, as also revealed by selected scattered dispersed pockets of Asia, mainly in
Chi-square test. From the above, a rule of thumb can be India. Although global warming is a severe menace to
suggested - the greater the uncertainty level the greater biodiversity, the MCDA crisp and fuzzy AHP methods
is the difference. In other words, deviation is more implemented in this study are cause for optimism
prominent for the FAHP that uses the Wide Trapezoidal regarding their suitable site selection and relocation,
method. With an increase in the difference between ij thus encouraging their conservation and proper
and ij, the overall fuzziness increases. management. Integrating this study with several related
studies like biomass (Sharma et al., 2013; Kumar et al.,
Our study reveals marked variation both between the 2013) and forest fires (Sharma et. al 2012a; Kanga et
CAHP and FAHP methods in general, and between the al., 2011) can add robustness in the analysis.
different uncertainty levels in FAHP. When weights are
quantified via AHP methods, a deviation of slightly
As for all real-world scenarios, our study also involves operators with fuzzy quantifiers in ArcGIS.
parameters that are uncertain to some extent. Hence, Computers and Geosciences, 34, 399–410.
the authors suggest the fuzzification of classical AHP [5] Bozdag˘, C.E., Kahraman, C., Ruan, D., 2003.
for assigning weights in order to tackle the problem of Fuzzy group decision making for selection among
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Abstract: A sediment core of 38m length collected from the Kollam coastal plain was analyzed for benthic
foraminifera to understand paaleo environmental evolution. Sedimentological analysis of the core recognized a
sharp break in lithology at 13m depth which marked rapid upward decrease in foraminifera abundance and diversity.
Total foraminifera abundance and species diversity, however, show a linear positive relationship with increased clay
content and differing trend with increased sand content. The core analysis further revealed gradual upward transition
in faunal composition and frequency variation of the most dominant taxa A.beccarii and N.scaphum suggests
gradual environmental transition from estuarine complex to coastal plain complex in upcore direction.
Keywords: Kollam coastal plain, Benthic foraminifera, Kerala coast.
The table II shows the vertical distribution of 30 benthic species and occurs predominantly in all the coastal
foraminifera species recorded from the sediment core at water bodies either in polluted or natural environments
Kollam coastal plain. It is evident from the data that revealing its high tolerance and adaptability to changing
Ammonia beccarii (36.5-82.5%) is the most dominant environmental variables. Ammonia beccarii is
almost at all the study depths followed by Nonion ubiquitous and dominant in all the coastal water bodies
scaphum (7.4-54.2%). The remaining 28 species occur like lagoons and estuaries along the TamilNadu and
sporadically. Elphidium crispum contains 11% of total Kerala coasts (Ramnathan, 1970; Reddy and Reddy,
relative abundance at 3m depth, while Bolivina 1982; Jayaraju and Reddy, 1996; Kumar et al. 1996;
spathulata contains 25% and N.boueanum 27% relative Gandhi et al. 2002; Nagendra et al.2011). This taxa
abundance at 35m and 7m depths respectively. A. reported to occur abundantly in lower estuarine zone of
beccarii and N. scaphum occur throughout the core Ashtamudi estuary of southern Kerala coast (Nagendra
while other species show erratic presence and sparse et al.2011), which is in close proximity to the Kollam
abundance. The figure II illustrates the hierarchical coastal plain. The water depth in the lower estuary of
dendrogram which explains biotopes recognized using Ashtamudi is about 4m and the predominant lithology
Q-mode cluster analysis. The single linkage distance represented by sand. N.scaphum was associated with
method recognized 8 biotopes at Eucledean distance of A.beccarii in the middle estuarine zone (central and
52. The biotope-1 which covers the core depth mainly western kayals) of Ashtamudi estuary where water
between 16m and 23m, shows very close similarity in depth ranges from 2-4m and lithology mainly
faunal composition at a linkage distance of 10. This represented by clay and silt. In the central and western
interval falls in litho unit 2 (L-2) and consists of mainly kayals of Ashtamudi abundance of A.beccarii and
clayey silt lithology with minor sand content (2.97- N.scaphum account to about 60% and 25-30%
12.65%). The increased relative abundance of respectively.
N.scaphum (31.24%) and reduced abundance of
The relative abundance of dominant taxa A.beccarii and
A.beccarii (56.1%) with respect to bottom L-1 unit
N.scaphum show opposite trends in upcore direction.
characterizes this biotope. Biotopes 2,5,7 and 8
Ammonia beccarii shows gradual reduction in
envelops the upper part of the core (14-0 m depth).
abundance from 59.85% in lower litho unit 1, 56.1% in
However these biotopes grouped separately because of
litho unit 2 to 45.47% in upper litho unit 3, while N.
the contribution by other taxa in addition to two
scaphum varies from 20% in litho unit1, 31.24% in litho
dominant taxa A.beccarii and N.scaphum. Biotope-2 has
unit 2 and 0.67% in litho unit 3. The abundance ratios of
a linkage distance of 30 and characterized by Elphidium
these two dominant taxa indicate that litho units 1&2
crispum (11%), Fursenkoina texturata (5.2%), Lobatula
where lithology mainly silt and clay were deposited in
lobatula (3.4%) and Nonion boueanum (2.7%). Biotope-
estuarine complex and further evolving into near shore
5 is distinct by the presence of E. crispum (1.4%), F.
conditions in the upper litho unit3 and finally into
texturata (1.1%) and E. hispidulum (0.4%), whereas
coastal plain from 3m to the top of the core. The sharp
Biotope-7 is distinguished by N.boueanum (25%) and
break in lithology at 13m and predominance of sand
Biotope-8 is diagnostic by the presence of E.crispum
(lateritic) in litho unit 3 suggests high proportion of
(5.7%), Bolivina spathulata (4.5%), F.texturata (1.1%)
riverine input.
and Rectobolivina ?virgula (0.7%). Well preserved
foraminifera specis are demonstrated in Plate I. 5. Conclusions:
4. Discussion: Based on litho content, the sediment core is divided
into 3 unit’s namely silty clay, clayey silt and sand
The table I & figure III shows the vertical distribution of
(lateritic) in stratigraphic order. The base of the
total foraminifer abundance (TNF) and species diversity
(S). It is observed that a gradual increase of total litho unit 3 marks a sharp break in litho content.
abundance and diversity in litho unit 1 from 38m to Thirty benthic foraminifer species belonging to 20
23m,where clay (63.1-72%) is the dominant lithology genera are identified. Q mode cluster analysis of 30
while sand represents <1%. Total faunal abundance and taxa recognized 8 biotopes which cluster at a
diversity show a gradual increase in upcore in this litho linkage distance 50.
unit. The litho unit 2 wherein presence of silt varies A.beccarii and N.scaphum are abundant but exhibits
from 25.1-32.9% supports minimum abundance and reverse trends in their abundance in upcore. Their
diversity of total foraminifera. The lithounit 3 contains abundance ratios suggest gradual evolution of
predominantly sand (lateritic). Faunal abundance and environment from estuarine complex (litho units
diversity show a decreasing upward trend in this unit. 1&2) to near shore (litho unit 3) and finally into
The turnaround in litho content, TNF and S is clearly coastal plain.
evident at 13m core depth, where total abundance trends 6. Reference:
rapidly decrease upwards. A.beccarii is the most tolerant
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Rameshwaram, TamilNadu. Proc. XV Indian Coll. [12] Ramanathan, R.M.1970 Quantitative differences in
Micropal. Strati. pp. 393-402. the living benthonic foraminifera of Vellar estuary,
[6] Loeblich, A.R Jr Tappan, H. 1988 Foraminiferal Tamil Nadu: Journal of Geological Society of India,
genera and their classification: New York, Van v.11 (2), pp.127-141.
Nostrand Reinhold Company, 970 pp.
Fig II: Vertical distribution of foraminifera taxa and dendrogram showing biotopes
Fig III: Vertical distribution of total foraminifera abundance, species diversity and lithological content in core
(BH-8) at Kollam area
Explanation of Plate I:
1. Bolivina nitida, Brady, 1884
2. Brizalina subaenariensis (Cushman, 1922)
3. Fursenkoina texturata (Brady 1884)
4. Rectobolivina? virgule (Brady)
5. Cancris oblongus, (Williamson, 1858)
6. Elphidium macellum (Fichtel & Moll, 1798)
7. Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus, 1758)
8. Ammonia beccarii (Linnaeus, 1758)
9. Operculina ammonoide, Sidebottom, 1918
10. Nonion scaphum (Fichtel & Moll)
11. Quinqloculina sp.
12. Ammonia dentata (Parker and Jones, 1865)
13. Nonion boueanum (d´Orbigny, 1846)
14. Elphidium hispidulum, Cushman, 1936
PLATEI:
TableI: Vertical distribution of lithological variants, foraminifera biotopes and species diversity in Core
sedimentary section, Kollam area
Depth Species
Lithology Sand% Silt% Clay% Biotopes TNF
(m) Diversity
0-3 Clayeysand 89.11 3.9 6.98 Ammonia beccarii 20 3
3 Clayeysand 70.09 11 18.91 Ammonia beccarii 107 7
4 Clayeysand 76.56 9.67 13.74 Ammonia beccarii 84 3
5 Sand 99.99 0 0 Ammonia beccarii 105 4
7 Sand 99.99 0 0 Ammonia beccarii 91 4
8 Siltysand 77.81 19.75 2.43 Nonion scaphum 58 7
9 Siltysand 78.9 15.55 5.46 Ammonia beccarii 183 8
10 Siltysand 66.94 20.42 12.64 Ammonia beccarii 240 7
11 Siltysand 63.93 20.5 15.57 Ammonia beccarii 279 10
12 Clayeysand 76.52 5.9 17.58 Ammonia beccarii 176 9
13 Clayeysand 75.01 7.82 17 Ammonia beccarii 284 13
14 Siltyclay 0.6 15.34 84.06 Ammonia beccarii 223 10
15 Siltyclay 3.93 12.62 83.45 Ammonia beccarii 111 4
16 Siltyclay 3.5 32.19 64.31 Ammonia beccarii 44 4
17 Siltyclay 12.65 30.99 56.35 Ammonia beccarii 43 4
18 Siltyclay 12.5 28.78 55.33 Ammonia beccarii 5 3
19 Siltyclay 8.61 25.11 66.29 Ammonia beccarii 40 3
20 Siltyclay 12.31 31.1 56.59 Ammonia beccarii 11 3
23 Siltyclay 2.97 32.9 64.13 Ammonia beccarii 31 7
26 Siltyclay 0.24 32.81 63.12 Ammonia beccarii 230 6
29 Siltyclay 0.76 27.11 72.12 Ammonia beccarii 49 9
32 Siltyclay 0.8 29.68 69.53 Ammonia beccarii 97 3
35 Siltyclay 0.78 29.56 69.44 Ammonia beccarii 162 5
38 Siltyclay 0.76 29.53 69.41 Nonion scaphum 96 6
TFN= Total Number of Foraminifera Total 2769
Abstract. In the processes of wastes management, wastes transportation process requires 70-80% of the total cost of
wastes management, so that the cost savings can be done at the cost of freight. This study aims to create the
modeling of freight costs and the cost of transporting waste in Malang city with the Arm Roll system. The primary
data consisting of transporting distance, travelling time and volume of transported wastes, are obtained by a primary
survey on the vehicle movement of the Arm Roll. Secondary data consisting of transportation cost and vehicles
charateristics obtained from the Sanitation Department of Malang city and stakeholders. Estimation of the waste
transportation cost by the wastes freight cost equation obtained from the relationship between vehicle operating cost
(VOC) and vehicle speeds. Equation of the wastes transporting cost with the Arm Roll system is Y = 171,329.33x -
0.50
. (Y is a transportation cost (IDR/m3) and X is a vehicle speed (km/h)). Wastes transport use the Arm Roll at the
speed of 21,759 km/h requires a fee of IDR 36,698.92 /m3.
Keywords: Wastes, Arm Roll, speed of vehicles, Transport Cost.
simulated the cost of transporting wastes by The vehicles accounted in a single year (Burhamtoro, 2012);
ArmRoll in Malang city. the variable costs consist of five components, i.e. cost of
tires, fuels, maintenance costs, labor costs and total
The Hauled Container System (HCS) is the waste
variable costs (Mark Berwick and Moh. Farooq, 2003).
collection system, where the waste containers are
Variable costs are affected by the speed of the vehicle
transported to the final landfill, it is emptied and then
during transport. Velocity used is the speed of travel
returned to its original location or to the next locations
(Journey Speed), obtained from the mileage travelled
of wastes collection (SNI T-13-1990-F).
divided by the time of service during the process of
transporting wastes (Burhamtoro, 2012)
The vehicle operating cost (VOC) is sum of the cost of
fuels, engine lubricants, tire, maintenance, depreciation,
interest rates, insurance, driver wages and overhead,
these are influenced by the speed of vehicles which is
the variable cost per 1,000 km (Yanagiya, 1990);
whereas according to Lavinson (2005) and Sugiyanto
(2011), calculation of variable costs should be carried
out per km.
The Vehicle Operating Cost calculations in this study
used the PCI method. This is the empirical model
Fig1: Waste Transportation System HCS (Hauled developed since 1979 in the Jakarta Intra Urban
Container System) Feasibility Study, which is still used by the Jasa Marga
co. ltd. (Hamidi, 2013).
The standard operating procedures of the HCS are:
a. The empty waste containers were taken from the 2. Research Method:
garage to the Polling station-1 (TPS-1). The research was carried out on the entire fleet of
b. The waste container has been fully filled from TPS- trashes hauler Arm Roll that serves the Malang city. It
1 is brought to the landfill to be emptied. was conducted between September to December 2012.
c. The Container that has been emptied is taken to The necessary data includes the travelled distance,
replace the container in the polling station-2 (TPS- transporting time, volume of wastes which are
2). transported, and costs of other needs (tires, oil, spare
d. The wastes containers which have been fully filled parts, vehicle services, etc.).
from TPS-2 are brought to the Landfill to be
emptied, so onward. The data collection method used is primary data and
e. The wastes truck back to the garage. secondary data. Primary data is the data obtained by
field surveys. While secondary data was gathered from
Basically, the cost of transportation is the amount of the Sanitation Department in Malang and stakeholders.
money that must be paid by the transportation provider Primary data includes vehicle motion patterns survey
to perform transport services for both fixed costs conducted on board or follow the vehicle transport
(infrastructure) and variable costs (operational costs). process Arm Roll in the process of transporting waste
These costs depend on a variety of conditions associated from Pool-TPS-TPA and back to the pool, to get the
with geographic, infrastructure, administrative data distance, time and the volume of waste. Secondary
boundaries, energy, and how they were brought (Sofyan data includes vehicle data, the price of tires, parts prices,
et al., 2009). service vehicles, driver costs, etc. Speed data obtained
Various methods can be used to estimate the from the division between distance and time. Equation
relationship between output and costs, one of the of modeling the cost of transporting waste based on data
methods that have been used in the transportation speed and the cost required.
studies is the statistical method (Waters, 1997). The The waste transport cost modeling is based on the
waste transport cost method with the statistical approach calculation of the operating costs of the Arm Roll
using the multiple regression model. Multiple regression vehicles, vehicle operating costs are calculated by the
analysis shows how costs may change if one of the method of PCI that involve fixed costs and variable
factors is changed. costs. Variable costs are affected by the length of the
Variables used in the calculation of transport costs journey, while fixed costs are not influenced by the
include fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs are length of the trip. The formulation of variable cost can
costs that can not be changed. Fixed costs include be seen in Table 1. The fixed cost is calculated based on
vehicle taxes, accident insurance, and a physical test of the value of the vehicle taxes, mandatory contributions,
and feasibility test of the vehicle divided by the number The result of the calculation is the transportation cost of
of working days. arm roll per day and per m3, not per trip because the trip
of each vehicle and each day is different. So that
transportation cost are general.
Fig2: Location of the temporary disposal station (TPS) in Malang city, East Java Indonesia
Table1: Variable Cost Calculation in Vehicle Operation Cost (VOC)
No. Parameter Cost Equations Informations
2 Fuel Cost
1 Fuel Cost (0,06427V - 7,0613V + 318,3326) x Fuel cost
(liter/1000km)
Oil Cost
2 Oil cost (0,00048V2 - 0,05608V + 3,07383) x Oil Cost
(liter/1000km)
Tire Cost
3 Tire cost (0,0011553V - 0,0059333) x Tire cost x n Tire
(1 Tire/1000km)
Spare part cost
4 Spare part cost (0,0000191V + 0,00154) x Vehicle price
(Spare part/1000km)
Service Cost
5 Service cost (0,01511V + 1,212) x Mechanic wages per hour
(Mechanic/1000km)
Depreciation cost
6 Depreciation (1/(6,129V + 245)) x Vehicle price
(Depreciation/1000km)
Interest rate
7 Interest rate ((0,12 x 1000)/(1750V)) x Vehicle price
(interest rate/1000km)
Insurance
8 Insurance ((0,06x1000x0,5)/(1750V)) x Vehicle price
(Insurance/1000km)
Driver Wages
9 Drive wages (1000/V) x Driver wages
(Wage/1000km)
10 Overhead Total Cost x 10%
Information: V = Speed (km/hour), Source: Yanagiya, 1990
3. Results And Discussion: four pieces and 11 pieces Arm Roll Toyota Dyna Rino
BY 43. VOC calculations for the two types of Arm roll
3.1. Model of Transpotation Cost with Arm Roll:
method approach Yanagiya (1990). Limited to the speed
Malang city uses two types of Arm Roll vehicles, ie of velocity variations are allowed in the city is up to 50
Arm Roll New Toyota Dyna WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3 km / h (Peraturan Menteri Perhubungan No. 14, 2006).
900,000
TOYOTA NEW DYNA WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3
800,000
TOYOTA NEW DYNA RYNO BY 43
700,000
600,000
(IDR/day)
500,000
Cost
10
20
30
40
50
60
Speed
(Km/hour)
Fig3: The relationship between the transportation cost and the vehicle speed for each type of Arm roll
Graph in Figure 3 describes the function of the square 0.97. Where that equation Y is vehicle
corresponding equation which is the type of power. The operational cost and X is speed.
equation of the function of each type of vehicles;
Based on these equations, it can be seen that the faster
Toyota New Dyna WU 342R has equation Y =
the vehicle, the smaller the costs charged. When using
1,410,684.24x-0,50 with value R square 0.97. Toyota
speed in the city is 27 km / h then the cost to Toyota
New Dyna Rino equation Y = 1,642,837.23x-0,50 with R
Dyna WU 342R is IDR 271,486.31, while the Toyota
Dyna New Ryno is IDR 316,164.17. Toyota Dyna WU Relationship with the vehicle speed and transportation
342R costs less IDR 44,677.86 or 14.13% of Toyota costs Arm Roll type as in Figure 4.
Dyna Ryno
900000
ARM ROLL
800000
700000
600000
(IDR/day)
500000
Cost
400000
300000
200000
y = 1,522,341.81x-0.50
100000 R² = 0.91
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Speed
(Km/hour)
Fig4: The relationship between the transportation cost and the ArmRoll speed
The regression model is Y = 1,522,341.81x-0.50 with R Calculated based on the cost of transporting waste cost
square 0.91. The chart is calculated based on the data divided by the volume of waste transported. The large
speed of the whole arm roll with vehicle operating costs volume of waste transported obtained from a survey
required. vehicle movement. The relationship between the speed
chart with transport costs can be seen in Figure 5.
120,000
TOYOTA NEW DYNA WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3
80,000
(IDR/m3)
Cost
60,000
Toyota New Dyna WU 342R
y = 195.115,39x-0,50
40,000 R² = 0,97
20
30
40
50
60
0
Speed
(Km/hour) Gambar Grafik Hubungan Kecepatan Kendaraan Arm
Terhadap Biaya Pengangkutan Sampah
Fig5: The relationship between transportation costs and the Arm Roll speed
Based on Figure 5. Toyota New Dyna WU 342R has 37,549.97, while the Toyota Dyna New Ryno is IDR
the equation Y = 195,115.39x-0,50. while for vehicles 28,952.76. In the calculation of the cost of transporting
Toyota Dyna BY obtained function equation Y = the Toyota Dyna WU 342R is more expensive IDR
150,442.97x-0,50, where Y in the equation is the cost of 8,597.21 or 29.69% than Toyota Dyna Ryno.
transport per m3. while the X variable is the speed of the
Modeling the cost of transporting waste by Arm roll is
vehicle in each equation with R2 of 0.97.
calculated based on cost of transportation of any type of
When calculating the cost of transporting waste to the vehicles. Cost model arm roll transporting waste types
equation above, using the speed in the city is 27 km / h are shown in figure 6.
then the cost to Toyota Dyna WU 342R is IDR
120,000.00
Arm Roll
100,000.00
80,000.00
(IDR/m3)
Cost
60,000.00
y = 171,329.33x -0.50
R² = 0.81
40,000.00
20,000.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
-
Speed
Gambar Grafik Hubungan Kecepatan Kendaraan Arm Roll (Km/hour)
Terhadap Biaya Pengangkutan Sampah
Fig6: The relationship between the transportations costs and the ArmRoll speed
Based on the cost of transporting waste chart speed is obtained from the distance trips devided by the
relationships with Arm Roll speed, then the equation Y travelling time of services. Meanwhile, the volume of
= 171.329,33x-0,50 with the magnitude of R2 is 0.81. transported wastes is obtained from the average of the
wastes volume every kind of vehicle type ArmRoll over
3.2. The Freight Cost Based on Existing Speed:
a certain period of time as shown in Table 3.
Vehicle speed is a determining factor in the calculation
of vehicle operating costs (Yanagiya. 1990). Vehicle
Table3: Speed and volume of waste in each brand of vehicle
Table 3 points out that the type of Toyota Dyna Rino BY 43 has the fastest speed: 21.63 km / h. Toyota New Dyna
WU 342 R reaches up to 21.96 km / h. If the speed is included in the cost of transporting waste equation. the
following results are obtained;
[16] Sugiyanto. Gito. “Estimation of Congestion Cost of [18] Yanagiya. Kensuke. “Feasibility Study on The
Motorcycles Users in Malioboro. Yogyakarta. Cikampek-Cirebon Toolway Project”. Japan
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Hadi Dharmawan. “Pengelolaan Sampah Rumah [20] Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum
Tangga Berbasis Komunitas: Teladan dari Dua No.21/PRT/M/2006 tentang Kebijakan dan Strategi
Komunitas di Sleman dan Jakarta Selatan”. Jurnal Nasional Pengembangan Sistem Pengelolaan
Transdisiplin Sosiologi. Komunikasi. Dan Ekologi Sampah (KNSP-SPP).
Manusia. Volume 2 [1]; pp 49-68. 2008.
Abstract: Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is an emerging and promising technology for safety and integrity of
structures. Vibration Based Monitoring (VBM) has gained more importance in the field of civil engineering as
damage parameters are sensitive to vibration. This paper presents brief introduction on SHM and VBM. Traditional
and advanced techniques adopted for damage identification, localization and quantification by various authors have
been discussed. However it is still a challenging task for the researchers to develop a technique which gives efficient
and reliable solution for a particular Structure.
Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring, Vibration Based Monitoring, Damage, Identification, Localization,
Quantification.
characteristics such as stiffness, mass and damping damage in two and three dimensional analytical models
which in turn changes frequency, mode shapes and by using transformation matrix which is used to obtain
damping ratio. The change in these parameters depends reduced stiffness matrix. Nayeri et al. (2007) have
on location, nature and severity of the damage. discussed the advantage of using natural excitation
technique with Eigen system realization algorithm for
Advent of new sensors has made SHM an efficient and
the evolution of the modal properties. The natural
robust technology for monitoring the structural systems.
frequencies are correlated with time for damage
The use of sensors like piezoelectric, Fiber optics,
localization and quantification. Nayeri et al. (2009)
magnetostrictive and other sensors have given rise to
improved the same technique by considering degree of
many advanced techniques which are effective in
freedom as the reference for selection of modes. Blames
locating and quantifying damage in the structural
E. et al. (2008) have worked on non-parametric damage
damage.
identification algorithm based on mode shapes, using
Literature Review: averaging operation to smoothen the temperature effect.
Esmaeel et al. (2011) have used Energy damage index
Various damage identification, localization and
for arriving at empirical modal decomposition used for
quantification methods using VBM have been reviewed
damage localization algorithm.
by many researchers. Doebling et al (1996) discussed on
the application oriented technological development, by Salawu (1997) has given a review on structural
discussing the critical issues related to monitoring of the assessment using frequency changes which is one of the
structures. Chang et al (2003) have given the recent sensitive, easily and cheaply available responses.
developments in the field of SHM in advanced countries Salawu has concluded frequency alone can’t be the
and various sensors adopted are listed. Hsieh et al. criteria for the health assessment of a structure. Hwang
(2006) discussed on the factors affecting damage and and Kim (2003) have discussed on damage localization
sensor selection based on the parameter. Sohn et al and its severity. This have been carried out by using
(2004) have discussed on various parameters affecting frequency response function (FRF) of tests and
damage, selection of such features and their extraction. analytical, which is used for model updating. Mal et al
Sohn also gives information about different types of (2005), Catbas et al. (2006) & Golafshani et al.(2010)
sensors, excitation methods, and application of damage identify damage location using damage correlation
detection methods in the real time structures. Humar et index, modal flexibility and Minimum rank
al. (2006) have presented the description of some of the perturbation respectively obtained from frequency
simple structures, on which monitoring can be done. response function (FRF). Cury & Borges (2010) have
They conclude by stating vibration based methods are discussed the damage localization and quantification
completely not reliable for monitoring. Brownjohn et using strain and frequency data.
al.(2011) have given a brief introduction on SHM,
In time domain displacement, amplitude and
comparison of the early vibration based monitoring and
acceleration are considered as damage sensitive
present day vibration based damage detection is given.
parameters. It is very difficult to obtain the accurate data
Further case studies on mainly bridges and other
and also difficult to get the physical meaning of these
structures are presented. Paper is concluded with the
data. Catbas et al. (2007) have discussed limitations of
recommendation for the vibration based monitoring.
damage identification using time response data on large
Traditional Methods: scale structures. Yang & Sun (2010) have discussed the
static based method of localization and quantification of
In traditional methods there are mainly two domains:
damage in the structural systems. Adbo (2012) has
one is time and another frequency domain. Damage
extended Yang and Sun work using displacement
detection in frequency domain is carried out by
curvature. Sanayei et al. (2012) have discussed damage
comparing the response of healthy and unhealthy
detection on bridges using strain measurements. He
structure. Some of the damage sensitive parameter in
conducts tests in three methods on a bridge structure i.e.
this domain is frequency, mode shape, modal curvature,
conventional, NDE data and model updating using
stiffness and damping ratio. Sheinman (1996) has
FEM.
developed an algorithm for damage detection and also
for updating mass and stiffness matrices based on the Sohn & Farrar (2000), and Lei et al.(2003) have
minimum static and/or dynamic modes. Johnson et proposed damage localization using time series of
al.(2004), Yuen et al.(2004) and Ragland et al.(2010) vibration signals of auto regressive models. Ma et al.
have discussed the damage identification based on the (2005) have located the damage using time domain for
dynamic parameters stiffness, frequency and mode linear system. Quantification has been carried out by
shapes, also different types of damages are studied. using system identification in an iterative way. Carden
Escobar A. et al (2005) have located and quantified and Brownjohn (2008) have discussed the damage
detection in time domain using Autoregressive Moving observing the changes in impedance damages are
Average (ARMA) models. Zhang et al.(2008) have detected. Advancement of the sensor technology has
discussed damage identification of linear systems using increased in the usage of impedance based damage
Support Vector Regression (SVR) data processing identification. When piezoelectric transducers are
technique. Further Trendafoilova et al.(2009) have stressed it generates electric field and in turn mechanical
introduced the idea of using larger amplitude vibrations strain. This electrical response can be used to detect
in the time domain, and this can be adopted for the damage through phase shift or magnitude chance. Fig.2
nonlinear structures. Wang et al.(2011) have discussed shows impedance model diagram by Peairs et al.
the monitoring of bridges in time domain using flutter (2007).The major advantages of this method are low
and buffeting analysis. Gao et al. (2002) have developed power consumption, piezoelectric transducers are small
an algorithm for damage localization using damage in size and they are model dependent. Park et al. (2000)
localization vector (DLV) where inducing stress field have experimentally applied impedance based damage
has zero magnitude in the damaged region. This method detection algorithm for composite reinforced concrete
is carried out using flexibility matrix. Sim et al. (2011) wall. This method is validated with other commonly
have extended the work with acceleration and strain adopted methods. Peairs et al. (2007) have carried out
data. damage detection using electro-mechanical Impedance
method. Since high frequencies are used in this method,
Advanced methods:
spectral finite element method has been used and further
Impedance method uses high frequency vibrations and these results are validated using experimental data.
electromechanical coupling property of sensor, by
developed. Gul and Catbas (2008) have discussed SI repeated till it gives satisfactory performance. Fig. 4 by
based on complex mode indicator function coupled with Jeyasehar and Sumangala (2006) show the ANN
random decrement for identifying modal parameters. Schematic representation for back algorithm. Jeyasehar
Unscaled flexibility and deflection profiles of healthy and Sumangala (2006) have developed Artificial Neural
and unhealthy structures are used for damage Network (ANN) based approach for monitoring the
assessment. Hsieh K. et al. (2008) have proposed structure. This Technique is based on the stiffness and
damage detection method based on Spectral finite frequency, training and the test data are generated by
element method with the combination of SI, finite conducting experiments on damaged and undamaged
element method and model updating process. Natural structures. Zapico and Gonzalez (2006) have used
frequency shift and mode shape change is used as frequencies and developed and algorithm using ANN.
damage indicating parameter. Das A. et al. (2012) have Mass sensitivity has been considered for damage
proposed damage identification based on iterative least identification of 4 storeys building excited using seismic
squares extended Kalman filter. The procedure uses excitation. Figueiredo E et al. (2010) have discussed
finite element method based time domain system damage identification in operational and environmental
identification for damage identification. variation conditions using ANN.
A wavelet is the extension of the Fourier series where a
signal is demonstrated only using time domain where as
in wavelet analysis a signal can be used in time as well
as frequency domain, hence wavelet analysis has gained
more importance in the recent years. It is also very
sensitive to the singularities caused by the sudden
change in stiffness and masses of the structure. The
software like matlab provides a good built in program
for wavelet transforms. Khatam H. et al. (2007) have
carried out damage identification process by using
wavelet transformation. The sudden change in the
spatial variation of the transformed response helps in
identifying and locating the damage. Bouboulas and
Anifantis (2010) have discussed on nonlinear dynamic
equation, which are solved using incremental iterative
procedure. Parametric studies are carried out to identify
the sensitivity of vibration behaviour. The derived time
response is analyzed using Fast Fourier Transform,
Continuous Wavelet Transform and Discrete Wavelet Fig4: ANN Back Propagation
Transform. Chanpheng T. et al (2012) have also
proposed a damage detection method using Degree of Banks et al. (1996) has discussed on damage detection
Non linearity (DON) as the parameter for earthquake and localization by parameterized partial differential
excitation. DON can be obtained based on the ground equations and Galerkin approximation technique. This
motion and vibration of the structure, Hilbert’s is one of the inverse optimization techniques which use
transform is used for analysis. Pai and Sundaresan the changes in the mass density, elastic modulus and
(2012) have discussed on damage identification on thin damping ratio. Jaishi and Ren (2005) have given a finite
wall using dynamic based methodology. Boundary element model updating technique. Dynamic parameters
effect evaluation, operational deflection shapes and are studied and Guyan reduction technique has been
conjugate pair decomposition are used for the analysis adopted for model upgradation. Chandrashekhar and
of space-wave number and time-frequency domain. Ganguli (2009) have developed an optimization
Short time Fourier transform, Hilbert-Hung transform algorithm for damage localization and quantification
are adopted. using Fussy Logic System (FLS). Modal curvature
changes are observed using Gaussian fussy sets and
Neural networks are the computational models which Mapped for location.
works based on the inputs provided to the system. The
connected set of processing units is called as neurons. Genetic algorithm (GA) is a natural selection process
These connected sets are trained with the available static based on the Darwin’s evolution theory. An initial
or dynamic responses using forward or back population is chosen then process of selection, genetic
propagation algorithm. Further these trained data are operation and replacement is carried out until the
tested for workability using test data. The capability of convergence criteria are achieved. Caicedo and Yun
the NN depends upon the input data. The training is (2010) have developed an algorithm for identifying
local and global minima for model updating. This has transducers are used in the experiments for excitation
been achieved through steady state GA. Meruane and and sensing. Medda and DeBrunner (2009) have used
Heylen (2010) have developed an optimization frequency and time analysis using local vibration
technique called Parallel Genenetic Algorithm (PGA). characteristics which are sensitive to the damage. The
This is an advantage over the GA as it is fast and novel beam forming technique has been adopted, in
simpler to solve. Srinivas et al. (2010) have developed which array of beam generated from the transducer
an evolutionary algorithm for localizing the damage and produces ultrasonic waves to scans the region. Further
thereby reducing the parameters in the objective Wavelet packet sub band signals are used to produce
function. Further using genetic algorithm damage has energy map, using frequency as parameter for damage
been quantified. location. Nucera and Scalea (2011) have discussed a
monitoring of steel strands using ultrasonic guided
Development of small, autonomous and easily hand-
waves. The relation between the guided waves and the
able sensing system becomes important for effective
amplitude of the strands are derived to detect the
monitoring. Micro-Electro-Mechanical systems are one
damage. Experimental and numerical studies on this
such technology which measures the physical
procedure are discussed. Further Climent et al.(2011)
parameters. Sensor prototypes are developed for
have proposed a method in which Acoustic emission
sensing, processing, communication and actuation of the
energy and history of plastic strain energy was
structural system. These sensor prototypes communicate
calculated from acceleration and displacement
wirelessly by forming Wireless Sensor Networks
measurements. Correlation exists between energy
(WSN). Wireless system most commonly employed in
dissipation and plastic deformation; hence a tentative
military, life science, robotics and so on. Chacon et al.
formula is derived.
(2009) used WSN for acquiring strain data. Ramos L. et
al. (2010) have monitored wirelessly using modal To improve the robustness of the present day
analysis. The results obtained using WSN is compared monitoring strategies, researchers have combined two
with the conventional frequency change method and methods and proved to obtain reliable results. Hua et al.
reliable results are obtained. Quinn W. et al. (2011) has (2009) have proposed static based optimization problem
described the design and performance analysis under for damage detection on cable stayed bridges. Forces
replicated site condition. Wireless sensors with are redistributed in different strand and further using
temperature and humidity measuring capacity are used model updating damages are localized. Lautour and
for monitoring the structure. Omenzetter (2010) have given an algorithm with
combination of Auto regression (AR) models and ANN.
Some of the other techniques adopted by researchers are
AR models are used to obtain the acceleration time
presented. Bayissa and Haritos (2007) have given
series data from the experiments. Coefficients of AR are
damage detection based on bending moment response
considered as the damage sensitive parameters. ANN is
power mass spectral density (MSD) in two dimensional
trained for damage classification. Loh C. et al. (2011)
plate structures. The total energy output under bending
have extended Lautour and Omenzetter work for
MSD gives mean square value (MSV), Damage index is
application on dams. Xu et al (2011) have proposed the
derived from MSV. Damage indices, normalized
method for parameter identification and damage
damage index, MSV curvature and relative root mean
detection using displacement measurement. Further
square error are used for damage identification and
Neural network is adopted for both parameter and
localization. Xu et al. (2011) has proposed a new
system identification. Root mean square and root mean
stochastic damage detection method. Probability density
square of the prediction displacement difference vector
function (PDF) of structural stiffness has been obtained
is used for evaluation. Yu et al. (2012) have proposed a
by integrating statistical moment based method with
crack monitoring method by dual mode sensing. It is
probability density evolution for the damaged and
based on Acoustic emission and ultrasonic wave
undamaged structure. Xue et al. (2009) have adopted
propagation technique. It is promising technique as it
auxiliary particle filtering method to track the stationary
does not require the past performance of the system.
system for their sudden change in parameters due to the
presence of damage. In this method density is proposed Conclusions:
as a mixture density that depends upon the past state and
This paper provides the review on techniques of damage
most recent observation.
identification, localization and quantification in SHM.
Wave based methods have gained more importance as All the described methods are successful in damage
they aid in damage localization with their directional localization and quantification with their own
properties. Scalea et al. (2003) have adopted guided limitations. Environmental disturbances and size of the
stress waves for stress monitoring and damage damage plays a major role in structural monitoring.
identification in the strands. Magnetostrictive Recent development of hybrid techniques has shown
promising results but research has to be carried out to Structures, Journal of Str. Eng. , Vol.32, pp.1699-
bring out much efficient technique. It is still a challenge 1712.
for the research community to say that one single [11] Catbas F N, et al (2007) Limitations in Structural
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identification techniques to be adopted. 11.
[13] Chandrashekhar M and Ganguli R, (2009),
Acknowledgements:
Structural Damage Detection Using Modal
The financial support from the Technical Education Curvature and Fuzzy Logic, Structural Health
Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP) for this Monitoring Journal, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 0267-16.
research work is gratefully acknowledged. [14] Chang P C, et al (2003), Review Paper: Health
Monitoring of Civil Infrastructure, Structural
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Abstract: The paper presents dynamic characteristics, i.e. natural frequencies and modes of vibrations of a cable-
stayed pedestrian and cyclists footbridge over the Raba River, Southern Poland. The total length of the suspended
structure is 120 m. The dynamic analysis was carried out with the ABAQUS software. Four variants of a numerical
model were created on the basis of different types of finite element (shell, solid and beam) used for modeling the
pylons, plate and girder. The results revealed that the natural frequencies are relatively low and could coincide with
the frequency of pedestrian steps (walking or running) causing the resonance phenomenon.
Keywords: Footbridge, Dynamic characteristics of footbridges, Numerical modeling of Footbridges, ABAQUS.
The recognition of the dynamic characteristics of a forms of excitation were used: random vibrations,
footbridge is the extremely important issue in the harmonically forced vibration, stochastically forced
analysis of broad sense of limit states of these objects, vibration.
such as: comfort, possibility of resonant excitation and
The basic natural frequency as a function of the span of
load-bearing capacity or deformation of the structure.
the footbridge is shown in Fig. 1 for 67 pedestrian
Many works were dedicated to the evaluation of the bridges from different parts of the world [1]. In Figure
dynamic characteristics of pedestrian bridges [1, 2, 7, 1 the critical range of frequencies from 1.4 to 2.4 Hz are
and 10]. The vast majority of these researches are based clearly marked. These are typical frequencies of vertical
on the results of in situ tests. During the tests various vibrations caused by walking pedestrians [1, 7, and 10].
Fig1: The basic natural frequency as a function of the span structure. Results for 67 pedestrian bridges [1]
3. Geometry and material data of the footbridge:
The footbridge’s plat is composite with steel girders.
The calculations of the dynamic characteristics were The modulus of elasticity of steel girders and cross-bars
performed for an existing footbridge (Fig. 2) located in was taken as 210 GPa. The Poisson's ratio was assumed
Pcim, Southern Poland. The primary purpose of the as 0.29. The superstructure has been suspended from
structure is to carry pedestrians and cyclists across the steel pylons 11.80 m high. The pillars and abutments are
Raba River. It is a part of the road junction situated founded on reinforced concrete piles with a diameter
within 300 m of the national expressway S7. 100 cm. The cross-section of the footbridge is shown in
Fig. 3, whereas the side view of the object and its main
The suspended structure consists of three spans: the
dimensions are presented in Fig. 4.
middle one is 60.00 m long, whereas two extreme are
25.50 m long. The total theoretical length is 120 m.
340
300
resin epoxy-polyurethane 3 mm
reinforced concrete plate 15 - 18 cm
2% 2%
70 200 70
17º
Raba
Fig4: Side view and main dimensions [cm] of the footbridge in Pcim [9]
The footbridge is equipped with elastomeric bearings as is defined the next stage of modeling: Part (module
linking elements between the deck and the piers. responsible for defining geometry); Property (module
Usually, a two-coefficient Mooney-Rivlin model is used responsible for determining characteristics of material);
as a constitutive model of hyperelastic nonlinear Assembly (combination of the model and creation a set
elastomeric material of bearings. However, the of parts); Step (configuration procedures for analysis
parameters of the Mooney-Rivlin material: C10 and C01 and expected results); Load (load application and
can be replaced with equivalent elasticity modulus: determination of boundary conditions); Mesh (module
E = 6 (C10 + C01). In this paper the parameters of the in which is generated mesh); Job (creation of task and
Mooney-Rivlin model, assumed as C10 = 0.292 MPa and send it for analysis); Visualization (overview of
C01 = 0.177 MPa [3], were replaced with the equivalent analysis).
elasticity modulus 2.814 MPa. Such simplification is
The fixed boundary conditions, reflected the high
commonly used in calculations of bridges with
rigidity of the foundation rock, were applied at the end
elastomeric bearings [3, 6]. The Poisson’s ratio of
of the piers. The Lanczos algorithm implemented in
elastomeric material was taken as 0.49.
Abaqus software was used for the solution of
4. Numerical model of the footbridge: eigenproblem, as a powerful tool for a quick solution of
tasks of a large size [8]. The FE model of the footbridge
The analysis of the dynamic characteristics of the
along with some details of the structure is shown in Fig.
footbridge was carried out with the ABAQUS which is
5.
a package of programs for solving complex engineering
problems. ABAQUS is composed of modules in which
[5] Dulińska J., (2010), Evaluation of Dynamic [8] Hughes T., the Finite Element Method, New York:
Characteristics of Masonry Arch Bridges: Linking Dover Publications, 2000.
Full-Scale Experiment and FEM Modeling [9] Murzyn I.J., Pańtak M., (2013), the vibration
Advanced Materials Research, 133-134: 605-610. comfort criteria assessment for the cable-stayed
[6] Dulińska J., Szczerba R., (2013), Simulation of pedestrians and cyclists footbridge in Pcim,
dynamic behaviour of RC bridge with steel- Engineering and Construction, 9: 493-496.
laminated elastomeric bearings under high-energy [10] Zivanovic S., Pavic A., Reynolds P., Vibration
mining tremors, Key Engineering Materials, 531- serviceability of footbridges under human-induced
532: 662-667. excitation: a literature review, Sheffield, 2003.
[7] Flaga A., The footbridges, WKŁ, Warsaw, 2011.
Abstract: RC structures are generally very durable and are capable of withstanding a variety of adverse
environmental conditions. However, failures of these structures still occur and reinforcement corrosion is one of the
major causes. In the present research, corroded Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) beams were tested in the
laboratory to evaluate their flexural behavior. Accelerated corrosion technique was adopted to corrode the beams.
The corrosion was measured using Applied Corrosion Monitoring (ACM) instrument. From the results, it is seen
that, as the rate of corrosion increases, the load carrying capacity decreases. The deflection increases initially and
then decreases. It is observed that the stiffness of the beams is reduced when rate of corrosion is increased due to
changes in the modulus of elasticity of corroded steel.
Keywords: Accelerated Test, Corrosion rate, Load-Deflection curve.
Introduction: also decreases, till the area of the steel becomes so small
that it can no longer withstand the load and hence
Corrosion of steel reinforcement is a major cause of
results in the collapse of the structure (Ahmad 2003).
degradation of RC structures. The corrosion process
leads to several coupled effects: cracking of concrete Reinforcement corrosion causes deterioration of
cover due to expansive corrosion products; steel cross- concrete structures in a chloride environment; affects its
section reduction; and the degradation of steel–concrete durability and service life of Reinforced Concrete (RC)
bond. As a result of these effects, the service life and the structures (Cabrera 1996, Glass 2003, Poupard et al.
load-bearing capacity of RC elements are considerably 2006 and Zhang et al. 2011). Various prediction models
reduced. The studies become more important especially have been developed to predict the service life of
in corrosive environment such as coastal regions, where concrete structures (Ahmad 2003 and Jung et al. 2003).
structures are exposed to the environment having high Such methods usually consist of a theoretical method
humidity and salt content. The moment carrying combined with an empirical approach. However, most
capacity of an under-reinforced concrete beam depends of these methods are very difficult to apply because
mostly on the strength of reinforcing steels. Therefore, often too many parameters are unknown (Liang et al.
loss of reinforcing steel may be critical and requires 1999).The basic problem associated with the
special consideration. deterioration of reinforced concrete, due to
reinforcement corrosion is not that the reinforcing steel
Corrosion is one of the important causes of steel area
itself is reduced in mechanical strength, but rather that
loss (Castro et al. 1997). General corrosion, which
the products of corrosion exert stresses within the
appears uniformly along the length of the reinforcement,
concrete which cannot be supported by the limited
will have two effects: firstly, it will reduce the cross-
tensile strength of concrete, and therefore it cracks. This
sectional area of the steel and secondly, it will create
leads to a weakening of the bond and anchorage
local discontinuities in the steel surface. These effects
between concrete and reinforcement which directly
reduce the tensile capacity of the steel in proportion to
affects the serviceability and ultimate strength of
the loss of its cross-sectional area. Thus, as the
concrete elements within a structure. In addition, due to
corrosion products increase, the cross-sectional area of
tensile stresses developed during corrosion, existing fine
steel decreases and hence, in addition to the bond
cracks and micro cracks in the surrounding concrete
deterioration, the ultimate moment capacity of structure
tend to enlarge and form a network of interconnected
cracks. In the present study the corrosion rate is galvanostatically controlled guard ring device. In this
measured using Applied Corrosion Monitoring (ACM) method the reinforcing steel is polarised
instrument which is a non-destructive testing method. potentiostatically by an inner auxiliary electrode and the
real time plot of the current response is displayed on a
Experimental Program
laptop computer which controls the guard ring device.
Concrete Mix design:
The area of steel polarised is confined by a current
The mix proportion used for M20 grade of OPC concrete applied from an outer guard ring electrode which is
was 1:2.24:3.67 and water cement ratio has been taken controlled by two sensor electrodes positioned between
as 0.5. The slump obtained was between 80 to 120mm. the inner auxiliary and outer guard ring electrode (Law
et al., 2000). The potential between the two sensor
Reinforcement details:
electrodes is frequently monitored, and the current
Reinforced concrete cantilever beams tested were of output from the guard ring electrode varied to maintain
cross section 300mmx400mm and 2150mm in length. a constant potential difference between the two sensor
These beams had a shear span of 1750mm and bearing electrodes. The method has been validated on an
length of 400mm. Beams with an effective cover of electrical test circuit simulating active and passive
30mm were designed based on the sizes of the reinforcement corrosion. It is a non-destructive tool
components in RCC Building as per IS 456:2000. used to measure corrosion current density in (mA/cm2).
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was used. Two
Test Setup:
20mm diameter and one 16mm diameter TMT bars
were provided at top and same reinforcement was Flexural testing of the cantilever beam was carried out
provided at bottom. Shear reinforcement consisted of under the specially prepared loading frame. Loading set
12mm diameter TMT bars with a spacing of 150mm c/c up was constructed in the existing reaction bed at
for a length of 1350mm from the free end, and with a laboratory to test the beam as a vertical cantilever by
spacing of 75mm c/c for a length of 800mm for applying point load at the free end of the beam in
remaining length of beam to ensure that flexural failure transverse direction. To achieve the fixity at the fixed
would dominate over shear failures shown in the Fig.1. end of the beam, heavy duty hydraulic jack was used
against the steel column section at the other side of the
Accelerated Corrosion:
beam. Full fixity was achieved at the bottom end of the
In this experiment the electrochemical corrosion beam by adjusting the movement of the hydraulic jack
technique is used to accelerate the corrosion of steel arm.
bars embedded in concrete. Direct current is impressed
All beams are tested as cantilever beam in a 15 tonne
on the bar embedded in the specimen using an
capacity steel testing frame made up of rolled steel
integrated system incorporating a small direct power
joists, the beam having a span of 1750mm was fixed at
supply with an output of 64V and 10Amps to monitor
one end for a bearing length of 400mm. The span and
the current. After specimens were immersed in a 5%
load points were kept constant for all the beams. The
NaCl solution for a day to ensure full saturation
concentrated load is applied on the free end of a beam.
condition, the direction of current was arranged so that
The load spreader arm, wherever used is a rolled steel
the steel bars in the specimen served as the anode. The
joist which is supported on the rollers kept on the
stainless steel plate used as a cathode was placed along
loading points. Over the load spreader arm the proving
the length of beam (Yoon et al2001). This arrangement
ring of 20 tonnes capacity which is used to measure the
ensured a uniform distribution of corrosion current
applied load, is placed over which the hydraulic jack of
along the whole length of the bar. A schematic
20 tonnes was fixed to the rolled steel joist of the
representation of the test set-up is shown in Fig.2. To
loading frame. The pump of a hydraulic jacks operated
obtain the desired levels of reinforcement corrosion, the
by a hand lever. Fig.4 shows the loading details of the
current intensity and the electrifying time were
beam specimen.
controlled (Ahmad 2009).
M u 128.154106 N mm
each node, corrosion current density was measured by
LPR technique. These beam specimens were tested with
the corroded beams for different levels of corrosion.
The current density for each specimen is shown in Table Therefore, theretical ultimate load
1. The established method of measurement uses a
128.154 106
73.23 103 N
It was observed that the control beams attained the
highest load carrying capacity of about 23% more
Pu = = compared to theoretical ultimate load.
1750
Where, As the rate of corrosion increases, the load carrying
Mu = Ultimate moment (N-mm) capacity of OPC beams decreases. For 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%
Cuc =Compressive force in Concrete and 10% of corrosion level the reduction is by 4.8%,
Cus =Compressive force in Steel 6.8%, 27.6% and 30.62% respectively.
d = Effective depth (mm) As the rate of corrosion increases the deflections of the
Xu = Depth of Neutral axis (mm) beams of OPC for 2.5% and 5% corrosion increases by
d' = Effective cover (mm) 18%, 7.3% respectively, but for the 7.5% and 10%
l = Effective length (mm) corrosion, it decreases by 6.1%, 22.6% respectively .
Deflection calculation for beam specimen Acknowledgement:
The Partial financial support from BRNS Research
PL3 Grant No. 2009/36/115-BRNS/ 3371 is gratefully
∂ = acknowledged.
3EI eff
max Pu 8.950 104 65.54mm
Reference:
[1] Ahmad, S. (2003). Techniques for inducing
accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete. Arabian
Where,
Journal for Science and Engineering, 34(2), 95–
P = Load (N); Pu=Ultimate Load (N)
104.
L = Effective length (mm)
[2] Ahmad, S. (2009).Reinforcement corrosion in
E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete
concrete structures, its monitoring and service life
(N/mm2)
prediction—a review. Cement and Concrete
Ieff = Moment of inertia (calculated as per IS 456- 2000
Composites, 25(4–5), 459–471.
Annex C) (mm4)
[3] Cabrera, J.G. (1996). Deterioration of concrete due
Results and Discussions: to reinforcement steel corrosion. Cement and
Concrete Composites. 18(1), 47–59.
For different rates of corrosion of OPC beams, the load
[4] Castro, P., Weva and Balancim, M. (1997).
deflection relationship for control beams initially varied
Corrosion of reinforced concrete in a tropical
linearly up to 80kN then started varying non linearly
marine environment and in accelerated tests.
(Fig.5). The control beams failed at an average load of
Construction and Building Materials, 11(2), pp. 75-
92kN. The average beam-end deflection was 60.96mm.
88.
2.5% Corroded beams failed at 4.8% lesser load than
[5] Glass, G.K. (2003). Reinforcement corrosion.
control beams (CB) and beam-end deflections increased
Advanced concrete technology set, J. Newman and
by 17.9% compared to CB. 5% corroded beams failed at
B. S. Choo, eds., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
6.81% lesser load than CB and beam-end deflections
1–27.
increased by 7.3%. 7.5% corroded beams failed at
[6] IS 456:2000, Plane and reinforced concrete – code
27.6% lesser load and beam-end deflections decreased
of practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
by 6.5% compared to CB. 10% corroded beams failed at
[7] Jung, W. Y., Yoon, Y. S., and Sohn, Y. M. (2003).
30.6% lesser load and beam-end deflection decreased by
Predicting the remaining service life of land
22.7% compared to CB.
concrete by steel corrosion. Cement and Concrete
As per the above observations, the stiffness of the Research, 33(5), 663–677.
beams is reduced when rate of corrosion is increased. [8] Law, D.W., Millard, S.G., and Bungey, J.H. (2000).
For corrosion level up to 5%, with increase in rate of Linear polarisation resistance measurements using a
corrosion the beams exhibit large deflection compared potentiostatically controlled guard ring. NDT and E
to control beam specimens. The reason for such International, 33, 15–21.
behaviour is the change in the modulus of elasticity of [9] Liang, M. T., Wang, K. L., and Liang, C. H.
steel as the corrosion rate is increased. Due to this (1999). Service life prediction of reinforced
effect, beams generally failed at lesser load with more concrete structures. Cement and Concrete Research,
deflection compared to control beams. 29(9), 1411–1418.
[10] Poupard, O., L’Hostis, V., Catinaud, S., and Petre-
Concluding Remarks:
Lazar, I. (2006). Corrosion damage diagnosis of a
reinforced concrete beam after 40 years natural
exposure in marine environment. Cement and serviceability Reinforced concrete. ACI Materials
Concrete Research, 36(3), 504–520. Journal, 97(6), 99-181.
[11] Yoon, S., Wang, K., Weiss, W.J., and Shah, S. P. [12] Zhang, W., and Ba, H. (2011). Accelerated life test
(2001). Interaction between loading, corrosion, of concrete in chloride environment. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 23(3), 330-334.
Fig3: Beam specimen marked in to number of grid to measure corrosion current density
Abstract: Evaluation of the various landfill liner systems requires the contaminant transport modeling through
selected liner. Normally clay soils alone or bentonite amended with sand are widely used as bottom liner. Bentonite
is used due to its high adsorption capacity and sand is used to impart the required volume stability and strength. The
performance of the liner has to be assessed for the breakthrough times under different hydrological regime knowing
the hydraulic conductivity of the compacted liner and sorption capacity. The data available on sorption capacity of
the liner for copper and iron is used to select the appropriate sand bentonite mixture combination. It was found that a
mixture of 20% bentonite and 80% sand possess better sorption capacity for copper. The hydraulic conductivity of
this mixture has been determined by laboratory testing. The breakthrough curves, under different hydraulic gradients
for the compacted mixtures and for the diffusion coefficient of copper, are obtained through the use of POLLUTEv7
software for a liner thickness of 1m. To promote the waste materials for liner construction fly ash is often used as
material. To enable comparison and to improve the stability of the 10% fly ash containing 90% sand is used. It was
found that fly ash sand mixture possesses better sorption capacity for iron. But the hydraulic conductivity of the
mixture was high and the break through times as modeled was very small. To reduce the hydraulic conductivity 5%
of bentonite is incorporated to sand fly ash mixture. The breakthrough times as modeled have improved
considerably.
Key words: BTC curves, Pollute, Diffusion, Advective, Contaminant transport, Modelling, Bentonite, Fly ash.
Abstract: Geopolymer is a class of aluminosilicate binding materials synthesized by thermal activation of solid
aluminosilicate base materials such as fly ash, metakaolin, GGBS etc., with an alkali metal hydroxide and silicate
solution. The geopolymer was activated with sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate and heat. This paper presents the
results of non-destructive testing done on geopolymer concrete. The molarity used for the preparation of geoploymer
specimens was 12. The grades choosen for the investigation were M-30, M-40, M-50 and M-60. The alkaline
solution used for present study is the combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution with the ratio of
2.50. The test specimens were 150x150x150 mm cubes heat-cured at 60°C in an oven. The experimental
investigation using NDT methods showed that a good correlation exists between conventional compressive strength,
Schmidt rebound hammer (SRH) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) on geopolymer concrete, which is similar to
that of conventional concrete. The rebound hammer readings had a correlation coefficient of 0.9144 while the
ultrasonic pulse velocity had a correlation coefficient of 0.8897.
Key words: geopolymer concrete, Schmidt Rebound Hammer (SRH), Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV), molarity,
sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate.
Introduction: sufficient fluid to coat fly ash particles and involve them
in polymerization reaction. This indicates that the fly
Geopolymer concrete, named after the reaction between
ash content directly contributes to compressive strength
polymer and geological origin source material proposed
of geopolymer concrete. For given water content, the fly
to replace all cement portions in concrete as the main
ash content increases the compressive strength of
binder [Davidovits, 1997]. The reduction of cement
geopolymer concrete increases up to certain amount
portion in concrete is expected to decrease the Portland
beyond which strength decreases. [Rangan, 2008]
cement demand; hence reducing the environmental
issues generated from cement production. Geopolymer Experimental Investigations:
concrete is commonly produced from alkaline liquid Materials:
and source material. The alkaline liquid is a
The following materials have been used in the
combination of sodium hydroxide or potassium
experimental study [Shankar et al., 2011]
hydroxide with sodium silicate or potassium silicate
a. Fly Ash (Class F) collected form Raichur Thermal
[Barbosa, et al., 2000]. The utilization of single alkaline
power plant having specific gravity 2.00.
hydroxide activator will have lower rate reaction
b. Fine aggregate: Sand confirming to Zone –III of IS:
compared to those containing soluble silicate [Palomo et
383-1970 having specific gravity 2.51 and fineness
al., 1999], therefore sodium silicate solution is added to
modulus of 2.70.
sodium hydroxide solution to enhance the reaction rate
c. Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite metal
between alkaline liquid and source material [van
confirming to IS: 383-1970 having specific gravity
Deventer, et al., 2000]. Fly ash is the most common
2.70 and fineness modulus of 5.85.
source material for making geopolymers. Normally,
d. Water: Clean Potable water for mixing
good high-strength geopolymers can be made from class
e. Alkaline Media: Specific gravity of
F fly ash [Schmucker, et al., 2004]. These low calcium
i. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = 1.16
materials were chosen because high calcium content in
ii. Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) = 1.57
source material can affect the polymerization process
f. Superplasticizer : Conplast (SP-430)
[Fenandez-Jimenez, et al., 2003]. The variation of fly
ash and water content was studied in producing the The tests carried out on the hardened concrete were the
geopolymer concrete. As fly ash content increases, the Ultra sonic pulse velocity test, Rebound hammer test
compressive strength also increases as long as there is and conventional destructive test. The NDT tests were
carried out according to IS: 13311-1992 (Part 1 & 2), to formwork stripping, curing, pre-stressing or load
whereas the conventional destructive test was carried application.
out as per IS: 516-1959. The cube specimen of standard
This research therefore seeks to compare the most
size 150x150x150 mm was considered for the entire
common non-destructive techniques, the rebound
investigation. The age of 7 and 28 days for concrete
hammer and the ultrasonic pulse velocity methods so as
cubes were chosen throughout the investigation, since
to see which method has a superior capability in the
the UPV and SRH tests were unaffected between 3 days
sense that it is capable of providing more information
to 3 months [Mirmiran, 2001].
on geopolymer concrete properties.
Mix design of geopolymer concrete:
Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer Test:
In the design of geopolymer concrete mix, coarse and
The Rebound Hammer has been around since the late
fine aggregates together were taken as 77% of entire
1940’s and today is a commonly used method for
mixture by mass. This value is similar to that used in
estimating the compressive strength of in-place
OPC concrete in which it will be in the range of 75 to
concrete. Developed in 1948 by a Swiss engineer named
80% of the entire mixture by mass. Fine aggregate was
Ernst Schmidt, the device measures the hardness of
taken as 30% of the total aggregates. The density of
concrete surfaces using the rebound principle. It is
geopolymer concrete is taken similar to that of OPC as
basically a surface hardness test and is used only on
2400 kg/m3 [Rangan, 2008]. The details of mix design
concrete where the surface has not been carbonated as
and its proportions for different grades of GPC are
the results tend to be very high and unrealistic on a
given in Table 2.
carbonated surface.
Mixing, Casting, Compaction and Curing of
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method:
Geopolymer Concrete:
Ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete can indicate
Mixing process was divided into two stages, dry mix
degree of dense of the microstructure of concrete, low
and wet mix. Initially, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate,
porosity and high compactness of the concrete matrix
fly ash was mixed together in rotating pan mixer for 3
would lead to higher velocity of propagation of
minutes. Alkaline activator with the combination of
ultrasonic waves. A complex system of stress waves
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate was prepared just
develops, which include both longitudinal and shear
before the mixing with fly ash. Alkaline solution plays
waves, and propagates through the concrete. The first
an important role in geopolymer synthesis for the
waves to reach the receiving transducer are the
dissolution of silica and alumina as well as for the
longitudinal waves, which are converted into an
catalysis of polymerization reaction [Kale, 2007].
electrical signal by a second transducer. Electronic
Alkaline solutions were then poured into the dry mixed
timing circuits enable the transit time T of the pulse to
material and continued for wet mixing for another 4
be measured.
minutes. The ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash by mass
was varied accordingly with grade of concrete. The ratio Results and Discussions:
of Na2SiO3 to NaOH used in the current study was 2.50
Workability of geopolymer concrete:
for all the mixes. This ratio of 2.50 was selected since it
produced the highest compressive strength [Shankar, et Fresh GPC mixes were found to be highly viscous and
al., 2012]. The workability of the fresh concrete was cohesive with medium to high slump. The workability
measured by means of conventional slump test. After of the geopolymer concrete decreases with increase in
casting the specimens, they were kept in rest period for the grade of the concrete as presented in Table 1, this is
two days and then they were demoulded. The because of the decrease in the ratio of water to
demoulded specimens were kept at 60°C for 24 hours in geopolymer solids. Hence we can say that as the grade
an oven. of the concrete increases, the mix becomes stiffer
decreasing the workability.
Nondestructive tests on geopolymer concrete:
Correlation of compressive strength between
Nondestructive tests are of great scientific and practical
rebound hammer and destructive testing:
importance especially the need for quality
characterization of damaged constructions made of A correlation of compressive strength between RSH and
concrete. Its importance can also be seen in the desire destructive testing for geopolymer concrete for 7 and 28
for a proposed change of usage or extension of a days are given in Fig. 1 and Table 3. It shows that
structure, acceptability of a structure for purchase or compressive strength by SRH is higher than destructive
insurance, assessment of the quality or integrity of the test results for the samples. As SRH is based upon
repairs, monitoring of strength development in relation surface hardness, the compressive strength becomes
higher in all the cases. SRH test results give a
conservative value. Regression analysis was computed consisting of sand and coarse aggregate to form
on the data obtained; the rebound hammer readings geopolymer concrete (GPC).
had a correlation coefficient of 0.9144. 2. Conventional methods of mixing, compaction,
The regression equation for the rebound hammer moulding and demoulding was adopted for GPC’S
method is s = 0.928 r + 5.067. also.
3. The workability of freshly prepared geopolymer
Correlation of compressive strength between
concrete mix decreases with increase in grade of
ultrasonic pulse velocity and destructive testing:
concrete.
In case of Portland cement based concretes, an UPV 4. The routine techniques were employed for
value of more than 4 km/sec represents a very good conducting NDT tests on geopolymer concrete,
quality quality [IS:13311]. As the chemical nature of which were similar to conventional concrete
matrix of P-C based concretes and GPCs are different, a testing. The experimental investigation showed that
direct comparison of UPVs in these type concrete is not a good correlation exists between compressive
rational. However the observed UPV for different strength, Schmidt Rebound Hammer and ultrasonic
grades of GPC are in the range of 3.57 to 5.4 km/sec pulse velocity for a geopolymer concrete.
which indicate that the concrete is ‘Good’ to ‘Very 5. The sensitivity of the pulse velocity test in
Good’ type. measuring strength is affected by the concrete age,
as the concrete matures, the sensitivity of the
A correlation of compressive strength between UPV and
ultrasonic pulse velocity to strength achieved by the
destructive testing for geopolymer concrete for 7 and 28
geopolymer concrete increases.
days are given in Fig. 2 and Table 3. It shows that
6. The rebound hammer shows less sensitivity as the
compressive strength by UPV is slightly deviating from
concrete matures since it is a surface hardness test
the destructive test results. Regression analysis was
and for age above 7 days there is little or no gain in
computed on the data obtained; the ultrasonic pulse
surface hardness.
velocity had a correlation coefficient of 0.8897. The
7. The regression equation for the rebound hammer
regression equation for the UPV is s = 0.0582 v +
method is s = 0.928 r + 5.067, whereas that of
1.6807. Where s is the strength and r is rebound
ultrasonic pulse velocity method is s = 0.00582 v +
number, v is the ultrasonic pulse velocity.
1.6807 with destructive testing and the combined
Correlation between rebound hammer and ultra- correlation of SRH and UPV is s = 15.566 r –
sonic pulse velocity readings: 20.057 on geopolymer concrete.
Although SRH gives the compressive strength but UPV
helps to determine the density, uniformity and 70
y = 0.928x + 5.067
Rebound Hammer
40
geopolymerization and factors influencing its
development: A review, Journal of Material
30
Science, 42(3), 2007, 729-746.
20 [10] Mohammadreza Hamidian, Ali Shariati, M. M. et
10 al, Application of Schmidt rebound hammer and
0 ultrasonic pulse velocity techniques for structural
2 3 4 5 6 health Monitoring Scientific Research and Essays,
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 7(21), 2012, 1997-2001.
[11] Shankar H. Sanni and R. B. Khadiranaikar,
Performance of geopolymer concrete under various
Fig3: Correlation b/n SRH Vs UPV severe environmental conditions, International
Acknowledgements: Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 3(2),
2012, 396-407.
The authors are thankful to the reviewer Dr. N. P. [12] Shankar H. Sanni and et al., Permeability
Rajamane, SRM University for his valuable and critical characteristics of geopolymer concrete, B.E Project
suggestions that helped to enhance the quality of the Report, Basaveshwar Engineering College,
paper. The authors are also thankful to Prof. D. Venkat Bagalkot, 2011.
Reddy, Editor-in-Chief of IJEE, Dr. M. C. Narasimhan, [13] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, (S. Chand and
Professor, NITK Surathkal and Dr. B. T. Patil, former Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002)
Principal, GMIT, Davanagere for their valuable [14] IS: 2386 (Part-IV)-1963, Methods of test for
suggestions. aggregates for concrete-mechanical properties,
Reference: Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[15] IS: 456-2000, Code of practice for plain and
[1] Davidovits, J., High Alkali Cements for 21st reinforced concrete, Bureau of Indian standards,
Century Concretes, Concrete Technology: Past, New Delhi.
Present and Future. P. K. Mehta, ACI, Detroit, [16] IS: 383-1970, Specification for coarse and fine
USA. 1997, SP 144-19:383-397. aggregates from natural sources for concrete,
[2] Barbosa, V.F.F., MacKenzie, K. J. D. et al, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
Synthesis and Characterization of Materials Based [17] IS: 516-1959, Methods of test for strength of
on Inorganic Polymers of Alumina and Silica: concrete, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
Sodium Polysialate Polymers, International Journal [18] IS: 13311(PT1): 1992, Methods of non-destructive
of Inorganic Materials 2(4), 2000, 309-317. testing of concrete: Part 1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity,
[3] Palomo, A, Grutzeck, M. W. et al, Alkali- Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi.
Activated Fly Ashes, A Cement for the Future, [19] IS: 13311(PT2): 1992, Methods of non-destructive
Cement and Concrete Research, 29(8), 1999, 1323- testing of concrete: Part 2 Rebound hammer,
1329. Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi.
Abstract: Earth is being used as construction material in all parts of the world for all civil engineering works. Some
locally available soils are not suitable for intended purpose, due to lack of properties. Stabilization of soils in order
to improve strength and durability properties often relies on additives such as cement, lime, fly ash, and other
chemicals. These materials are low-priced, relatively easy to apply and provide benefits to different soils. In the
present study, comprehensive laboratory work is carried out on the durability characteristics of cement stabilized
gravelly soils exposed to three hydrochloric acid solutions with concentrations of 1%, 3% and 5%, with exposure
periods up to 6months. Two types of soils, namely clayey gravel (GC) and silty gravel (GM) are stabilized with
varying cement content ranging from 4 to 14% by dry weight of the soil in increments of 2%. As per the results, the
compressive strength gain of CSGM and CSGC cubes with age continued with addition of cement under the same
concentration of HCl acid. However, the compressive strength decreased with increasing concentration of
hydrochloric acid for same cement content.
Keywords: Cement stabilization, compressive strength, durability, hydrochloric acid.
24 hours and then demoulded. After demoulding, the decreased with increasing concentration of HCl acid
specimens are cured by covering with wet gunny bags at same exposure period for all cement contents.
at room temperature for further 27 days.
Figures 5 to 7 shows the results for the CSGM
1.3.3. Exposure and testing: exposed to 1%, 3% and 5% HCl acid solutions. It may
be noticed from the figures that the compressive
After 28 days of curing, the cement stabilized soil
strength of cement stabilized cubes for different
specimens are placed in tubs containing the following
exposure periods increased with increasing
chemical solutions.
percentage of cement content. However, the
Hydrochloric acid concentrations
compressive strength of CSGM exposed to HCl acid
i. 1% HCl (10ml/l)
decreased with increasing concentration of HCl acid
ii. 3% HCl (30ml/l)
at same exposure period for all cement contents.
iii. 5% HCl (50ml/l)
Table3: Compaction characteristics of cement
The exposure solutions are prepared by mixing
stabilized gravel soils
Hydrochloric acid with distilled water. Nine
specimens representing similar composition are Compaction characteristics of
immersed in each solution. The concentrations of the soils
HCl acid solution are checked periodically and the Details of Mix GC GM
solution is changed after three months period. OMC MDD OMC MDD
(%) g/cc (%) g/cc
Three cement stabilized soil cube specimens
representing similar composition are retrieved from Soil + 0% cement 8 2.15 12.4 1.91
the test solution after 1, 3 and 6 months of exposure. Soil + 2% cement 8.1 2.17 12.5 1.96
The effect of hydrochloric acid on cement stabilized Soil + 4% cement 8.3 2.18 12.52 1.96
soil is evaluated by measuring the compressive
Soil + 6% cement 8.6 2.18 12.58 1.97
strength.
Soil + 8% cement 8.8 2.19 12.65 1.95
1.4. Results and discussion:
Soil + 10% cement 9 2.19 12.72 1.95
1.4.1. Compaction characteristics: Soil + 12% cement 9.6 2.2 12.8 1.96
The results of IS heavy compaction tests on gravel Soil + 14% cement 10 2.2 13.1 1.97
soils and cement stabilized gravel soils are presented
in Table 3. It can be observed that from the test results
that the maximum dry density of gravel soils
increased slightly with increase in cement content
initially and thereafter decreased slightly and after
that the change became insignificant. The OMC
values increased slightly with increased cement
content.
1.4.2. Compressive Strength:
The strength development trend of cement stabilized
clayey gravel soil (CSGC) is depicted in Figures 2 to
4 and cement stabilized silty gravel soil (CSGM) is
shown in Figures 5 to 7. The results of CSGC
exposed to 1% HCl acid solution presented in Fig. 2
show that the compressive strength of cement
stabilized cubes for different exposure periods
increased with increase in percentage of cement
content up to 12% and thereafter the compressive
strength decreased with increase in the exposure
period due to deterioration of the hardened cement
with acid attack. The same trend is observed in the
other exposure solutions with HCl acid concentrations
of 3% and 5% (Figs 3 and 4). However, the
compressive strength of CSGC exposed to HCl acid
1.5. Conclusions:
Based on the studies carried out on cement stabilized
gravel soils exposed to different concentrations of
hydrochloric acid solutions for different exposure
periods, the following conclusions are made.
The compressive strength of Cement Stabilized
Clayey Gravel (CSGC) under study is not affected
by HCl acid for stabilizing cement contents below
The Cement Stabilized Clayey Gravel has better Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering
resistance to HCl acid attack compared to Cement Reseach, (2012), Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 391-404.
Stabilized Silty Gravel. [3] E. Arunakanthi, H. Sudarsana Rao and I.V. Ramana
The effect of HCl acid on cement stabilized soils is Reddy, “Effects of Hydrochloric Acid in Mixing
less significant compared to hydrochloric acid and Curing Water on Strength of High-
attack on concrete as amount of cement used for Performance Metakaolin Concrete”, International
stabilization is not high. Journal of Applied Engineering and Technology,
(2012), Vol. 2, No.2, pp.68-76.
1.6. Acknowledgement:
[4] B. Madhusudhana Reddy, H. Sudarsana Rao and
The authors thank Prof. E. Saibaba Reddy and Prof. S. M.P. George, “Effect of Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Nagendra Prasad, the reviewers for sparing their on Blended Cement (Fly Ash based) and Silica
valuable time for reviewing the research paper and for Fume Blended Cement and their Concretes”,
their valuable suggestions. The authors also thank Prof. International Journal of Science and Technology
D. Venkata Reddy, Editor- in- Chief, IJEE, for (2012), Vol. 1, No. 9, pp. 476-480.
extending necessary help in publication of the paper in [5] IS: 2720 Part 4, Indian Standard Code of Practice-
the journal. Methods of Tests for soils- Grain Size Analysis,
(1985).
1.7. Reference:
[6] IS: 2720 Part 40, Indian Standard Code of Practice-
[1] O.G. Ingles, and J.B. Metcalf, “Soil Stabilization – Methods of Tests for soils- Determination of Free
Principles and practice”, Butterworth’s, Australia, Swell, (1977).
(1972). [7] IS: 2720 Part 5, Indian Standard Code of Practice-
[2] T. K. Lohani, M. Padhi, K.P. Dash and S. Jena, Methods of Tests for soils- Determination of Liquid
“Optimum Utilization of Quarry Dust as Partial and Plastic limit, (1985).
Replacement of Sand in Concrete”, International [8] IS: 4332 Part 3, Indian Standard Code of Practice-
Methods of Tests for Stabilized soils, (1995).
Abstract: This paper reports the experimentally obtained values of compressive strength, water absorption and
chemical composition of laterite blocks collected from four different quarries. In this investigation an attempt has
also been made to determine the stress-strain characteristics and water transport phenomenon of one of the types of
laterite blocks. Three types of cement mortars i.e. 1:3 cement mortar; 1:4 cement mortar and 1:6 cement mortar have
been considered in this investigation for the study of water transport phenomenon. From the studies, the wet
compressive strength of laterite blocks is found to vary from 0.5 MPa to 1.9 MPa. The wet strength is around 33% to
74% of dry strength. It is also observed that, the compressive strength increases as the iron content increases.
Key words: Laterite block, Sand, Compressive strength, Chemical analysis, Water transport, Modulus of elasticity.
1. Introduction:
Laterite rocks have been used for building construction
in tropical and subtropical regions of the world where
they are readily available and economical compared to
other natural stones. Laterite from the western coastal
region of India has been utilised for the construction of
historic monuments like ports, palaces, temples,
churches and residential structures. They are mainly
used as building blocks for construction of masonry in
buildings [IS 3620- 1979].In India, laterites occurs in
the states of Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya
and Orissa. Plate 1 to 3 shows some of buildings where
laterite blocks have been used for construction.
Plate2: Jade Hills Homestay, Coorg
friendly building material. The word “laterite” has been relook into the codal provisions. It has also been
derived from the Latin word “later” meaning brick suggested that the strength evaluation of laterite be
[Gidigasu M.D (1974)]. Laterite is an unusual soil carried out on standard size blocks used for masonry,
which is rich in iron and alumina. They are usually like in the case of bricks and hollow blocks, instead of
found in heavily rainfall areas all over the world. They cubes.
get formed by intensive and long-lasting weathering.
Kasthurba et.al (2006-a) evaluated laterites based on
Silica in the clay is usually leached out over a long
their performance in traditional buildings and also by
period of time leaving a soil rich in iron oxides,
determining engineering properties of fresh laterite from
hydroxides and alumina. When such lateritic soils are
widely located quarries within Malabar region, Kerala.
exposed to atmosphere, the iron hydroxides lose the
There is a wide variation in the experimental results
moisture quickly to form iron oxides, which develop a
(1.3- 4.3 MPa) of compressive strength of commercially
good bond with other particles in soil to form the laterite
available, machine-cut laterites from Malabar region.
blocks. Laterite cannot be placed in the triplet family of
From a comparison of wet and dry strengths, it is
rocks, namely Igneous, Sedimentary or Metamorphic. It
observed that there is a significant reduction in strength
may be considered to be a metasomatic rock [Kasthurba
(47-75%) due to saturation. Hence, it is suggested that
et. al 2007)]. Metasomatism is a metamorphic process
laterite masonry is to be protected from dampness.
by which the chemical composition of a rock or rock
portion is altered in a pervasive manner which involves Kasthurba et.al (2006-b) studied the weathering forms
the introduction and/or removal of chemical and properties of laterite building stones used in historic
components as a result of the interaction of the rock monuments of Western India. This study found that the
with aqueous fluids (solutions). During metasomatism, deterioration of laterite masonry may be caused due to a
the rock remains in a solid state [Zharikov, et.al (2007)]. variety of reasons. They have identified dampness as a
There is a wide variation in the property and appearance major factor which induces deterioration and hence
(color, texture & structure) of laterite blocks. As such it protection from dampness would prolong the life of
is very difficult for the engineer’s to identify and select laterite monuments.
laterite block for building purposes. Further testing of
Kasthurba et. al (2007) investigated laterite stones used
laterite blocks is cumbersome due to laborious specimen
for building purpose from Malabar region of Kerala
preparations.
state in India. According to this investigation, laterites
In this experimental investigation, compressive strength, show a wide variation in their engineering properties
water absorption and chemical composition of laterite depending on the geographic location of the quarry and
blocks collected from four different quarries have been within a quarry with depth. It is noted that specific
determined. Detailed water transport studies and stress- gravity and compressive strength decreases with depth
strain behavior has also been done for one of the types whereas water absorption increases with depth, which
of laterite blocks. Laterite blocks of size 325mm x results in a decline in quality of laterite blocks of the
220mm x175mm have been used in this study. deeper layers. According to the authors, laterites with
dark reddish brown to red colour, taken from top portion
Literature Review:
of the profile, generally possess better strength, higher
Very few investigations have been done on laterite specific gravity and lower water absorption and hence
blocks and laterite block masonry, eventhough it is are good for building purposes.
being used in many Civil Engineering structures.
Sujatha et.al (2008) carried out tests on laterite blocks
Kasthurba et.al (2005-b) carried out a detailed study of and determined the secant modulus at 30% of ultimate
laterite building stones from four major quarries in stress. The secant modulus of the laterite blocks tested
widely scattered locations of Malabar region, Kerala. varied from 749MPa to 1240MPa.The compressive
The compressive strength of laterite blocks were strengths of commercially available laterite blocks of
evaluated according to Indian standard specifications. Mangalore region varies from 1.8 to 4.83MPa. This has
According to this study, the strength of laterites depends been reported by Sujatha et.al (2008a). They have also
on the specimen size and its geometry. It has been studied the effect of size of laterite blocks on the
observed that decrease in the size of cube specimens is compressive strength. As the size of the block decreases
accompanied by increase in compressive strength, as in the strength of the block increases.
concrete cubes. In the reported results, compressive
Gidigasu et.al (1974) has discussed extensively the
strength of most of the specimens tested were below 3.5
chemistry and pedology of laterite blocks. The strength
MPa, which is the prescribed minimum for use in
of laterite blocks is generally low. An earlier study by
laterite stone masonry, as per IS 3620-1979. Since the
concrete and soil research laboratory, Chennai showed
local practitioners vouch for the good quality of laterite
that 150mm cube made out of Kozhikode laterite gave
from these local quarries, this study has suggested a
strength of 1.7MPa.A more recent study of laterite from study the program consists of determining the
Dakshina kannada district by Arun kumar Bhat et.al compressive strength, water absorption and chemical
(1997) gave a strength ranging from 1.04MPa to composition of laterite blocks collected from four
3.47MPa.There was a wide variation in strength from different locations. The stress-strain characteristics and
place to place. Of the 13 locations studied, 11 locations water transport studies have also been made for one of
had strengths below 2.5MPa.It must however be pointed the types of laterite which had the highest compressive
out that laterite has been used for a long time for house strength compared to the other types of laterite blocks.
construction when the height is limited to two stories. Table 1 gives the details of the sources from where the
There is a need to select the laterite of reasonable laterite blocks were collected for the test.
strength to meet the requirements of two storied
Table1: Details of sources of laterite blocks
buildings.
BIS code of practice for laterite blocks specifies an Source Designation
average strength of 3.5 MPa. The standard laterite block Balnad Type I
is supposed to have a thickness of 190 mm.The Churipadavu Type II
minimum strength for burnt brick of 75 mm thickness is
Sulliapadavu Type III
also 3.5MPa. It is unrealistic to expect strength of
3.5MPa for a block of 190 mm thickness. The masonry Peruvie Type IV
efficiency of laterite block masonry vis-a-vis burnt brick
All the four sources are in the Mangalore region of
masonry is bound to be better due to reduction in the
western India. They are located between 74⁰30′ E to 70○
number of horizontal joints. The minimum strength
E longitude and 10○N to 12○ 30′N latitude. Large
specification could probably be brought down to value
volume of mining is done in all the four quarries from
around 2 to 2.5MPa to take these factors into account.
where the laterite samples have been collected. Plate 4
Many studies have been made on the other different shows the location of the selected quarries. Samples
types masonry units such as clay bricks, stabilised mud were collected at the depth of 1.0 m in all the quarries.
blocks, boulder blocks, concrete blocks etc. Most of
the studies made by several investigators are on the
different characteristics such as compressive strength,
stress-strain behavior, water transport phenomena etc.
Sarangapani et.al (1998) studied the different
characteristics of four different types of bricks that are
available in and around the Bangalore region.
They also observed the rapid absorption capacity of
bricks in the initial stages of soaking. They found that
the bricks to attain 75% saturation water content, if they
are soaked in water for 20 minutes. The rate of
absorption slows down to a very low value after 75%
saturation. Further they also carried out studies on water
transport from mortar to brick and recommended the use
of partially saturated bricks in the masonry construction.
Suresh Chandra (2012) in his elaborate studies on
various types of masonry units determined the
properties such as compressive strength, water
absorption, flexural strength, initial rate of absorption
and stress – strain characteristics of stabilized mud
blocks, hollow concrete block bricks, hand molded solid
concrete blocks, waste plastic concrete blocks, boulder
blocks and stones. He also studied the water transport
phenomena of stabilised mud blocks, boulder blocks,
hollow concrete blocks and bricks.
2. Experimental Program:
The information available on the properties of laterite
blocks are scanty, as such this experimental
investigation has been taken up. In this experimental Plate4: Laterite samples
The following sections give the details of tests the set up used for determining the stress-strain
conducted. behaviour of laterite blocks.
2.1. Chemical Composition:
The properties of the laterite depend on its chemical
composition. De creteset (1938) tried to classify the
laterite based on the chemical composition. The colour
and texture of the laterite block is a function of the
chemicals that are present in the block. This has been
shown by Eastagonal and Shange-Tu (1940) in the
studies made on the laterite blocks of china.
In this study a detailed chemical analysis has been done
to determine the chemical composition of all the four
types of laterite blocks that have selected for the study.
The procedure given in IS: 2720 (Part XXV) – 1982 has
been adopted to determine the chemical composition of
laterite blocks to determine the percentage of Silica,
Iron oxide and Aluminum oxide.
2.2. Compressive strength of laterite blocks and water
absorption:
Compressive strength of the laterite blocks has been
determined as per the guidelines of the IS: 3620-1979,
where as the water absorption have been determined as Plate5: Stress-Strain measurement setup
per the procedure given in IS: 1121 (part 1- 1974). The 2.4. Moisture transport in laterite block and laterite
size of the blocks used for testing has been taken as block masonry:
325mm x 220 mm x175mm, even though the code
recommends a size of 50mm x 50mm x50mm. This has Laterite block is a porous material and has a tendency to
been done because of the difficulty in cutting of the absorb water rapidly due to the capillary suction. The
parent laterite blocks to achieve small blocks of size rate at which a laterite block absorbs water, when
50mmx50mx50mm, moreover the size of laterite blocks soaked in water also varies with time. In the initial
used for testing matches with that of the size of laterite stages laterite blocks sucks water at high rate. The rate
blocks that are generally used for masonry construction of suction slows down after some time. This property of
in the locality. The compressive strengths have been laterite block has several ramifications on the behavior
obtained for all the four types of laterite blocks. As per of masonry. For instance, if the laterite block is dry at
the procedure given in the code, the two faces are caped the time of masonry construction, it is likely to absorb
using 1:1 cement mortar. The compressive strength has significant amount of water from the mortar. This can
been determined under dry and wet conditions. The wet lead to a situation where the mortar becomes deficient
condition has been achieved by immersing the blocks in in water. The water deficiency can lead to two types of
water for 72 hours before testing. The blocks are problems.
subjected to compressive loading in a compressive a. Reduction of water cement ratio (w/c) of mortar
testing machine. The compressive strength has been causing deficiency of water in the mortar so that
determined both along the direction parallel to the complete hydration will not occur. Incomplete
grains and perpendicular to the grains. hydration will reduce the strength of masonry.
b. Reduction of bond strength between laterite block
2.3. Stress-Strain behaviour of laterite blocks: and mortar. This will also affect the strength of
The Stress –Strain curve of laterite blocks (type III) are masonry.
determined under axial compression. Totally five blocks It is thus clear that the moisture in laterite block and in
have been tested in this program. The loads have been the mortar has to be carefully adjusted such that the
applied in a compression testing machine and change in strength gain of mortar and laterite block-mortar
length for every increment in the load has been bonding do not suffer. This can be done by using
measured by using De-mech gauge. The loading has partially saturated blocks. Partial saturation of blocks
been done till the specimens failed. With the help of can be done by soaking of blocks in water before
loads and change in length measured the values of construction.
stresses and strains have been calculated. Plate 5 shows
2.4.1. Rate of moisture absorption of laterite varies from 58 to 76% and iron content varies from 14
blocks: to 26%. The alumina content is very less in all the
blocks and is in the range of 2 to 8 %. The maximum
The rate of moisture absorption of laterite blocks was
iron content is for type III blocks at 26 %. For the same
determined by soaking in water for different duration
blocks the silica content is 58 % and is the lowest
of time (0,5min, 10min, 15min, 20min, 30min, 40min,
among all the blocks tested.
50min, 60min, 2hour, 3hour and 24hour). Five
specimens were used for each case. Table2: Chemical analysis
2.4.2. Transport of moisture from mortar to laterite Name of Chemical Composition (%)
block in masonry: the quarry Silica Iron Alumina
This study has been made by considering one type Type I 76 14 2-4
(i.e, type III) of laterite blocks and three types of
Type II 71 16 3-5
cement mortars. Cement mortars considered for the
study are 1:3 cement mortar, 1:4 cement mortar and Type III 58 26 6-8
1:6 cement mortar. The simple experiment suggested Type IV 63 21 4-6
by Groot (1993) to study the water transport
phenomena has been adopted. The steps of the 3.2. Compressive strength of laterite blocks and water
experiment are listed below. absorption:
a) The oven-dry blocks used in the experiment are Table 3 gives the details of the compressive strength
soaked in water for varying duration like 0 and water absorption results of the laterite blocks tested.
min, 5min, 10 min, 15min, 20min, 25min, and From the results it can be observed that the dry strength
30min.etc. varies from 0.9 MPa to 2.4 MPa and wet strength varies
b) The partially saturated laterite block is covered from 0.5 MPa to 0.8 MPa for the blocks tested by
with fresh mortar to a thickness of 10mm on applying the load parallel to the grain. The same for
top and another similarly saturated laterite blocks tested by applying the load perpendicular to the
block is kept on the mortar. grains are 1.8 to 2.9 MPa in dry condition and 1.4 to 1.9
c) The top laterite block is removed after one MPa in wet condition. In general the wet strength is
hour and the mortar is scooped out and placed around 33% to 74% of dry strength. The blocks have
in the container to note down the dry weight. higher strength in a direction perpendicular to the grains
This indeed is been used to calculate the as compared to that of the strength parallel to the grains.
moisture content of mortar. Important information revealed from this study is about
3. Results and Discussions: relationship between the iron content and compressive
strength. In all the cases the compressive strength
3.1. Chemical Composition: increases as the iron content increases and silica content
Table 2 gives the details of the chemical analysis results decreases. Same types of results have been obtained by
for laterite blocks tested. From the test results it can be Manu et.al (2009) and Kasturaba et.al (2007) for the
observed that the silica content in the laterite blocks laterite blocks they have tested.
Table3: Compressive strength and water absorption
Quarry Name Compressive strength in MPa Wet/Dry Wet/Dry Water
(Iron content Dry state Dry state Wet state Wet state strength strength absorption
%) * ** * ** * ** (%)
Type I (14) 0.9 1.8 0.5 1.4 0.55 0.77 22.85
Type II (16) 1.4 2.1 0.55 1.55 0.39 0.74 20.40
Type III (26) 2.4 2.9 0.8 1.9 0.33 0.65 8.5
Type IV (21) 1.8 2.5 0.7 1.7 0.38 0.68 11.80
*Loading applied parallel to the grains
**Loading applied perpendicular to the grains
3.3. Modulus of elasticity of laterite: curve is linear upto 30 % of ultimate stress and further it
becomes nonlinear. The modulus of elasticity of laterite
The stresses and strains obtained from the tests
blocks at 30% of ultimate stress is found to be 375MPa
conducted on type III laterite blocks have been plotted
and is comparable to those of Sujatha (2008) results
in Fig 1.0. From the graph it is seen that the stress strain
obtained from laterite blocks of Mangalore region. The the figures 3 to 5 for the cement mortars 1:3 cement
modulus of elasticity of bricks at 30% of ultimate stress mortar, 1:4 cement mortar, 1:6 cement mortar. The
is in the range of 350MPa to 500MPa (Sarangapani) water-cement ratios of mortar after one hour of contact
(1998). with the prewetted blocks have been considered for the
study. From the figures it is clear that if the laterite
blocks are dry, most of the moisture in the mortar finds
its way into the block within one hour. In case of 1:3
cement mortar and 1:4 cement mortar the w/c ratio
reduces to a value less than 0.4. However for 1:6 cement
mortar water-cement ratio value is around 0.6. For
complete cement hydration the minimum water-cement
ratio required is 0.4. To achieve a water-cement ratio
value more than 0.4 in 1:3 cement mortar and 1:4
cement mortar the block should have a moisture content
of 75 % of its saturation value. As such the blocks have
to soak in water for 20-25 minutes to have a moisture
content of 75 % of its saturation value.
[19] Sarangapani G., Venkatarama Reddy B.V. & [21] Arunkumar Bhat, Study of geotechnical and
Jagadish K.S. (2005). “Brick mortar bond and strength parameters of laterite blocks in and around
masonry compressive strength”, Journal of karkalla taluk. B. E. Project report, NMAM
materials in civil engineering, Vol.17, No.2, pp. institute of technology, NItte, Karkala
229-237. [22] Shrinivasa Rao S., Venkatarama Reddy B. V. and
[20] Gidigasu M. D. Laterite soils Engineering, Elsivier Jagadish K. S. (1995). “Strength characteristics of
scientific publishing Co. 1976 soil-cement block masonry”, Indian Concrete
Journal, 69(2), pp. 127-131.
Abstract: In this present study the behavior of light weight aggregate concrete has been studied by blending the
cinder and pumice aggregate. Blending of pozzolanic admixtures like fly-ash, silica fume, peanut ash, rice husk ash,
saw dust etc., is being used by the young and dynamic researchers in the recent years to enhance the properties like
compressive strength, shear strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength, modulus of elasticity
and finally durability properties etc. But the limited study was initiated on blended aggregate concrete. Pumice is a
very light and porous igneous rock that is formed during volcanic eruptions was even used in roman structures.
Pumice is mined, washed and then used. Cinder is a waste material obtained from steel manufacturing units. It is
being used as a filler material for sunken slabs and also being used for structural purposes. Light weight aggregate
concrete is a concrete whose density varies from 300-1850 kg/m³ which is less than that of conventional concrete.
Light weight aggregate concrete is widely used in the construction industry. Its use is found in tall multi-storied
buildings, buildings with structural panels, roof beams for precast industrial sheds, long span bridges etc.
In this experimental investigation an attempt is made to study the strength properties of light weight blended
aggregate cement concrete by combining both the pumice and cinder in different proportions of 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by
volume of concrete. By using these combinations the properties such as compressive strength, split tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity etc., are studied.
Key words: Cinder, pumice, light weight aggregate, compressive strength, tensile strength and youngs modulus.
Table 5, presents the details of young’s modulus With increase in the percentage of replacement of
calculated. The theoretical values of young’s modulus Cinder by Pumice aggregate the young’s modulus is
are calculated by two approaches. found decrease continuously up to 100% replacement
of Cinder by Pumice. The theoretical values of
The first approach for calculating young’s modules used
young’s moduli of blended aggregate concrete are
the 28 days compressive strengths of blended aggregate
continuously decreased by increasing pumice aggregate.
concrete mix by using I.S.Code formula9, because in the
The corresponding graphical variation is presented in
absence of specific formula for light weight concrete.
fig 4. By observing the results it may be seen that the
Ec = 5000√fck N/mm2 values calculated from I.S.Code formula are higher than
those calculated by other empirical formula, and have
where
good agreement between two approaches.
fck = 28 days characteristic compressive strength in
N/mm2 5.2.5. Influence of Blended Aggregate Concrete on
Secondly by using another formula suggested by Density:
Takafumi Naguchi et.al9 which is given below.
The results of density are presented in table 6. The
Ec = k1 x k2 (1.486 x 10-3) x σb⅓ x γ2 N/mm². variation between density and percentage of Pumice
replacing Cinder aggregate concrete is shown in fig.5.
Where
From the above it is observed that, with the addition
k1 = correction factor for coarse aggregate i.e. 0.95
of Pumice the density of specimens decreases
k2 = correction factor for mineral admixture i.e. 1.026
continuously up to 100% replacement of Cinder by
σb = compressive strength of concrete in MPa.
Pumice. The density of pumice aggregate concrete over
γ = Density of concrete in kg/m3
cinder aggregate concrete gets decreased by 30.50 % at
100% replacement.
Table3: compressive strength results
Percentage of
Ratio of
Replacement of Coarse Aggregate Cube Cylinder increase or decrease
Name cylinder to
Sl. by Volume percentage compressive compressiv in compressive
of the cube
No strength e strength strength
mix compressive
Cinder Pumice (N/mm²) (N/mm²)
Cube Cylinder strength
Aggregate (CA) Aggregate (PA)
1. B-4 100 0 24.53 15.00 0.00 0.00 0.61
2. B-3 75 25 20.71 14.73 -15.57 -1.80 0.71
3. B-2 50 50 16.19 12.05 -33.99 -19.67 0.74
4. B-1 25 75 13.39 10.84 -45.41 -27.73 0.81
5. B-0 0 100 12.87 8.94 -47.53 -40.40 0.69
Cement sand
Pumice cinder
Plate1: ingredients of concrete
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
2
15 y-axis 1 Unit = 5 N/mm
2
Cylinder compressive strength in N/mm
10
0
0 25 50 75 100
Percentage 0f pumice aggreagte replacing cinder aggreagte
4.0
Scale
3.5 X-axis 1unit = 25%
Y-axis 1unit = 0.5N/mm²
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 25 50 75 100
% of Pumice replacing cinder aggregate
45 Scale
20000
Youngs Modulus in N/Sq.mm
35
15000
30
25
10000
20
15
10 5000
0 0
0 25 50 75 100
0 25 50 75 100
% of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
Percentage of Pumice Replacing cider aggregate
Fig1: Variation between Cube compressive strength Fig4: Variation between Young’s modulus and
and percentage of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate percentage of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
2750 Y-axis 1unit = 250kg/m³ Pumice.
2500 The young’s modulus has decreased continuously
2250 with the increase in percentage of Pumice.
2000 It is concluded that the results of young’s moduli
Density (kg/m³)
1250
formula
1000
The ratio of cylinder compressive strength to cube
750
compressive strength is observed to coincide more
500
or less with that conventional aggregate concrete
250
i.e. 0.85.
0
0 25 50 75 100
% of Pumice replacing cinder aggregate
7. Reference:
[1] Weigler, H and Karl, S. Stahlleichtbeton.
Fig5: Variation between density and percentage of Bauverlag GMBH, Wiesbaden and Berlin, pp. 38-
Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate 43, 1972.
[2] H. Bomhard, Light weight concrete structures,
Cylinder potentialities, limits and realities, The Concrete
30 Cube
28 scale Society, The Construction Press, Lancaster, UK,
26
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
2
1980, pp. 227–290.
y-axis 1 Unit = 2 N/mm
24 [3] JASS 5 (Revised 1979): Japanese Architectural
2
Compressive strength in N/mm
22
20
Standard for Reinforced Concrete, Architectural
18 Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1982 (March).
16
[4] Clarke, J.L. Design Requirements. Structural
14
12
Light weight Aggregate Concrete, Chapman &
10 Hall, London, pp. 45-74, 1993.
8
6
[5] Owens, P.L. (1993). “Light weight aggregates
4 for structural concrete,” Structural Light weight
2 Aggregate Concrete, Chapman & Hall, London,
0
0 25 50 75 100 pp.1-18.
Percentage of Pumice replacing cinder aggreagte [6] Chi, J.M., Huang, R., Yang, C.C., and Chang. J.J.
"Effect of aggregate properties on the strength and
Fig6: The variation between compressive strength and
stiffness of lightweight concrete”. Cement &
percentage of pumice replacing cinder aggregate
Concrete Composites 2003. L. Cavaleri, N.
6. Conclusions: Miraglia and M. Papia, “Pumice Concrete for
structural wall panels”, Engineering structures, Vol.
From the limited experimental study the following
25, No. 1, Jan 2003, pp. 115-125.
From the study it is concluded that the densities
conclusions are seem to be valid:
[7] Khandaker M. Anwar Hossain, “Properties of
volcanic pumice based cement and lightweight
have decreased continuously with the increase concrete”, Cement and concrete research, vol.
The cube compressive strength has decreased
in percentage of Pumice. 34, No. 2, febrauary 2004, pp. 283-291.
[8] I.S.Code 456-2000 “Code of practice for plain and
continuously with the increase in percentage of reinforced concrete” Bureau of Indian Standards,
The cylinder compressive strength has decreased
Pumice. New Delhi.
[9] Takafumi Noguchi, Fuminori Tomosawa, Kamran
continuously with the increase in percentage of M. Nemati, Bernardino M. Chiaia, and Alessandro
Pumice. P. Fantilli (2009) A Practical Equation for Elastic
Modulus of Concrete. ACI structural journal/Sept-
Oct 2009, technical paper title no. 106-SXX.
Abstract: Estimation of methane emission from paddy fields are necessary to understand the emissions at the
national or global scale, develop representative models and devise appropriate mitigation strategies to counter
climate change and its consequences. The objective of the present study is estimation of methane in the coastal
region of Andhra Pradesh, India using LANDSAT ETM+ image classification based on standard algorithm, the
temperature factor was obtained and methane emission estimated in the study area was 0.008Tg/ y. The estimates
are close to the estimates mentioned in available literature. Field based validation studies are necessary for
determining the accuracy since most literature differ in their methane estimates and modeling requires accurate
methane estimates. The present study is a preliminary step for developing the regional climate models which can be
used for climate, environmental and agricultural management studies.
Key words: climate change, greenhouse gas, methane flux, methane emission factors, land surface temperature,
maximum likelihood classification.
global annual rice production is estimated to increase evaporation-precipitation ratio was developed and
from 518 million tonnes in 1990 to 760 million tonnes annual methane emissions were estimated. Validation
in 2020 to feed the growing population and this implies was done by performing ground studies. The
there will be expansion and intensification of rice temperature, pH, moisture content and rainfall
cultivation in the coming years [7]. This increased variations have not been considered and the spatial
production is likely to increase methane fluxes in the resolution for classification is coarse [13].
atmosphere if current technologies are continued.
Bhatia et al [14] have estimated state wise methane
Estimation of methane emission from flooded paddy
emissions by incorporating certain correction factors
fields will aid in the assessment of emissions at the
(water management, cultivar, soil type, and fertilizer)
national or global scale, develop representative models
for methane emission methodology proposed by IPCC
and devise appropriate mitigation strategies to counter
in 1994-1995. The methane emission was estimated to
climate change and its consequences.
be 2.9 Tg y-1. The total area under rice cultivation was
Andhra Pradesh is a major rice producing state with 42.24Mha of which 10.97 Mha was irrigated,
total of 4.75Mha of rice producing area amounting to continuously flooded and contributed 1.4 Tg y-1
nearly 10% of India’s total paddy area under cultivation. methane which is 47% of national emissions. State wise
The major rice growing districts are in the coastal methane generation depends on flooding period which
region of Andhra Pradesh between the Eastern Ghats affects redox potential of the soil to create anaerobic
and the Bay of Bengal, and from the northern border mechanisms. The temporal studies of redox potential
with Odisha to south of the delta of the Krishna River vary based on soil types. Lowland paddy cultivated
[8]. The 9 districts in this region and their area, areas were found to emit 1.7Tg y-1 (continuously
production and yield with respect to paddy during the irrigated) and 0.6 Tg y-1 over 6.77 Mha and 9.73Mha
periods 1999-2000 are given in Table 1. Among these respectively [6]. The study acknowledges that the data
districts, agricultural data indicates that West Godavari available for methane emissions show variations and
and Krishna districts have vast areas of paddy fields. there are certain inconsistencies. Cao et al [15] state that
Rice is cultivated under irrigated eco-system under methane emissions vary largely on spatial temporal
canals (52%), tube wells (19.31) tanks (16.2%), other scales making accurate methane emission estimation
wells (8.8%) and other sources (3.7%) and being low based on Net productivity value and point measurement
lying districts they are prone to flooding and rain water correlations challenging. Sheppard et al [12] have
stagnation. Rice is grown in 23 districts of Andhra proposed methane emission factors for various land
Pradesh and 14 of these are intensive rice cultivation classes assuming methane emissions from tropical rain
regions.[8, 9] Studies by state agencies indicate an forests to be nearly constant and all ecosystems are
increase in average earth temperature and corresponding normalized with respect to it. Methane flux from
increase in sea-surface temperature which is causing respective ecosystems is used to estimate terrestrial
further volumetric expansion of the sea [8,9]. Agarwal methane emissions. The methane productivity for rice
and Garg [10] have performed methane estimation for paddy ecosystem is 55g/m2 year which corresponds to
wetlands in Gujarat. Moderate resolution imaging an emission rate of 39x1012 g/year.
spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor with thermal
Table1: District wise paddy cultivation area,
channels/bands (31&32) and optical channels/bands (1,
production and yield data for coastal region of Andhra
2, &3) was used and a methodology developed to
Pradesh as in 1999-2000 [11]
estimate methane emissions from various land types.
The model was based on 2 factors- temperature and Area Yield Production
District
productivity. Temperature was obtained using constant (ha) (kg/ha) (Tonnes)
emissivity method (CEM) and productivity from Srikakulam 190400 1724 328300
Sheppard et al [12]. The observed land surface
temperature (LST) values were validated using MODIS Vizianagaram 134000 1905 255300
satellite data imageries. The paper acknowledges the Visakhapatnam 106100 1336 141800
lack of objective global methane estimates, which may
East Godavari 414300 3197 1324400
be due to lack of spatial-temporal data of wetlands.
West Godavari 462000 3177 1468000
Methane emissions from natural wetlands have been
estimated in New South Wales in Australia using Krishna 403000 3215 1296600
Landsat enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) Guntur 317700 3235 1027900
satellite data and attempted to estimate the relationship
between methane emission and temperature increase. Prakasam 140400 2482 348500
Process based methane emission model dependent on Nellore 197300 3304 651800
productivity, wetland area, methane flux and
The Study Area, Data used and Methodology: The study area is the north eastern district of Andhra
Pradesh, India. The geographical extent is between
Andhra Pradesh adjoins the Bay of Bengal and has a
latitudes of 150 N and 18030’ N and longitudes of 800 E
coastline of 974 km2 and continental shelf area of
and 820 30’E.
33,227 km2 which narrows down from north to south.
Coastal Region
Fig1: Study area highlighting with political map of Andhra Pradesh along coastal districts
Agricultural regions are vast, with paddy cultivation
The Landsat ETM+ data was used for this analysis. The
being the chief activity. The total unclassified region is
spectral bands used to estimate the methane emission
62567.8 km2, including the sea, inland water bodies,
from the study area were the optical, visible, near-
forests and pockets of urban settlements.
infrared and thermal bands. The bands that were used to
Approximately, 12470.73 km2 of agricultural lands
extract the class information are the visible and the
(nearly 19.93 % of the total region) has been considered
near-infrared while the thermal band was used to
for methane estimation since it appeared to be an area of
estimate the land surface temperature. Landsat ETM+
flooded paddy cultivation type. As per the literature
data of 28 October 2000 were used to estimate methane
accessed, areas under the irrigated-flooded paddy
emission from the wetlands. The image acquired were
cultivation display high methane emissions. The
cloud free and hence could be used for the analysis
estimated methane flux from cultivated paddy lands is
purpose without encountering masking of regions by
approximately 55 g/m2/year [12]. The classification
clouds.
carried out for the study area has been shown below in
figure 2
Fig3: map of different agricultural areas with standing water (cyan in color).
The detailed method of obtaining each parameter for the was then converted to temperature to give the land
methane model is given below: surface temperature by the following eq (2)
( LMAX LMIN )
L X ( DN QCALLMIN ) LMIN
Estimation of Methane: ---(2)
QCALLMAX QCALLMIN )
The flooded agricultural region, typical of paddy
LMAX 12.65
cultivation, was chosen for evaluating the emission of Where, for thermal band 62
methane. The methane emission from the agricultural
LMIN 3.200
area was estimate by using eq (1)
B (T )
Tg (tera grams, 1 tera gram = 1012 grams). The area of C1 …… ..eq (3)
5 (
each class was estimated. The paddy cultivation area
eT 1
C2
with standing water was estimated to be around )
1226km2. The areas of each of the classes have been
given below: Where C1 = 1.19104356 X 10-16 W m2 and C2 =
The inland water covers about 3447 km2, the forested 1.43876869 x 10-2mK
area is 10845.2 km2, Agricultural land is 12470.73 km2 The ground temperature can be theoretically obtained
of which the Agricultural land flooded with water is by eq (4)
1266 km2 and the remaining 11204 km2 of Agricultural
C2
T
land was divided into Agri 1 (3908.4 km2) and Agri 2 … …...eq (4)
1)
(7296 km2). The soil cover was found to be covering an
B (T )
C2 1
area of 19091.4 km2 and the area under urban land was ln( 5
1245.5 km2. The area covered by sea was calculated as
15170.8 km2. The equation is shrunk by making the substitution
K1 C1 and K 2 C2
The study area was a very important parameter in the and satellite measured
T
interest (ROI). Supervised classification was obtained
since it was possible to verify the land use classification K2 ……eq (5)
ln( 1 1)
on field from interaction with personnel’s from the area K
and hence it was possible to train the classifier for the L
classification. It was decided to use the maximum
likelihood classification as it often has lower variance Where, K1 = 666.09 W m-2 sr-1 μm-1 and K2 = 1282.71
than other methods and they use most of the sequence kelvin.
information. The equation (1282.71D/(alog(666.09D/B6+1D)))-273
is used to calculate temperature where B6 is the
The overall accuracy of the classification on the basis of
radiance value calculated above and D forces the
ground truth ROI’s was obtained as 97.3389%.
numbers into double precision.
Land Surface Temperature (LST) Estimation:
The value of temperature returned is in Celsius. The
The thermal bands 62 of LANDSAT ETM+ data was temperature values are then used to calculate the T
used to calculate the land surface temperature of the factor which is given by eq (6) & (7)
Tfactor
given area. The digital number (DN) in satellite data of
F (Ts )
the thermal band 62 was converted to Radiance which …….eq(6)
F (Ts )
e 0.334(T2 23)
F (Ts )
geospatial studies like the present study is possible by
1 e 0.334(T2 23)
……eq(7) conducting thorough field studies at regular, pre-
determined intervals spanning all cropping seasons. The
field studies must also include the parameters such as
and F (Ts ) is the mean value of F(Ts). The T factor (Ft) rice cultivar, water management, soil types, soil
was evaluated for the region of interest (flooded characteristics, soil quality management and water
agriculture) and was found to be 1.000007. management practices since these are known to affect
Productivity Ratio: the methane emissions. The inclusion of such
parameters will help approximately quantify the effects
The productivity ratio P is given as of these- both in conjunction with, and independent of
P
NPP (e cos ystem ) the other parameters in particular and also analyze the
……eq (8)
NPP (tropicalra inf orest) methane emissions in relation to the overall agricultural
management practices and climate conditions. When
NPP is the net primary productivity and P is the ratio of field studies are combined with such geospatial based
NPP of a given ecosystem to the NPP of tropical studies, a comprehensive regional climate model
rainforest. The ratio is to the NPP of a tropical rainforest applicable to that specific region can be developed. The
because it is assumed that the NPP of tropical rainforest regional climate model can provide a mechanistic basis
would be constant throughout the year. The productivity for spatio-temporal variations in methane emissions
ratio for the flooded agricultural land was calculated which can serve as the basis for the development of
from eq (9). interactive software based decision support system for
55 1.4
P 0
undertaking sustainable agricultural practices.
NPP (cultivated parryfield )
NPP (tropicalra inf orest) 23.5 13.5 Conclusions:
.....eq(9) Methane emissions of 0.008 Tg / year were found for
the chosen study area which was under flooded paddy
The productivity ratio of the area is 0.24.
cultivation. Validation of these estimates by appropriate
Observed Methane Flux: ground studies is necessary to develop pertinent model
of methane estimation that would eventually eliminate
Observed methane flux is obtained from [12] for
the need for regular field studies which are tedious,
cultivated paddy fields as 27.85 g/m2/year.
expensive and time consuming. The present study is
Using the values of observed methane flux, area of the preliminary step for development of a regional climate
field, productivity ratio and T factor, the methane model to study relations between climate, agriculture
emission is evaluated as and GHG emissions. Methane mitigation in paddy
ECH4 Eobs A Ft P
cultivation is possible by certain sustainable agricultural
ECH4 8196646576
g the farmers by elimination of inefficient and
unsustainable farming practices. The regional climate
year model can be used to analyze climatic factors that
ECH4 0.0081966
Tg influence agriculture; devise sustainable agricultural and
year water management practices and a mechanism can be
developed for real time information dissemination to
The methane emissions from the flooded agricultural guide the farmers on a regular basis towards sustainable
fields of area 1226.33 km2, considered as paddy fields agriculture.
have been estimated to be 0.0082 Tg/year by the present
study. IPCC based model study in Andhra Pradesh Acknowledgment:
indicates that from 34560 km2 of irrigated paddy fields, Authors would like to thanks to anonymous reviewers
the annual methane emissions are 0.35 Tg/year [16] for their valuable suggestions.
which roughly converts to 0.0123 Tg/year for the area
considered in our study which is higher than that Reference:
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