SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

SEMESTER I 2022/2023

IWA 282 BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY 1

LAB REPORT 4: WOOD MECHANIC

PREPARED BY: GROUP 2

NO. GROUP MEMBERS MATRIC NUMBER

1 NG LEE PINK 157677

2 NURSHAZIATUL SHAZWINA BINTI MOHD NIZAR 159234

3 NUUR AIN SYAFWA BINTI MOHD FADZIL 158277

4 SHARIFAH ATHIRAH BINTI SYED MUHAMMAD AZHARI 158899

5 MOHD REDZWAN BIN JAPRI 155919

PREPARED FOR:
ASSOC. PROF DR. MOHAMAD HAAFIZ BIN MOHAMAD KASSIM
TS. DR. NURUL FAZITA BINTI MOHAMMAD RAWI
DR. MOHD NURAZZI BIN NORIZAN

SUBMISSION DATE:
12 DECEMBER 2022
ABSTRACT

The purpose of this experiment was to expose the students to the concept of mechanical
strength of wood which include the determination of MOR and MOE through bending
strength of the wood. MOR is known as Modulus of Rupture and MOE stands for Modulus of
Elasticity. In this experiment, all wood samples that were used, which are samples of
rubberwood that were set to be tested for its mechanical strength, were kept in a controlled
room around 20 ± 3°C and with relative humidity (RH) of 65 ± 2% so that the moisture
content of wood sample was the same. Then, at a temperature of 20 ± 3°C, the mechanical
strength tests were carried out accordingly. The rubberwood samples were first labeled and
the size were measured by using digital vernier calliper. The orientation of the growth ring
was observed as the mechanical strength test or bending test was done in the same direction
with stress. Instron is used to determine the wood strength of the rubberwoods. The speed of
the test was set at 0.26 in/min and the sample was placed between two supports with a span
of 28cm. The wood sample was placed above the support and moved freely according to the
stress movement. The strain on the rubberwood was observed and measured until it failed.
The bending test then was started until the rubberwood sample breaks or until the meter
shows no more load that the wood can bear. The value of the reading during wood failure was
recorded. After that, some parts of the broken sample were cut and the density of the sample
was also calculated. As a result, the modulus of rupture (MOR) and the modulus of elasticity
(MOE) of the rubberwood samples through the bending test have been determined where the
MOR of rubberwood A is 93.9380 MPa and MOE of rubberwood A is 10085.715 MPa
whereas the MOR of rubberwood B is 83.013 MPa and MOE of rubberwood B is 9139.456
MPa. Thus, the bending strength of longitudinal direction wood which is perpendicular to the
loading pin is much stronger than the bending strength of radial direction wood that is
perpendicular to the loading pin.

1
 Table of contents

NO. CONTENT PAGES

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 4-6

2.0 Materials and Methods………………………………………………. 7-8

2.1 Materials…………………………………………………………
2.1.1 Materials
2.1.2 Apparatus
2.2 Methods…………………………………………………………..

3.0 Results……………………………………………………………….. 9-13

4.0 Discussion…………………………………………………………… 14
4.1 Bending Test…………………………………………………….. 14-16
4.2 Tensile, Shear and Compressive Strength……………………….. 16-18
4.3 Stress and Strain of Wood……………….………………………. 18

5.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………………... 19

6.0 Acknowledgement…………………………………………………... 20

7.0 References…………………………………………………………… 21

8.0 Appendices…………………………………………………………... 22

2
List of Tables, Figures and Graphs

Table 3.1.1: Data obtained from the Instron machine

Figure 2.2.2.1: Photo taken on the instron used, available in school of TI, USM

Figure 2.2.2.2: A simplified drawing of the test

Figure 3.1.1: Graph obtained from the Instron machine application

Figure 4.1.1: Three-point bending test

Figure 4.1.2: Wood directions

Figure 4.1.3: Sample rubberwood A after bending test

Figure 4.1.4: Sample rubberwood B after bending test

Figure 4.2.1: Tensile, Shear and Compressive Strength

3
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Wood is known as an orthotropic material due to its unique and independent mechanical
properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes including radial, tangential
and longitudinal. Strength properties refers to the mechanical properties that are most
commonly measured for design such as modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity
(MOE) through the bending strength of the wood. Additional measurements are often made
to evaluate work to maximum load in bending, impact bending strength, tensile strength
perpendicular to the grain, and hardness. Wood also possesses the mechanical properties that
made it able to resist applied or external forces. The higher the resistance of wood in applied
forces, the higher the strength. To resist the load applied, the wood must depend on the
magnitude and direction of the forces including tensile, shear and compression.

Plastic deformation or failure will occur when wood is loaded to higher stress levels beyond
the elastic range. Five strength properties that are commonly measured are bending,
compression parallel and perpendicular to the grain, tension parallel to the grain, and shear
parallel to the grain. Modulus of rupture (MOR) reflects the maximum load-carrying capacity
in bending. MOR is proportional to the maximum moment borne by the specimen. Although,
MOR is not a true stress, it is still an accepted criterion of strength due to its formula by
which it is computed valid only to elastic limit. Work to maximum load in bending refers to
the ability to absorb shock with aid of some permanent deformation as well as more or less
injury to a specimen. It is a measure of the toughness of wood and the combined strength
under bending stresses.

Those that are produced at low stress levels and are completely recoverable after the loads
are removed are identified as the elastic properties of wood. The modulus of elasticity (MOE)
is determined by the ratio of the stress or stretching force per unit cross sectional area to the
strain or amount of stretching per unit of length. This ratio is a constant within the elastic
range below the proportional limit for a given piece of wood. Thus, it is convenient in static
bending tests in order to determine the relative stiffness of a board. MOE can be measured in
pounds per square inch (psi) as well as Newton per square meter (N/m²).

4
 Tensile strength is generally much higher than compression strength parallel to the grain.
Initial yielding occurs on the compression side which is followed by the visible compression
failures and enlargement of the compression zone during a bending test. The neutral surface
shifts toward the tensile side of the specimen as the tensile stress continues to increase and
when failure in tension occurs, the maximum moment in the member is reached. Ultimate
tensile strength is defined as the maximum stress where a certain material can withstand
through stretching or pulling before the breaking point. Wood with high tensile strength is
ideal in the usage of a suspension bridge. The tensile strength of wood can be affected by the
direction of grain. For instance, wood that is cut with the grain is much stronger than the
wood that is cut across the grain. This is because when the more the wood is cut at an angle,
the weaker it will become. Thus, tensile strength parallel to grain is usually 50 times stronger
than tensile strength perpendicular to grain.

Shear strength is one of the fundamental mechanical properties of wood. Shear strength can
be defined as the ability to withstand internal slipping of one part upon another along the
grain. It can be either perpendicular to grain or parallel to grain and shear strength of wood is
generally 10-15% of its tensile strength in the direction of grain. To add, knots, faults as well
as cracks which appeared in the wood can weaken the shear strength of wood. Shear strength
parallel to grain produces a tendency for the upper portion of the specimen. This happened
for it to slide in relation to the lower portion, breaking the intercellular bonds as well as
deforming the wood cell structure. Shear strength perpendicular to grain tends to deform the
wood cells perpendicular to their longitudinal axes and this type of shear is normally not
considered for wood due to other types of failure that occur before it.

Stress produced that deforms wood cells along their longitudinal axis when compression is
applied parallel to grain. Large deformations happened from the internal crushing of the
complex cellular structure at failure. Compression that is applied perpendicular to grain can
cause stress which deforms the wood cells perpendicular to each of their lengths. Wood cells
collapse at relatively low stress levels when the loads are applied in this direction but
nevertheless, the wood is quite strong once the hollow cell cavities are collapsed because no
void space exists. As a result, loss in the utility occurs before failure as the wood deforms to
about half its initial thickness before complete cell collapse.

5
 Bending strength is the ability of the wood to withstand the forces that bend the wood.
During the bending of wood specimens, the portion of wood on one side of the neutral axis is
stressed in tension parallel to grain while the opposing side is stressed in compression parallel
to grain. Compression perpendicular to grain at the supports and horizontal shear parallel to
grain also produced by bending. The formation of minute compression failures followed by
the development of macroscopic compression wrinkles is known as a common failure
sequence in simple bending. As a result, this affects the sectional increase in the compression
zone as well as a section decrease in the tension zone that eventually will lead to tensile
failure.

Throughout this experiment, the objectives that have to be attained were to have a good
grasp of the concept of mechanical strength or mechanical properties of wood and its
flexibility properties. Modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) through
the bending strength of the wood also have to be determined and the graph as well as the
table obtained from the computer analysis were analysed in this experiment.

6
2.0 Materials and methods
2.1 Materials and apparatus
2.1.1 Material used
● 2 wood samples of rubber wood

2.1.2 Apparatus
● Veneer calliper
● Electrical weighing scale
● Pencil
● Instron machine
● Wood electric saw machine
● Ruler
● Oven

2.2 Method
To conduct this experiment, 3-point bending test is used.
2.2.1 Preparation of sample
2 Rubberwood samples is prepared. The dimension of the first wood sample is 20.160 x
20.350 x 240 mm, while the dimension of the second wood sample is 20.200 x 19.740 x 240 mm.
The wood is lablled as “A” and “B” to avoid mixing. The orientation of the growth ring is observed to
identify the section of the wood sample. Usually the mechanical strength test (bending test) is done in
the same direction with stress.
2.2.2 Using of instron

Figure 2.2.2.1: Photo taken on the instron used, available in school of TI, USM

7
The speed of the test is set at 0.26 in/min (about 6.60mm/min). The wood sample A is placed between
two beams (support) on instron machine with the span of 24 cm. The wood sample A is placed as
center as possible. The longitudinal direction of the wood sample is placed perpemdicularly to the
force point. Then, the dimensions of the wood sample A is entered as a data into the application that is
connected to the instron, for the data collection of flexural test. After ready, the instron machine starts
to work for the bending test. Load is subjected to the wood samples until maximum load has reached.

The steps are repeated, but with wood sample B. The wood sample is placed from the other way of
longitudinal direction of the wood (tangentiall). The data and graph are retrieved from the application.

Figure 2.2.2.2: A simplified drawing of the test

8
3.0 RESULT

3.1 Data collected

FLEXURAL TEST

Test No. Width Thickness Span Max Load Flexural Strength Flexural Modulus
mm mm mm N MPa MPa

1 20.160 20.350 240.000 2178.504 93.938 10085.715

2 20.200 19.740 240.000 1815.055 83.013 9139.456

Average 20.180 20.045 240.000 1996.780 88.476 9612.586

SD(N-1) 0.028 0.431 0.000 256.997 7.725 669.106

SD 0.020 0.305 0.000 181.724 5.462 473.129

Table 3.1.1: Data obtained from the Instron machine

Figure 3.1.1: Graph obtained from the Inston machine application

9
Data needed:
➢ Dimension of the wood samples:

b = the sample’s width in mm h = depth in

mm
L = distance between two supports

From the stress-bending graph:

• P = maximum load
• P’ = load at proportional limit
• Δ’ = bending at middle part when load at proportional limit
• A’ = bounded area of load-bending at proportional limit
A = bounded area of load-bending at maximum limit

Calculation Formula:

*Fiber stress at proportional limit = 3P’L

2bh²

Fiber stress at maximum limit (Modulus of rupture-MOR): = 3PL

2bh²
𝑃'𝐿³
Modulus of elasticity (MOE) = 4∆'𝑏ℎ³

Parallel shear stress at neutral phase at proportional limit = 3P’

4bh
3𝑃
Parallel shear stress at neutral phase = 4𝑏ℎ

Calculation of wood samples based on graph: Wood

sample A :

b (sample width) = 20.160mm

h (sample depth) = 20.350mm

10
L (beam span) = 240.000mm

From the graph of Flexure load against the Flexure extension generated by the Instron
machine the following data can be obtained,

P (maximum load) = 2178.504N

∆’ (flexure extension) ≈ 3.00mm

The value of ∆’ use the sign of approximation for its value because it is obtained from the
graph directly.

P’ is obtained from the MOE by using the formula below, where the MOE value is known
from the computer analyse data.
𝑃'𝐿³
MOE = 4∆'𝑏ℎ³

𝑃' (240.000)³
10085.715 = 4 (3) (20.160) (20.350)³

10085.715 (2038754.884)
P’ = 240.000³

P’ = 1487.435 MPa
Fibre stress at proportional limit:
3𝑃'𝐿 3 (1487.435) (240.000)
2𝑏ℎ²
= 2 (20.160) (20.350)²
= 64. 1388 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚²
Fiber stress at maximum limit (Modulus of rupture-MOR):
3𝑃𝐿 3 (2178.504) (240.000)
2𝑏ℎ²
= 2 (20.160) (20.350)²
= 93. 9380 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Modulus of elasticity (MOE):
𝑃'𝐿³ (1487.435) (240.000)³
4∆'𝑏ℎ³
= 4 (3) (20.160) (20.350)³
= 10085. 715 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚²
Parallel shear stress at neutral phase at proportional limit:
3𝑃' 3 (1487.435)
4𝑏ℎ
= 4 (20.160) (20.350)
= 2. 7192 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚²

Parallel shear stress at neutral phase:

11
 3𝑃 3 (2178.504)
4𝑏ℎ
= 4 (20.160) (20.350)
= 3. 9826 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²

Wood sample B

b (sample width) = 20.200mm

h (sample depth) = 19.740mm

L (beam span) = 240.000mm

From the graph of Flexure load against the Flexure extension generated by the Instron
machine the following data can be obtained,

P (maximum load) = 1815.055 N

∆’ (flexure extension) ≈ 4.50 mm

*The value of ∆’ use the sign of approximation for its value because it is obtained from the
graph directly.

The P’ value is calculated from MOE as the formula below, where the MOE value is known
from the computer analyse data.
𝑃'𝐿³
MOE = 4∆'𝑏ℎ³

𝑃' (240.000)³
9139.456 = 4 (4.5) (20.200) (19.740)³

9139.456 (2796825.171)
P’ = 240.000³

P’ = 1849.064 MPa

Fibre stress at proportional limit:

3𝑃'𝐿 3 (1849.064) (240.000)
2𝑏ℎ²
= 2 (20.200) (19.740)²
= 84. 5685 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚²

12
Fiber stress at maximum limit (Modulus of rupture-MOR):
3𝑃𝐿 3 (1815.055) (240.000)
2𝑏ℎ²
= 2 (20.200) (19.740)²
= 83. 013 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Modulus of elasticity (MOE):

𝑃'𝐿³ (1849.064) (240.000)³
4∆'𝑏ℎ³
= 4 (4.5) (20.200) (19.740)³
= 9139. 456 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚²

Parallel shear stress at neutral phase at proportional limit:

3𝑃' 3 (1849.064)
4𝑏ℎ
= 4 (20.200) (19.740)
= 3. 4779 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚²
Parallel shear stress at neutral phase:
3𝑃 3 (1815.055)
4𝑏ℎ
= 4 (20.200) (19.740)
= 3. 4139 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²

Density
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚𝑚)

10.7750
= 15.725112

= 0. 6852 𝑔/𝑚𝑚
= 6. 852 𝑔/𝑐𝑚

13
4.0 DISCUSSION

4.1 Bending Test

Bending test, also known as flexural test is a method of testing materials for their bending
strength and other important properties. There are two methods for this test, which are
three-point bending test and central point loading test. In this experiment, a three-point
bending test is used by using an Instron machine and two wood samples were used, which
both are rubberwood. The method is called three-point because tensile, shear and
compression forces are imposed. In this test, a load is applied at the centre of beam’s span
length.

Figure 4.1.1 Three-Point Bending Test

Modulus of Rupture (MOR) is the strength of the material that was determined by using a
flexural test and torsion test. In this bending test, MOR is the maximum fibre stress at failure
and MOR value for each wood species can be observed through this experiment. After doing
the test using the Instron machine, results and a graph of pressure exerted (MPa) against
flexure extension (mm) are obtained. Based on the graph obtained, the pressure exerted is
directly proportional to flexure extension, which fulfils Hooke’s Law and this point is called
the proportional limit.

MOR is calculated by referring to the strength of wood to resist load applied until it
reaches the breaking point. MOR of sample used is determined by using formula 3𝑃𝐿/2𝑏ℎ²
where P is maximum load, L is beam span, b is sample width and h is sample depth.
Moreover, MOR values are only valid in proportional limit. The result of the MOR of both
rubberwood samples obtained showed that the MOR of rubberwood A is 93.9380 MPa and
rubberwood B is 83.013 MPa. Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) for sample rubberwood A is
10085. 715 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚² rubberwood B is 9139. 456 𝑀𝑃𝑎/𝑚𝑚².

14
 From the results obtained from the bending test of both rubberwood samples (A and B),
both MOR and MOE of sample rubberwood A are higher than rubberwood B. Hence, we can
predict that sample rubberwood A is at 0 degree angle due to its cracked at the centre of the
wood and is at longitudinal direction because it has a better tensile strength than rubberwood
B. We know that wood’s tensile strength is much greater in the direction that is parallel to the
grain of the wood fibre in the face and back surfaces of the panel. Causing the stiffness and
strength of the rubberwood A to be greater than rubberwood B, which explains the greater
result of MOR and MOE for rubberwood A.

Figure 4.1.2 Wood directions

Figure 4.1.3 Sample rubberwood A after bending test

15
 As for the rubberwood B, since the MOR and MOE results are lower than rubberwood A
and its cracked is longer and not in the centre, we can predict that rubberwood B angle is
probably at 45 degree and below. The wood direction is probably tangential due to the tensile
strength of rubberwood is lower than rubberwood A, which we can see from the result
obtained. Means the wood direction is perpendicular to the grain. Hence, rubberwood B
cracked easily compared to rubberwood A.

Figure 4.1.4 Sample rubberwood B after bending test

4.2 Tensile, Shear and Compressive Strength

Figure 4.2.1 Tensile, Shear and Compressive Forces

16
 Tensile strength, also known as the ultimate tensile strength, is the maximum load a
material can support without fracture when being stretched, divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the material (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1998). The
force, which is the stretching of the material, is called the tensile force and has two
components known as tensile stress and tensile strain. If there is an external force imposed
resulting in the stretch of the material, it is known as tensile stress. Tensile stress can be
calculated by using formula force exerted per cross-sectional area. Tensile strain is the
deformation or the elongation of a material due to the application of tensile force or stress,
which can cause the separation of particles or elements. In addition, it is known that tensile
strength in a direction that is parallel to the grains is found to have the greatest strength that
can be developed under any kind of stress.

Shear strength is known as the strength of materials against the type of yield or structural
failure when the materials fail in shear. In other words, it is the ability to resist forces that can
cause material's internal structure to slide against itself. If the force causes the object’s layers
to slide horizontally, the material will experience horizontal shear strength and the same goes
to force that causes the object’s layers to slide vertically, meaning the material experiences
vertical shear strength. Shear strength of an object can be heavily influenced by corrosion
which can lead to thinning, and causing reduction of a component’s cross-sectional area, thus,
reducing its shear strength. There are also two components of shear strength, which are shear
strain and shear stress. Shear strain occurs when a sideway force is exerted on a medium
(Reismann, 2003). It is measured as a change in angle between lines that were originally
perpendicular. It is caused by shear stress. To calculate shear strain, divide the shear stress by
the shear modulus. As for the shear stress, it is a force that tends to cause deformation of a
material by sliding along a plane or parallel to planes to the imposed stress. Its formula is
applied force divided by cross-sectional area.

Compressive strength can be defined as how much load that can be withstand by wood
parallel to the grain direction. Results after compression are always reduced in size.In the
study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can
be analysed independently. In other words, compressive strength resists compression that is
from being pushed together, whereas tensile strength resists tension from being pulled apart.
Compressive strength parallel to the grain also known as the maximum crushing strength, this
is the maximum stress sustained by a compression parallel-to-grain wood so from this

17
direction the wood is stronger..When compression is applied perpendicular to the grain, it
produces stress that deforms the wood cells perpendicular to their length. Wood cells collapse
at relatively low-stress levels when loads are applied in this direction.

4.3 Stress and Strain of wood

Hooke’s Law states that the strain is proportional to the stress. Stress of wood can be defined
by unit force that is the amount of force acting on a defined area and strain can be defined as
the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied, divided
by the initial dimensions of the body. Further clarification of Hooke’s Law applies to wood
that is common with other materials, stress and strain are proportional up to a particular point.
Specifically, that point is the proportional limit. Beyond the proportional limit of the material,
increased stress leads to disproportionate strain, greater deformation, until the material
reaches a stage where further stress leads to failure or rupture.

In the stress-strain curve we can get information about the behaviour of the wood samples for
example if the material is brittle,strong but not ductile,ductile and a plastic material. Based on
the graph in figure 3.1.1 we can see that the maximum load that can be held by sample A (1)
is higher than sample B (2). We can see the deflection in the graph for sample B is more than
sample A and as a result the deformity that acts on sample B is more than the deformity on
sample A. This deformity is because of the stress or load that is given to the sample until it
reaches a point that is called ultimate strength that is the maximum load in the stress-strain
graph until it rupture. Rupture strength is the strength of the material until it rupture.

Wood is an orthotropic material. This means that the stiffness, strength and ductility of wood
differ depending on the type and direction of the stressing. In many cases, due to the tension
perpendicular to grain dominating the failure, wood is perceived to be a brittle material
(Pirinen, 2014). From the graph in figure 3.1.1 we also can see necking at sample A. This
indicates a ductile material. We can conclude that the direction of the wood can be a ductile
material, while sample A does not have necking and so we can predict at that side of the
wood the wood is brittle.

18
5.0 Conclusion
This experiment conducted has determined the modulus of rupture (MOR) and
modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the 2 same wood samples from the bending test. From the
data obtained, wood sample A (the longitudinal direction of the wood placed perpendicularly
to the loading pin can support max load of 2178.504 N, with flexural strength 93.938 MPa
and flexural modulus 10085.715 MPa. While the wood sample B (the radial direction of the
wood placed perpendicularly to the loading pin) can support max load of 1815.055 N, with
flexural strength 83.013 MPa and flexural modulus 9139.456 MPa. After calculation, the
MOR of sample A is 93.9380 MPa and MOE is 10085.715 MPa, while for sample B, MOR is
83.013 MPa and MOE is 9139.456 MPa. The results shows that the difference between the
mechanical strength of different direction of the wood samples.
It is concluded that the bending strength of the wood that is the longitudinal direction
of wood placed perpendicular to the loading pin is stronger than the wood that is the
tangential direction of wood placed perpendicularly to at the loading pin.
The result obtained for wood sample B may not be accurate because the direction of
the wood may be included with radial and tangential when the wood sample is placed.

19
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank Assoc. Prof Dr. Mohamad Haafiz Bin Mohamad Kassim, Ts. Dr.
Nurul Fazita Binti Mohammad Rawi and Dr. Mohd Nurazzi Bin Norizan for their teachings
and guidance on conducting this experiment successfully, and also for leading us to write this
experiment report. Next, we are also very grateful for En. Azhar’s contributions to providing
us with the materials needed in this experiment, and also spending time looking after us
during the open lab sessions. We appreciate all the help from our coursemates during the
experiments. Lastly, we are happy to have the full commitment given by the groupmates on
conducting the experiment and also writing this report.

20
7.0 REFERENCES

1. How To Calculate Young Modulus, How To Determine The Modulus of Rupture

https://sciencing.com/how-to-calculate-youngs-modulus-12751765.html

2. Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, September 26). tensile strength.

Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/tensile-strength

3. Strength Axis in Wood Structural Panels, SBC Magazine

https://www.sbcmag.info/article/2011/strength-axis-wood-structural-panels

4. Reismann, H. (2003). Elasticity. Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology,

801–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227410-5/00197-6

5. Pirinen, M. (2014, April 14). Ductility of Wood and Wood Members Connected with
Mechanical Fasteners. Aaltodoc. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from
https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/13138/master_Pirinen_Matti_20
14.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

6. Properties of wood and structural wood products. (n.d.)

https://www.dot.state.mn.us/bridge/pdf/insp/USFS-TimberBridgeManual/em7700_8_
chapter03.pdf

7. Wood Handbook extracts - university of waterloo. (n.d.).

http://www.civil.uwaterloo.ca/BEG/CE265/WoodHandbook_extracts.pdf

21
8.0 APPENDICES

22